Soldiers, states, and structures: The end of the Cold War and weakening U.S. civilian control

Armed Forces and Society

Volumn 24, Issue 3, 1998, Pages 389-405

  Desch, Michael C ^a  

^a HARVARD UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0032220514     PISSN: 0095327X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0095327X9802400304     Document Type: Article

References (123)

1. For the most pessimistic assessments of the situation see Richard Kohn, "Out of Control: The Crisis in Civil-Military Relations," The National Interest 35 (Spring 1994):3-17; Edward Luttwak, "Washington's Biggest Scandal," Commentary 97, 5 (May 1994): 29-33; Russell Weigley, "The American Military and the Principle of Civilian Control from McClellan to Powell," The Journal of Military History 57 (Special Issue, October 1993): 27-58; Charles Dunlop, "Welcome to the Junta: The Erosion of Civilian Control of the U.S. Military," Wake Forest Law Review 29, 2 (Summer 1994): 341-92; Gregory D. Foster, "Raw Recruits vs. Old Troopers," Wall Street Journal, 14 July 1994, 11; and Gary Wills, "Clinton's Troubles," The New York Review of Books, 22 September 1994, 7. For less alarmist views that still hold that there is a problem, see Eliot Cohen, "Civil-Military Relations," Orbis 41, 2 (Spring 1997): 177-86; A.J. Bacevich, "Clinton's Military Problem - and Ours," National Review, 13 December 1993, 36-40; Bacevich, "Civilian Control: A Useful Fiction?" Joint Forces Quarterly 6 (Autumn/Winter 1994/95): 76-79; and Bacevich, "Tradition Abandoned," The National Interests 48 (Summer 1997): 16-25 .
2. For the most pessimistic assessments of the situation see Richard Kohn, "Out of Control: The Crisis in Civil-Military Relations," The National Interest 35 (Spring 1994):3-17; Edward Luttwak, "Washington's Biggest Scandal," Commentary 97, 5 (May 1994): 29-33; Russell Weigley, "The American Military and the Principle of Civilian Control from McClellan to Powell," The Journal of Military History 57 (Special Issue, October 1993): 27-58; Charles Dunlop, "Welcome to the Junta: The Erosion of Civilian Control of the U.S. Military," Wake Forest Law Review 29, 2 (Summer 1994): 341-92; Gregory D. Foster, "Raw Recruits vs. Old Troopers," Wall Street Journal, 14 July 1994, 11; and Gary Wills, "Clinton's Troubles," The New York Review of Books, 22 September 1994, 7. For less alarmist views that still hold that there is a problem, see Eliot Cohen, "Civil-Military Relations," Orbis 41, 2 (Spring 1997): 177-86; A.J. Bacevich, "Clinton's Military Problem - and Ours," National Review, 13 December 1993, 36-40; Bacevich, "Civilian Control: A Useful Fiction?" Joint Forces Quarterly 6 (Autumn/Winter 1994/95): 76-79; and Bacevich, "Tradition Abandoned," The National Interests 48 (Summer 1997): 16-25 .
3. For the most pessimistic assessments of the situation see Richard Kohn, "Out of Control: The Crisis in Civil-Military Relations," The National Interest 35 (Spring 1994):3-17; Edward Luttwak, "Washington's Biggest Scandal," Commentary 97, 5 (May 1994): 29-33; Russell Weigley, "The American Military and the Principle of Civilian Control from McClellan to Powell," The Journal of Military History 57 (Special Issue, October 1993): 27-58; Charles Dunlop, "Welcome to the Junta: The Erosion of Civilian Control of the U.S. Military," Wake Forest Law Review 29, 2 (Summer 1994): 341-92; Gregory D. Foster, "Raw Recruits vs. Old Troopers," Wall Street Journal, 14 July 1994, 11; and Gary Wills, "Clinton's Troubles," The New York Review of Books, 22 September 1994, 7. For less alarmist views that still hold that there is a problem, see Eliot Cohen, "Civil-Military Relations," Orbis 41, 2 (Spring 1997): 177-86; A.J. Bacevich, "Clinton's Military Problem - and Ours," National Review, 13 December 1993, 36-40; Bacevich, "Civilian Control: A Useful Fiction?" Joint Forces Quarterly 6 (Autumn/Winter 1994/95): 76-79; and Bacevich, "Tradition Abandoned," The National Interests 48 (Summer 1997): 16-25 .
4. For the most pessimistic assessments of the situation see Richard Kohn, "Out of Control: The Crisis in Civil-Military Relations," The National Interest 35 (Spring 1994):3-17; Edward Luttwak, "Washington's Biggest Scandal," Commentary 97, 5 (May 1994): 29-33; Russell Weigley, "The American Military and the Principle of Civilian Control from McClellan to Powell," The Journal of Military History 57 (Special Issue, October 1993): 27-58; Charles Dunlop, "Welcome to the Junta: The Erosion of Civilian Control of the U.S. Military," Wake Forest Law Review 29, 2 (Summer 1994): 341-92; Gregory D. Foster, "Raw Recruits vs. Old Troopers," Wall Street Journal, 14 July 1994, 11; and Gary Wills, "Clinton's Troubles," The New York Review of Books, 22 September 1994, 7. For less alarmist views that still hold that there is a problem, see Eliot Cohen, "Civil-Military Relations," Orbis 41, 2 (Spring 1997): 177-86; A.J. Bacevich, "Clinton's Military Problem - and Ours," National Review, 13 December 1993, 36-40; Bacevich, "Civilian Control: A Useful Fiction?" Joint Forces Quarterly 6 (Autumn/Winter 1994/95): 76-79; and Bacevich, "Tradition Abandoned," The National Interests 48 (Summer 1997): 16-25.
5. For the most pessimistic assessments of the situation see Richard Kohn, "Out of Control: The Crisis in Civil-Military Relations," The National Interest 35 (Spring 1994):3-17; Edward Luttwak, "Washington's Biggest Scandal," Commentary 97, 5 (May 1994): 29-33; Russell Weigley, "The American Military and the Principle of Civilian Control from McClellan to Powell," The Journal of Military History 57 (Special Issue, October 1993): 27-58; Charles Dunlop, "Welcome to the Junta: The Erosion of Civilian Control of the U.S. Military," Wake Forest Law Review 29, 2 (Summer 1994): 341-92; Gregory D. Foster, "Raw Recruits vs. Old Troopers," Wall Street Journal, 14 July 1994, 11; and Gary Wills, "Clinton's Troubles," The New York Review of Books, 22 September 1994, 7. For less alarmist views that still hold that there is a problem, see Eliot Cohen, "Civil-Military Relations," Orbis 41, 2 (Spring 1997): 177-86; A.J. Bacevich, "Clinton's Military Problem - and Ours," National Review, 13 December 1993, 36-40; Bacevich, "Civilian Control: A Useful Fiction?" Joint Forces Quarterly 6 (Autumn/Winter 1994/95): 76-79; and Bacevich, "Tradition Abandoned," The National Interests 48 (Summer 1997): 16-25 .
6. For the most pessimistic assessments of the situation see Richard Kohn, "Out of Control: The Crisis in Civil-Military Relations," The National Interest 35 (Spring 1994):3-17; Edward Luttwak, "Washington's Biggest Scandal," Commentary 97, 5 (May 1994): 29-33; Russell Weigley, "The American Military and the Principle of Civilian Control from McClellan to Powell," The Journal of Military History 57 (Special Issue, October 1993): 27-58; Charles Dunlop, "Welcome to the Junta: The Erosion of Civilian Control of the U.S. Military," Wake Forest Law Review 29, 2 (Summer 1994): 341-92; Gregory D. Foster, "Raw Recruits vs. Old Troopers," Wall Street Journal, 14 July 1994, 11; and Gary Wills, "Clinton's Troubles," The New York Review of Books, 22 September 1994, 7. For less alarmist views that still hold that there is a problem, see Eliot Cohen, "Civil-Military Relations," Orbis 41, 2 (Spring 1997): 177-86; A.J. Bacevich, "Clinton's Military Problem - and Ours," National Review, 13 December 1993, 36-40; Bacevich, "Civilian Control: A Useful Fiction?" Joint Forces Quarterly 6 (Autumn/Winter 1994/95): 76-79; and Bacevich, "Tradition Abandoned," The National Interests 48 (Summer 1997): 16-25 .
7. For the most pessimistic assessments of the situation see Richard Kohn, "Out of Control: The Crisis in Civil-Military Relations," The National Interest 35 (Spring 1994):3-17; Edward Luttwak, "Washington's Biggest Scandal," Commentary 97, 5 (May 1994): 29-33; Russell Weigley, "The American Military and the Principle of Civilian Control from McClellan to Powell," The Journal of Military History 57 (Special Issue, October 1993): 27-58; Charles Dunlop, "Welcome to the Junta: The Erosion of Civilian Control of the U.S. Military," Wake Forest Law Review 29, 2 (Summer 1994): 341-92; Gregory D. Foster, "Raw Recruits vs. Old Troopers," Wall Street Journal, 14 July 1994, 11; and Gary Wills, "Clinton's Troubles," The New York Review of Books, 22 September 1994, 7. For less alarmist views that still hold that there is a problem, see Eliot Cohen, "Civil-Military Relations," Orbis 41, 2 (Spring 1997): 177-86; A.J. Bacevich, "Clinton's Military Problem - and Ours," National Review, 13 December 1993, 36-40; Bacevich, "Civilian Control: A Useful Fiction?" Joint Forces Quarterly 6 (Autumn/Winter 1994/95): 76-79; and Bacevich, "Tradition Abandoned," The National Interests 48 (Summer 1997): 16-25 .
8. For the most pessimistic assessments of the situation see Richard Kohn, "Out of Control: The Crisis in Civil-Military Relations," The National Interest 35 (Spring 1994):3-17; Edward Luttwak, "Washington's Biggest Scandal," Commentary 97, 5 (May 1994): 29-33; Russell Weigley, "The American Military and the Principle of Civilian Control from McClellan to Powell," The Journal of Military History 57 (Special Issue, October 1993): 27-58; Charles Dunlop, "Welcome to the Junta: The Erosion of Civilian Control of the U.S. Military," Wake Forest Law Review 29, 2 (Summer 1994): 341-92; Gregory D. Foster, "Raw Recruits vs. Old Troopers," Wall Street Journal, 14 July 1994, 11; and Gary Wills, "Clinton's Troubles," The New York Review of Books, 22 September 1994, 7. For less alarmist views that still hold that there is a problem, see Eliot Cohen, "Civil-Military Relations," Orbis 41, 2 (Spring 1997): 177-86; A.J. Bacevich, "Clinton's Military Problem - and Ours," National Review, 13 December 1993, 36-40; Bacevich, "Civilian Control: A Useful Fiction?" Joint Forces Quarterly 6 (Autumn/Winter 1994/95): 76-79; and Bacevich, "Tradition Abandoned," The National Interests 48 (Summer 1997): 16-25 .
9. For the most pessimistic assessments of the situation see Richard Kohn, "Out of Control: The Crisis in Civil-Military Relations," The National Interest 35 (Spring 1994):3-17; Edward Luttwak, "Washington's Biggest Scandal," Commentary 97, 5 (May 1994): 29-33; Russell Weigley, "The American Military and the Principle of Civilian Control from McClellan to Powell," The Journal of Military History 57 (Special Issue, October 1993): 27-58; Charles Dunlop, "Welcome to the Junta: The Erosion of Civilian Control of the U.S. Military," Wake Forest Law Review 29, 2 (Summer 1994): 341-92; Gregory D. Foster, "Raw Recruits vs. Old Troopers," Wall Street Journal, 14 July 1994, 11; and Gary Wills, "Clinton's Troubles," The New York Review of Books, 22 September 1994, 7. For less alarmist views that still hold that there is a problem, see Eliot Cohen, "Civil-Military Relations," Orbis 41, 2 (Spring 1997): 177-86; A.J. Bacevich, "Clinton's Military Problem - and Ours," National Review, 13 December 1993, 36-40; Bacevich, "Civilian Control: A Useful Fiction?" Joint Forces Quarterly 6 (Autumn/Winter 1994/95): 76-79; and Bacevich, "Tradition Abandoned," The National Interests 48 (Summer 1997): 16-25 .
10. For the most pessimistic assessments of the situation see Richard Kohn, "Out of Control: The Crisis in Civil-Military Relations," The National Interest 35 (Spring 1994):3-17; Edward Luttwak, "Washington's Biggest Scandal," Commentary 97, 5 (May 1994): 29-33; Russell Weigley, "The American Military and the Principle of Civilian Control from McClellan to Powell," The Journal of Military History 57 (Special Issue, October 1993): 27-58; Charles Dunlop, "Welcome to the Junta: The Erosion of Civilian Control of the U.S. Military," Wake Forest Law Review 29, 2 (Summer 1994): 341-92; Gregory D. Foster, "Raw Recruits vs. Old Troopers," Wall Street Journal, 14 July 1994, 11; and Gary Wills, "Clinton's Troubles," The New York Review of Books, 22 September 1994, 7. For less alarmist views that still hold that there is a problem, see Eliot Cohen, "Civil-Military Relations," Orbis 41, 2 (Spring 1997): 177-86; A.J. Bacevich, "Clinton's Military Problem - and Ours," National Review, 13 December 1993, 36-40; Bacevich, "Civilian Control: A Useful Fiction?" Joint Forces Quarterly 6 (Autumn/Winter 1994/95): 76-79; and Bacevich, "Tradition Abandoned," The National Interests 48 (Summer 1997): 16-25 .
11. I discuss the evidence for this assertion at length in my "U.S. Civil-Military Relations in a Changing International Order," in Don M. Snider and Miranda A. Carlton-Carew, eds., U.S. Civil-Military Relations: In Crisis or Transition? (Washington, D.C.: CSIS, 1995), 166-84, and in Soldiers, States, and Structures: Civilian Control of the Military in a Changing Security Environment (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, forthcoming), Chapter 3.
12. I discuss the evidence for this assertion at length in my "U.S. Civil-Military Relations in a Changing International Order," in Don M. Snider and Miranda A. Carlton-Carew, eds., U.S. Civil-Military Relations: In Crisis or Transition? (Washington, D.C.: CSIS, 1995), 166-84, and in Soldiers, States, and Structures: Civilian Control of the Military in a Changing Security Environment (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, forthcoming), Chapter 3.
13. Samuel Huntington, Political Order and Changing Societies (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1968), 194.
14. Generals Colin Powell and William Odom, "An Exchange on Civil Military Relations," The National Interest 36 (Summer 1994): 23 and 25-26.
15. See Steven Greenhouse, "Chairman of Joint Chiefs Defends Clinton against Attack By Helms," New York Times, 20 November 1994, 24. Also see Bradley Graham and Dan Morgan, "Shalikashvili Rebuts Helms on Clinton's Ability as Commander," Washington Post, 20 November 1994, 24.
16. See Steven Greenhouse, "Chairman of Joint Chiefs Defends Clinton against Attack By Helms," New York Times, 20 November 1994, 24. Also see Bradley Graham and Dan Morgan, "Shalikashvili Rebuts Helms on Clinton's Ability as Commander," Washington Post, 20 November 1994, 24.
17. Based on discussions at West Point (June 1994), Carlisle Barracks (September 1994), Harvard University (November 1994 and April 1996), and the Naval War College (December 1994).
18. See for example Mackubin Thomas Owens, "Civilian Control: A National Crisis?" Joint Forces Quarterly 6 (Autumn/Winter 1994/95): 80-83 and Douglas Johnson and Steven Metz, "Civil-Military Relations in the United States: The State of the Debate," The Washington Quarterly 18, 1 (Winter 1995): 197-213.
19. See for example Mackubin Thomas Owens, "Civilian Control: A National Crisis?" Joint Forces Quarterly 6 (Autumn/Winter 1994/95): 80-83 and Douglas Johnson and Steven Metz, "Civil-Military Relations in the United States: The State of the Debate," The Washington Quarterly 18, 1 (Winter 1995): 197-213.
20. See Harold Lasswell, "The Garrison State," The American Journal of Sociology 46, 4 (January 1941): 455-68. A more recent example of this Lasswellian thinking is Jack Snyder, "Civil-Military Relations and the Cult of the Offensive, 1914 and 1984," in Military Strategy and the Origins of the First World War, ed., Steven E. Miller (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1985), 108-46.
21. See Harold Lasswell, "The Garrison State," The American Journal of Sociology 46, 4 (January 1941): 455-68. A more recent example of this Lasswellian thinking is Jack Snyder, "Civil-Military Relations and the Cult of the Offensive, 1914 and 1984," in Military Strategy and the Origins of the First World War, ed., Steven E. Miller (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1985), 108-46.
22. Harold D. Lasswell, "Sino-Japanese Crisis: The Garrison State versus the Civilian State," The China Quarterly (Special Fall 1937): 649.
23. See his Military Organization and Society (Berkeley, CA: The University of California Press, 1968), 202. Also see his "On the Peaceful Disposition of Military Dictatorships," The Journal of Strategic Studies 3, 3 (December 1980): 3-10.
24. See his Military Organization and Society (Berkeley, CA: The University of California Press, 1968), 202. Also see his "On the Peaceful Disposition of Military Dictatorships," The Journal of Strategic Studies 3, 3 (December 1980): 3-10.
25. Andrew Bacevich, "Clinton's Military Problem - and Ours," National Review, 13 December 1993, 36, and David S. Sorenson, "Soldiers, States, and Systems: Civil-Mililary Relations in the Post-Cold War World." Paper presented at the Mershon Center Conference on Civil-Military Relations, Ohio State University, 4-5 December 1992.
26. Andrew Bacevich, "Clinton's Military Problem - and Ours," National Review, 13 December 1993, 36, and David S. Sorenson, "Soldiers, States, and Systems: Civil-Mililary Relations in the Post-Cold War World." Paper presented at the Mershon Center Conference on Civil-Military Relations, Ohio State University, 4-5 December 1992.
27. Edward M. Coffman, "The Long Shadow of The Soldier and the State," The Journal of Military History 55, 1 (January 1991): 69-82.
28. See Huntington's brief discussion in The Common Defense: Strategic Programs in International Politics (New York: Columbia University Press, 1961), 7, and Huntington, The Soldier and the State: The Theory and Politics of Civil-Military Relations (Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1957), 456. This should be contrasted with his "The Soldier and the State in the 1970s," in Andrew J. Goodpaster and Samuel Huntington, eds., Civil-Military Relations (Washington, D.C.: American Enterprise Institute for Public Policy Research, 1977), 8-11.
29. See Huntington's brief discussion in The Common Defense: Strategic Programs in International Politics (New York: Columbia University Press, 1961), 7, and Huntington, The Soldier and the State: The Theory and Politics of Civil-Military Relations (Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1957), 456. This should be contrasted with his "The Soldier and the State in the 1970s," in Andrew J. Goodpaster and Samuel Huntington, eds., Civil-Military Relations (Washington, D.C.: American Enterprise Institute for Public Policy Research, 1977), 8-11.
30. See Huntington's brief discussion in The Common Defense: Strategic Programs in International Politics (New York: Columbia University Press, 1961), 7, and Huntington, The Soldier and the State: The Theory and Politics of Civil-Military Relations (Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1957), 456. This should be contrasted with his "The Soldier and the State in the 1970s," in Andrew J. Goodpaster and Samuel Huntington, eds., Civil-Military Relations (Washington, D.C.: American Enterprise Institute for Public Policy Research, 1977), 8-11.
31. "Threat Environments and Military Missions," in Larry Diamond and Marc Plattner, eds., Civil-Military Relations and Democracy (Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996), 12-29.
32. On structural theorizing see Kenneth N. Waltz, Theory of International Politics (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1979), chapter 3; Ernest Nagel, "On the Statement 'the Whole Is More Than the Sum of Its Parts'" in Paul Lazarfeld and Morris Rosenberg, eds. The Language of Social Research: A Reader in the Methodology of Social Research (Glencoe, IL: The Free Press, 1955), 519-27; and Marion J. Levy, Jr., "Functional Analysis" in David L. Sills, ed., International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences Vol. 6 (New York: Crowell Collier and MacMillan, Inc., 1968), 21-28. For a discussion of the limitations of structural theories, see Stephen Haggard, "Structuralism and Its Critics: Recent Progress in International Relations Theory," in Emannuel Adler and Beverly Crawford, eds., Progress in Postwar International Relations (New York: Columbia University Press, 1991), 403-47.
33. On structural theorizing see Kenneth N. Waltz, Theory of International Politics (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1979), chapter 3; Ernest Nagel, "On the Statement 'the Whole Is More Than the Sum of Its Parts'" in Paul Lazarfeld and Morris Rosenberg, eds. The Language of Social Research: A Reader in the Methodology of Social Research (Glencoe, IL: The Free Press, 1955), 519-27; and Marion J. Levy, Jr., "Functional Analysis" in David L. Sills, ed., International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences Vol. 6 (New York: Crowell Collier and MacMillan, Inc., 1968), 21-28. For a discussion of the limitations of structural theories, see Stephen Haggard, "Structuralism and Its Critics: Recent Progress in International Relations Theory," in Emannuel Adler and Beverly Crawford, eds., Progress in Postwar International Relations (New York: Columbia University Press, 1991), 403-47.
34. On structural theorizing see Kenneth N. Waltz, Theory of International Politics (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1979), chapter 3; Ernest Nagel, "On the Statement 'the Whole Is More Than the Sum of Its Parts'" in Paul Lazarfeld and Morris Rosenberg, eds. The Language of Social Research: A Reader in the Methodology of Social Research (Glencoe, IL: The Free Press, 1955), 519-27; and Marion J. Levy, Jr., "Functional Analysis" in David L. Sills, ed., International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences Vol. 6 (New York: Crowell Collier and MacMillan, Inc., 1968), 21-28. For a discussion of the limitations of structural theories, see Stephen Haggard, "Structuralism and Its Critics: Recent Progress in International Relations Theory," in Emannuel Adler and Beverly Crawford, eds., Progress in Postwar International Relations (New York: Columbia University Press, 1991), 403-47.
35. On structural theorizing see Kenneth N. Waltz, Theory of International Politics (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1979), chapter 3; Ernest Nagel, "On the Statement 'the Whole Is More Than the Sum of Its Parts'" in Paul Lazarfeld and Morris Rosenberg, eds. The Language of Social Research: A Reader in the Methodology of Social Research (Glencoe, IL: The Free Press, 1955), 519-27; and Marion J. Levy, Jr., "Functional Analysis" in David L. Sills, ed., International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences Vol. 6 (New York: Crowell Collier and MacMillan, Inc., 1968), 21-28. For a discussion of the limitations of structural theories, see Stephen Haggard, "Structuralism and Its Critics: Recent Progress in International Relations Theory," in Emannuel Adler and Beverly Crawford, eds., Progress in Postwar International Relations (New York: Columbia University Press, 1991), 403-47.
36. For example, see Peter Gourevitch, "The Second Image Reversed: The International Sources of Domestic Politics," International Organisation 32, 4 (Autumn 1978): 881-911; Barry R. Posen, The Sources of Military Doctrine: France, Britain, and Germany Between the World Wars (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1984); and Michael Mastanduno, David A. Lake, and G. John Ikenberry, "Toward a Realist Theory of State Action," International Studies Quarterly 33, 4 (December 1989): 457-75.
37. For example, see Peter Gourevitch, "The Second Image Reversed: The International Sources of Domestic Politics," International Organisation 32, 4 (Autumn 1978): 881-911; Barry R. Posen, The Sources of Military Doctrine: France, Britain, and Germany Between the World Wars (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1984); and Michael Mastanduno, David A. Lake, and G. John Ikenberry, "Toward a Realist Theory of State Action," International Studies Quarterly 33, 4 (December 1989): 457-75.
38. For example, see Peter Gourevitch, "The Second Image Reversed: The International Sources of Domestic Politics," International Organisation 32, 4 (Autumn 1978): 881-911; Barry R. Posen, The Sources of Military Doctrine: France, Britain, and Germany Between the World Wars (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1984); and Michael Mastanduno, David A. Lake, and G. John Ikenberry, "Toward a Realist Theory of State Action," International Studies Quarterly 33, 4 (December 1989): 457-75.
39. One partial exception, though lacking structured and focused case studies, is Martin Edmonds, Armed Services and Society (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1988), 113-35.
40. For similar definition see Kenneth W. Kemp and Charles Hudlin, "Civil Supremacy Over the Military: Its Nature and Limits," Armed Forces & Society 19, 1 (Fall 1992): 9.
41. This follows Robert Dahl, "A Critique of the Ruling Elite Model," American Political Science Review 52, 2 (June 1958): 366.
42. I thank Henry Nau for pointing out the relevance of the "state/society" literature for threats. For a good overview see Peter J. Katzenstein, "Introduction: Domestic and International Forces and Strategies of Foreign Economic Policy" in Peter J. Katzenstein, ed., Between Power and Plenty: Foreign Economic Policies of Advanced Industrial States (Madison, WI: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1978), 3-22.
43. For a useful discussion of the impact of internal threats on military organizations, see William R. Thompson, The Grievances of Military Coup-Makers (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications, 1973).
44. The classic statements of this idea remain Georg Simmel, Conflict and the Web of Group Affiliation, Kurt Wolff and Rheinhard Bendix, trans. (New York: The Free Press), 1955, 96-123, and Coser, Functions of Social Conflict. An excellent analytical summary is Arthur A. Stein, "Conflict and Cohesion: A Review of the Literature" Journal of Conflict Resolution 20, 1 (March 1976): 143-72. To increase cohesion, the threat must be to the group as a whole and must be amenable only to a collective solution. See John T. Lanzetta, et al., "Some Effects of Situational Threat on Group Behavior," The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 49, 3 (July 1954): 445-53; Robert T. Hamblin, "Group Integration During a Crisis," Human Relations: Studies Toward the Integration of the Social Sciences 11, 1 (1958): 67-76; and Irving L. Janis, "Group Identification Under Conditions of External Danger," British Journal of Medical Psychology 11, 3 (July 1963): 227-38.
45. The classic statements of this idea remain Georg Simmel, Conflict and the Web of Group Affiliation, Kurt Wolff and Rheinhard Bendix, trans. (New York: The Free Press), 1955, 96-123, and Coser, Functions of Social Conflict. An excellent analytical summary is Arthur A. Stein, "Conflict and Cohesion: A Review of the Literature" Journal of Conflict Resolution 20, 1 (March 1976): 143-72. To increase cohesion, the threat must be to the group as a whole and must be amenable only to a collective solution. See John T. Lanzetta, et al., "Some Effects of Situational Threat on Group Behavior," The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 49, 3 (July 1954): 445-53; Robert T. Hamblin, "Group Integration During a Crisis," Human Relations: Studies Toward the Integration of the Social Sciences 11, 1 (1958): 67-76; and Irving L. Janis, "Group Identification Under Conditions of External Danger," British Journal of Medical Psychology 11, 3 (July 1963): 227-38.
46. The classic statements of this idea remain Georg Simmel, Conflict and the Web of Group Affiliation, Kurt Wolff and Rheinhard Bendix, trans. (New York: The Free Press), 1955, 96-123, and Coser, Functions of Social Conflict. An excellent analytical summary is Arthur A. Stein, "Conflict and Cohesion: A Review of the Literature" Journal of Conflict Resolution 20, 1 (March 1976): 143-72. To increase cohesion, the threat must be to the group as a whole and must be amenable only to a collective solution. See John T. Lanzetta, et al., "Some Effects of Situational Threat on Group Behavior," The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 49, 3 (July 1954): 445-53; Robert T. Hamblin, "Group Integration During a Crisis," Human Relations: Studies Toward the Integration of the Social Sciences 11, 1 (1958): 67-76; and Irving L. Janis, "Group Identification Under Conditions of External Danger," British Journal of Medical Psychology 11, 3 (July 1963): 227-38.
47. The classic statements of this idea remain Georg Simmel, Conflict and the Web of Group Affiliation, Kurt Wolff and Rheinhard Bendix, trans. (New York: The Free Press), 1955, 96-123, and Coser, Functions of Social Conflict. An excellent analytical summary is Arthur A. Stein, "Conflict and Cohesion: A Review of the Literature" Journal of Conflict Resolution 20, 1 (March 1976): 143-72. To increase cohesion, the threat must be to the group as a whole and must be amenable only to a collective solution. See John T. Lanzetta, et al., "Some Effects of Situational Threat on Group Behavior," The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 49, 3 (July 1954): 445-53; Robert T. Hamblin, "Group Integration During a Crisis," Human Relations: Studies Toward the Integration of the Social Sciences 11, 1 (1958): 67-76; and Irving L. Janis, "Group Identification Under Conditions of External Danger," British Journal of Medical Psychology 11, 3 (July 1963): 227-38.
48. The classic statements of this idea remain Georg Simmel, Conflict and the Web of Group Affiliation, Kurt Wolff and Rheinhard Bendix, trans. (New York: The Free Press), 1955, 96-123, and Coser, Functions of Social Conflict. An excellent analytical summary is Arthur A. Stein, "Conflict and Cohesion: A Review of the Literature" Journal of Conflict Resolution 20, 1 (March 1976): 143-72. To increase cohesion, the threat must be to the group as a whole and must be amenable only to a collective solution. See John T. Lanzetta, et al., "Some Effects of Situational Threat on Group Behavior," The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 49, 3 (July 1954): 445-53; Robert T. Hamblin, "Group Integration During a Crisis," Human Relations: Studies Toward the Integration of the Social Sciences 11, 1 (1958): 67-76; and Irving L. Janis, "Group Identification Under Conditions of External Danger," British Journal of Medical Psychology 11, 3 (July 1963): 227-38.
49. The classic statements of this idea remain Georg Simmel, Conflict and the Web of Group Affiliation, Kurt Wolff and Rheinhard Bendix, trans. (New York: The Free Press), 1955, 96-123, and Coser, Functions of Social Conflict. An excellent analytical summary is Arthur A. Stein, "Conflict and Cohesion: A Review of the Literature" Journal of Conflict Resolution 20, 1 (March 1976): 143-72. To increase cohesion, the threat must be to the group as a whole and must be amenable only to a collective solution. See John T. Lanzetta, et al., "Some Effects of Situational Threat on Group Behavior," The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 49, 3 (July 1954): 445-53; Robert T. Hamblin, "Group Integration During a Crisis," Human Relations: Studies Toward the Integration of the Social Sciences 11, 1 (1958): 67-76; and Irving L. Janis, "Group Identification Under Conditions of External Danger," British Journal of Medical Psychology 11, 3 (July 1963): 227-38.
50. Eric Nordlinger, Soldiers in Politics: Military Coups and Governments (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1977), 39-42. The definitive discussion of military cohesion remains Edward Shils and Morris Janowitz, "Cohesion and Disintegration in the Wehrmacht in World War II," Public Opinion Quarterly 12, 2 (Summer 1948): 280-315. There is some evidence that increasing factionalization leads to coup attempts. See J. Craig Jenkins and Augustine J. Kposowa, "The Political Origins of African Military Coups: Ethnic Competition, Military Centrality, and the Struggle over the Postcolonial State," International Studies Quarterly 36, 2 (September 1992): 271-92. Much evidence suggests, however, that cohesion, successful coups, and military rule are highly correlated. See Alfred Stepan, The Military in Politics: Changing Patterns in Brazil (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1971), 98.
51. Eric Nordlinger, Soldiers in Politics: Military Coups and Governments (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1977), 39-42. The definitive discussion of military cohesion remains Edward Shils and Morris Janowitz, "Cohesion and Disintegration in the Wehrmacht in World War II," Public Opinion Quarterly 12, 2 (Summer 1948): 280-315. There is some evidence that increasing factionalization leads to coup attempts. See J. Craig Jenkins and Augustine J. Kposowa, "The Political Origins of African Military Coups: Ethnic Competition, Military Centrality, and the Struggle over the Postcolonial State," International Studies Quarterly 36, 2 (September 1992): 271-92. Much evidence suggests, however, that cohesion, successful coups, and military rule are highly correlated. See Alfred Stepan, The Military in Politics: Changing Patterns in Brazil (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1971), 98.
52. Eric Nordlinger, Soldiers in Politics: Military Coups and Governments (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1977), 39-42. The definitive discussion of military cohesion remains Edward Shils and Morris Janowitz, "Cohesion and Disintegration in the Wehrmacht in World War II," Public Opinion Quarterly 12, 2 (Summer 1948): 280-315. There is some evidence that increasing factionalization leads to coup attempts. See J. Craig Jenkins and Augustine J. Kposowa, "The Political Origins of African Military Coups: Ethnic Competition, Military Centrality, and the Struggle over the Postcolonial State," International Studies Quarterly 36, 2 (September 1992): 271-92. Much evidence suggests, however, that cohesion, successful coups, and military rule are highly correlated. See Alfred Stepan, The Military in Politics: Changing Patterns in Brazil (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1971), 98.
53. Eric Nordlinger, Soldiers in Politics: Military Coups and Governments (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1977), 39-42. The definitive discussion of military cohesion remains Edward Shils and Morris Janowitz, "Cohesion and Disintegration in the Wehrmacht in World War II," Public Opinion Quarterly 12, 2 (Summer 1948): 280-315. There is some evidence that increasing factionalization leads to coup attempts. See J. Craig Jenkins and Augustine J. Kposowa, "The Political Origins of African Military Coups: Ethnic Competition, Military Centrality, and the Struggle over the Postcolonial State," International Studies Quarterly 36, 2 (September 1992): 271-92. Much evidence suggests, however, that cohesion, successful coups, and military rule are highly correlated. See Alfred Stepan, The Military in Politics: Changing Patterns in Brazil (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1971), 98.
54. Posen, Sources of Military Doctrine, 74-78.
55. See Michael Howard, War in European History (London: Oxford University Press, 1976), 75-115.
56. See his The Sword and the Scepter: The Problem of Militarism in Germany, Vol. III The Tragedy of Statesmanship - Bethmann Hollweg as War Chancellor, Heinz Norden, trans (Coral Gables. FL: University of Miami Press, 1972), 12.
57. Andreski, "The Peaceful Disposition of Military Dictatorships," 4; Morris Janowitz, Military Institutions and Coercion in the Developing Nations (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1977), 156; and Howard, War in European History, 94-115.
58. Andreski, "The Peaceful Disposition of Military Dictatorships," 4; Morris Janowitz, Military Institutions and Coercion in the Developing Nations (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1977), 156; and Howard, War in European History, 94-115.
59. Andreski, "The Peaceful Disposition of Military Dictatorships," 4; Morris Janowitz, Military Institutions and Coercion in the Developing Nations (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1977), 156; and Howard, War in European History, 94-115.
60. John E. Mueller, War, Presidents and Public Opinion (Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1985), 58-9.
61. David H. Bayley, "The Police and Political Development in Europe," in Charles Tilly, ed. The Formation of National States in Western Europe (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1975), 359.
62. For a related discussion see Jeffrey Herbst, "War and the State in Africa," International Security 14, 4 (Spring 1990): 117-39, and Joel Migdal, Strong Societies and Weak States: State-Society Relations and Capabilities in the Third World (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1988).
63. For a related discussion see Jeffrey Herbst, "War and the State in Africa," International Security 14, 4 (Spring 1990): 117-39, and Joel Migdal, Strong Societies and Weak States: State-Society Relations and Capabilities in the Third World (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1988).
64. Samuel Huntington, "Patterns of Violence in World Politics" in Samuel Huntington, ed., Changing Patterns of Military Politics (Glencoe, IL: The Free Press, 1962), 22.
65. On the differing threat environments facing Third World states, see Steven R. David, "Explaining Third World Alignment," World Politics 42, 2 (January 1991): 233-56, and Alain Rouquie, The Military and the State in Latin America, Paul Sigmund, trans. (Berkeley, CA: The University of California Press, 1987), 98-99.
66. On the differing threat environments facing Third World states, see Steven R. David, "Explaining Third World Alignment," World Politics 42, 2 (January 1991): 233-56, and Alain Rouquie, The Military and the State in Latin America, Paul Sigmund, trans. (Berkeley, CA: The University of California Press, 1987), 98-99.
67. Two cases in point: the Hindenburg-Ludendorff dictatorship in Germany during the late stages of the First World War and Argentina under the Galtieri junta during the Malvinas War.
68. This might explain why the French military did not move against de Gaulle despite the significant domestic turmoil of the late 1950s and early 1960s.
69. See my "Threat Environments and Military Missions," 12-30, and Soldiers, States, and Structures, chapters 3-6, for discussion of cases that cover all of these boxes.
70. Waltz, Theory, 78, and Peter Gourevitch, "The International System and Regime Formation: A Critical Review of Anderson and Wallerstein," Comparative Politics 10, 2 (April 1978): 436.
71. Waltz, Theory, 78, and Peter Gourevitch, "The International System and Regime Formation: A Critical Review of Anderson and Wallerstein," Comparative Politics 10, 2 (April 1978): 436.
72. Important assessments of the role of ideas in international politics include John Odell, U.S. International Monetary Policy: Markets, Power, and Ideas as Sources of Change (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1982); the various essays in Judith Goldstein and Robert O. Keohane, eds. Ideas and Foreign Policy: Beliefs, Institutions and Political Change (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1993); Ann Swidler, "Culture in Action: Symbols and Strategies," American Sociological Review 51 (April 1986): 273-86; and H.S. Gerth and C. Wright Mills, eds. From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology (New York: Oxford University Press, 1946), 63-4.
73. Important assessments of the role of ideas in international politics include John Odell, U.S. International Monetary Policy: Markets, Power, and Ideas as Sources of Change (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1982); the various essays in Judith Goldstein and Robert O. Keohane, eds. Ideas and Foreign Policy: Beliefs, Institutions and Political Change (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1993); Ann Swidler, "Culture in Action: Symbols and Strategies," American Sociological Review 51 (April 1986): 273-86; and H.S. Gerth and C. Wright Mills, eds. From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology (New York: Oxford University Press, 1946), 63-4.
74. Important assessments of the role of ideas in international politics include John Odell, U.S. International Monetary Policy: Markets, Power, and Ideas as Sources of Change (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1982); the various essays in Judith Goldstein and Robert O. Keohane, eds. Ideas and Foreign Policy: Beliefs, Institutions and Political Change (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1993); Ann Swidler, "Culture in Action: Symbols and Strategies," American Sociological Review 51 (April 1986): 273-86; and H.S. Gerth and C. Wright Mills, eds. From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology (New York: Oxford University Press, 1946), 63-4.
75. Important assessments of the role of ideas in international politics include John Odell, U.S. International Monetary Policy: Markets, Power, and Ideas as Sources of Change (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1982); the various essays in Judith Goldstein and Robert O. Keohane, eds. Ideas and Foreign Policy: Beliefs, Institutions and Political Change (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1993); Ann Swidler, "Culture in Action: Symbols and Strategies," American Sociological Review 51 (April 1986): 273-86; and H.S. Gerth and C. Wright Mills, eds. From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology (New York: Oxford University Press, 1946), 63-4.
76. Posen, Sources of Military Doctrine, 13.
77. Posen, Sources of Military Doctrine, 16-17; Jack Snyder, The Ideology of the Offensive: Military Decision Making and the Disasters of 1914 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1984), 10-11 and 19-30; and Stephen Van Evera, "The Cult of the Offensive and the Origins of the First World War," in Miller, 58-107.
78. Posen, Sources of Military Doctrine, 16-17; Jack Snyder, The Ideology of the Offensive: Military Decision Making and the Disasters of 1914 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1984), 10-11 and 19-30; and Stephen Van Evera, "The Cult of the Offensive and the Origins of the First World War," in Miller, 58-107.
79. Posen, Sources of Military Doctrine, 16-17; Jack Snyder, The Ideology of the Offensive: Military Decision Making and the Disasters of 1914 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1984), 10-11 and 19-30; and Stephen Van Evera, "The Cult of the Offensive and the Origins of the First World War," in Miller, 58-107.
80. The best work on the internal consequences of military doctrines has been done in comparative politics by students of the military dictatorships of the Southern Cone of Latin America. Stepan's The Military in Politics and Rouquie's The Military and the State in Latin America are classics. In addition, excellent work has been done by David Pion Berlin, The Ideology of State Terror: Economic Doctrine and Political Repression in Argentina and Peru (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1989); David Pion-Berlin, "The National Security Doctrine, Military Threat Perception and the 'Dirty War' in Argentina," Comparative Political Studies 21, 3 (October 1988):283-407; David Pion-Berlin, "Latin American National Security Doctrines: Hard- and Softline Themes," Armed Forces & Society 15, 3 (Spring 1989): 411-30; David Pion-Berlin and George A. Lopez, "Of Victims and Executioners: Argentina and State Terror, 1975-1979," International Studies Quarterly 35, 1 (March 1991): 64-87; and Canna Perelli, "From Counterrevolutionary Warfare to Political Awakening: The Uruguayan and Argentine Armed Forces in the 1970s," Armed Forces & Society 20, 1 (Fall 1993) 25-49.
81. The best work on the internal consequences of military doctrines has been done in comparative politics by students of the military dictatorships of the Southern Cone of Latin America. Stepan's The Military in Politics and Rouquie's The Military and the State in Latin America are classics. In addition, excellent work has been done by David Pion Berlin, The Ideology of State Terror: Economic Doctrine and Political Repression in Argentina and Peru (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1989); David Pion-Berlin, "The National Security Doctrine, Military Threat Perception and the 'Dirty War' in Argentina," Comparative Political Studies 21, 3 (October 1988):283-407; David Pion-Berlin, "Latin American National Security Doctrines: Hard- and Softline Themes," Armed Forces & Society 15, 3 (Spring 1989): 411-30; David Pion-Berlin and George A. Lopez, "Of Victims and Executioners: Argentina and State Terror, 1975-1979," International Studies Quarterly 35, 1 (March 1991): 64-87; and Canna Perelli, "From Counterrevolutionary Warfare to Political Awakening: The Uruguayan and Argentine Armed Forces in the 1970s," Armed Forces & Society 20, 1 (Fall 1993) 25-49.
82. The best work on the internal consequences of military doctrines has been done in comparative politics by students of the military dictatorships of the Southern Cone of Latin America. Stepan's The Military in Politics and Rouquie's The Military and the State in Latin America are classics. In addition, excellent work has been done by David Pion Berlin, The Ideology of State Terror: Economic Doctrine and Political Repression in Argentina and Peru (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1989); David Pion-Berlin, "The National Security Doctrine, Military Threat Perception and the 'Dirty War' in Argentina," Comparative Political Studies 21, 3 (October 1988):283-407; David Pion-Berlin, "Latin American National Security Doctrines: Hard- and Softline Themes," Armed Forces & Society 15, 3 (Spring 1989): 411-30; David Pion-Berlin and George A. Lopez, "Of Victims and Executioners: Argentina and State Terror, 1975-1979," International Studies Quarterly 35, 1 (March 1991): 64-87; and Canna Perelli, "From Counterrevolutionary Warfare to Political Awakening: The Uruguayan and Argentine Armed Forces in the 1970s," Armed Forces & Society 20, 1 (Fall 1993) 25-49.
83. The best work on the internal consequences of military doctrines has been done in comparative politics by students of the military dictatorships of the Southern Cone of Latin America. Stepan's The Military in Politics and Rouquie's The Military and the State in Latin America are classics. In addition, excellent work has been done by David Pion Berlin, The Ideology of State Terror: Economic Doctrine and Political Repression in Argentina and Peru (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1989); David Pion-Berlin, "The National Security Doctrine, Military Threat Perception and the 'Dirty War' in Argentina," Comparative Political Studies 21, 3 (October 1988):283-407; David Pion-Berlin, "Latin American National Security Doctrines: Hard- and Softline Themes," Armed Forces & Society 15, 3 (Spring 1989): 411-30; David Pion-Berlin and George A. Lopez, "Of Victims and Executioners: Argentina and State Terror, 1975-1979," International Studies Quarterly 35, 1 (March 1991): 64-87; and Canna Perelli, "From Counterrevolutionary Warfare to Political Awakening: The Uruguayan and Argentine Armed Forces in the 1970s," Armed Forces & Society 20, 1 (Fall 1993) 25-49.
84. The best work on the internal consequences of military doctrines has been done in comparative politics by students of the military dictatorships of the Southern Cone of Latin America. Stepan's The Military in Politics and Rouquie's The Military and the State in Latin America are classics. In addition, excellent work has been done by David Pion Berlin, The Ideology of State Terror: Economic Doctrine and Political Repression in Argentina and Peru (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1989); David Pion-Berlin, "The National Security Doctrine, Military Threat Perception and the 'Dirty War' in Argentina," Comparative Political Studies 21, 3 (October 1988):283-407; David Pion-Berlin, "Latin American National Security Doctrines: Hard- and Softline Themes," Armed Forces & Society 15, 3 (Spring 1989): 411-30; David Pion-Berlin and George A. Lopez, "Of Victims and Executioners: Argentina and State Terror, 1975-1979," International Studies Quarterly 35, 1 (March 1991): 64-87; and Canna Perelli, "From Counterrevolutionary Warfare to Political Awakening: The Uruguayan and Argentine Armed Forces in the 1970s," Armed Forces & Society 20, 1 (Fall 1993) 25-49.
85. This follows Judith Goldstein and Robert O. Keohane, "Introduction" in Goldstein and Keohane, eds. Ideas and Foreign Policy, 12-13.
86. Andreski, "The Peaceful Disposition of Military Dictatorships," 3-4. This is also a theme in Stephen Peter Rosen, Societies and Military Power: India and its Armies (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1996).
87. Andreski, "The Peaceful Disposition of Military Dictatorships," 3-4. This is also a theme in Stephen Peter Rosen, Societies and Military Power: India and its Armies (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1996).
88. This is a "necessary condition" because all of the cases of strong civilian control of the military I examine in Soldiers, States, and Structures had externally oriented doctrines.
89. Jeffrey Legro, Cooperation under Fire: Anglo-German Restraint during World War II (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1995), 19. Also see Elizabeth Kier, Imagining War: French and British Military Doctrine Between the Wars (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1997), 28.
90. Jeffrey Legro, Cooperation under Fire: Anglo-German Restraint during World War II (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1995), 19. Also see Elizabeth Kier, Imagining War: French and British Military Doctrine Between the Wars (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1997), 28.
91. Brian Taylor, "Culture and Coups: The Norm of Civilian Supremacy" (Unpublished ms., Olin Institute, February 1996).
92. The evidence from the 1980s is that the military has in fact tended to advocate either the massive use of force or none. For discussion of the "Weinberger Doctrine," see Bob Woodward, The Commanders (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1991), 117.
93. Huntington, The Soldier and the State, 79. Huntington's military realism is quite similar to realism in American international relations theory. The sources of realist theory include Hans Morgenthau, Politics Among Nations, 5th ed. (New York: Knopf, 1973), and Waltz, Theory of International Politics.
94. Huntington, The Soldier and the State, 79. Huntington's military realism is quite similar to realism in American international relations theory. The sources of realist theory include Hans Morgenthau, Politics Among Nations, 5th ed. (New York: Knopf, 1973), and Waltz, Theory of International Politics.
95. Huntington, The Soldier and the State, 79. Huntington's military realism is quite similar to realism in American international relations theory. The sources of realist theory include Hans Morgenthau, Politics Among Nations, 5th ed. (New York: Knopf, 1973), and Waltz, Theory of International Politics.
96. Huntington, The Soldier and the State, 144 and 157.
97. Allan Millett, The American Political System and Civilian Control of the Military: A Historical Perspective (Columbus, OH: The Mershon Center of the Ohio State University, April 1979), 38.
98. In Appendix I to chapter three of Soldiers, States, and Structures, I show that of thirty instances in which civilian and military leaders disagreed about policies, civilian preferences prevailed over 90 percent of the time.
99. Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., The Imperial Presidency (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1973), and Thomas M. Franck and Edward Weisband, Foreign Policy by Congress (New York: Oxford University Press, 1979).
100. Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., The Imperial Presidency (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1973), and Thomas M. Franck and Edward Weisband, Foreign Policy by Congress (New York: Oxford University Press, 1979).
101. Huntington, "The Soldier and the State in the 1970s," 8-11.
102. In Appendix I to chapter three of Soldiers, States, and Structures, I identify twelve issues of civil-military disagreement in which civilian preferences prevailed in only three.
103. The changing balance of military and civilian expertise is thoroughly documented in Christopher P. Gibson and Don M. Snider, "Explaining Post-Cold War Civil-Military Relations: A New Institutionalist Approach," Project on U.S. Post-Cold War Civil-Military Relations Working Paper No. 8 (Cambridge, MA: John M. Olin Institute for Strategic Studies, Harvard University, January 1997).
104. See the discussion of this in Volker C. Francke, "Learning Peace: Attitudes of Future Officers toward the Security Requirements of the Post-Cold War World," Project on U.S. Post-Cold War Civil-Military Relations Working Paper No. 9 (Cambridge, MA: The John M. Olin Institute for Strategic Studies, Harvard University, January 1997).
105. Eric Schmitt, "Civilian Mission Is Proposed for Post-Cold War Military," New York Times, 24 June 1992; Bradley Graham, "Responsibilities of U.S. Military Expanded," Washington Post, 9 March 1995, 36; and Deborah R. Lee, "Our Civil-Military Program is Small, But It's Paying Big Dividends," Washington Times, 24 May 1995, 22.
106. Eric Schmitt, "Civilian Mission Is Proposed for Post-Cold War Military," New York Times, 24 June 1992; Bradley Graham, "Responsibilities of U.S. Military Expanded," Washington Post, 9 March 1995, 36; and Deborah R. Lee, "Our Civil-Military Program is Small, But It's Paying Big Dividends," Washington Times, 24 May 1995, 22.
107. Eric Schmitt, "Civilian Mission Is Proposed for Post-Cold War Military," New York Times, 24 June 1992; Bradley Graham, "Responsibilities of U.S. Military Expanded," Washington Post, 9 March 1995, 36; and Deborah R. Lee, "Our Civil-Military Program is Small, But It's Paying Big Dividends," Washington Times, 24 May 1995, 22.
108. For an allegorical discussion of this problem see Col. Charles Dunlap, "The Origins of the Coup of 2012," Parameters 22, 4 (Winter 1992/93): 2-20.
109. Michael Gordon, "Admiral with High-Tech Dreams has Pentagon at War with Itself," New York Times, 12 December 1994, 1.
110. Michael C. Desch, "War and Strong States, Peace and Weak States?" International Organization 50, 2 (Spring 1996): 237-68; Bruce D. Porter, "Can American Democracy Survive?" Commentary 96, 5 (November 1993): 37-40; Daniel Deudney and G. John Ikenberry, "After the Long War," Foreign Policy 94 (1994): 74-118; and James Kurth, "The Post-Modern State," The National Interest 28 (Summer 1992) 7: 26-36.
111. Michael C. Desch, "War and Strong States, Peace and Weak States?" International Organization 50, 2 (Spring 1996): 237-68; Bruce D. Porter, "Can American Democracy Survive?" Commentary 96, 5 (November 1993): 37-40; Daniel Deudney and G. John Ikenberry, "After the Long War," Foreign Policy 94 (1994): 74-118; and James Kurth, "The Post-Modern State," The National Interest 28 (Summer 1992) 7: 26-36.
112. Michael C. Desch, "War and Strong States, Peace and Weak States?" International Organization 50, 2 (Spring 1996): 237-68; Bruce D. Porter, "Can American Democracy Survive?" Commentary 96, 5 (November 1993): 37-40; Daniel Deudney and G. John Ikenberry, "After the Long War," Foreign Policy 94 (1994): 74-118; and James Kurth, "The Post-Modern State," The National Interest 28 (Summer 1992) 7: 26-36.
113. Michael C. Desch, "War and Strong States, Peace and Weak States?" International Organization 50, 2 (Spring 1996): 237-68; Bruce D. Porter, "Can American Democracy Survive?" Commentary 96, 5 (November 1993): 37-40; Daniel Deudney and G. John Ikenberry, "After the Long War," Foreign Policy 94 (1994): 74-118; and James Kurth, "The Post-Modern State," The National Interest 28 (Summer 1992) 7: 26-36.
114. On the pivotal role of the "Campaign Flags" see Eric Schmitt, "Clinton Invites Retired Brass to Give Views," New York Times, 8 January 1995, 14.
115. For recent anecdotal evidence that civilian and military cultures are growing more distinct, see Thomas E. Ricks, "The Widening Gap Between the Military and Society," The Atlantic Monthly, July 1997, 66-78; Thomas E. Ricks, "Separation Anxiety: 'New' Marines Illustrate Growing Gap between Military and Society," Wall Street Journal, 27 July 1995, 1 and 4; Pat C. Holt, II, "Soldiers and Scholars," Sewanee Review 103, 1 (Winter 1995): 60-76; and Gilbert A. Lewthwaite, "Military Growing Isolated From Society, Analysts Say," Baltimore Sun, 28 December 1994, 1.
116. For recent anecdotal evidence that civilian and military cultures are growing more distinct, see Thomas E. Ricks, "The Widening Gap Between the Military and Society," The Atlantic Monthly, July 1997, 66-78; Thomas E. Ricks, "Separation Anxiety: 'New' Marines Illustrate Growing Gap between Military and Society," Wall Street Journal, 27 July 1995, 1 and 4; Pat C. Holt, II, "Soldiers and Scholars," Sewanee Review 103, 1 (Winter 1995): 60-76; and Gilbert A. Lewthwaite, "Military Growing Isolated From Society, Analysts Say," Baltimore Sun, 28 December 1994, 1.
117. For recent anecdotal evidence that civilian and military cultures are growing more distinct, see Thomas E. Ricks, "The Widening Gap Between the Military and Society," The Atlantic Monthly, July 1997, 66-78; Thomas E. Ricks, "Separation Anxiety: 'New' Marines Illustrate Growing Gap between Military and Society," Wall Street Journal, 27 July 1995, 1 and 4; Pat C. Holt, II, "Soldiers and Scholars," Sewanee Review 103, 1 (Winter 1995): 60-76; and Gilbert A. Lewthwaite, "Military Growing Isolated From Society, Analysts Say," Baltimore Sun, 28 December 1994, 1.
118. For recent anecdotal evidence that civilian and military cultures are growing more distinct, see Thomas E. Ricks, "The Widening Gap Between the Military and Society," The Atlantic Monthly, July 1997, 66-78; Thomas E. Ricks, "Separation Anxiety: 'New' Marines Illustrate Growing Gap between Military and Society," Wall Street Journal, 27 July 1995, 1 and 4; Pat C. Holt, II, "Soldiers and Scholars," Sewanee Review 103, 1 (Winter 1995): 60-76; and Gilbert A. Lewthwaite, "Military Growing Isolated From Society, Analysts Say," Baltimore Sun, 28 December 1994, 1.
119. On the Powell Doctrine, see Colin Powell with Joseph E. Persico, My American Journey (New York: Random House, 1995), 302-303.
120. See his "Fort Levenworth and the Eclipse of Nationhood," The Atlantic Monthly, September 1996, 78.
121. Powell, My American Journey, 149. Also see H.R. McMaster, Dereliction of Duty: Lyndon Johnson, Robert McNamara. The Joint Chiefs of Staff, and the Lies that Led to Vietnam (New York: HarperCollins, 1997).
122. Powell, My American Journey, 149. Also see H.R. McMaster, Dereliction of Duty: Lyndon Johnson, Robert McNamara. The Joint Chiefs of Staff, and the Lies that Led to Vietnam (New York: HarperCollins, 1997).
123. See Madeline Albright's sharp exchange with Colin Powell recounted in "Albright Throws the Book at Powell," The New Yorker 71, 30 (2 October 1995): 35.