Trade union regime formation under the conditions of globalization in the transport sector: Attempts at transnational trade union regulation of flag-of-convenience shipping

International Review of Social History

Volumn 43, Issue 3, 1998, Pages 369-402

  Koch Baumgarten, Sigrid ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0032218528     PISSN: 00208590     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0020859098000212     Document Type: Article

References (258)

1. Kurt P. Tudyka, Tom Etty and Marian Sucha (eds), Macht ohne Grenzen und grenzenlose Ohnmacht. Arbeitnehmerbewußtsein und die Bedingungen gewerkschaftlicher Gegenstrategien in multinationalen Konzernen (Frankfurt a. M., 1978), pp. 154-159; Kurt P. Tudyka, "Internationale Berufssekretariate", in Siegfried Mielke (ed.), Internationales Gewerkschaftshandbuch (Opladen, 1983), pp. 35-36; Peter Rütters, Chancen internationaler Gewerkschaftspolitik. Struktur und Einfluß der Internationalen Union der Lebens- und Genußmittelarbeiter-Gewerkschaften (1945-1985) (Cologne, 1989), pp. 9-13, 264; idem, Der Internationale Bergarbeiterverband 1890 bis 1993. Entwicklung und Politik (Cologne, 1995), p. 13; John P. Windmuller, "International Trade Union Organisations. Structure. Functions. Limitations", in S. Barkin et al. (eds), International Labor (New York and London, 1967), pp. 92-100; John P. Windmuller, International Trade Union Movement (Deventer, 1982), pp. 444-449; idem, International Trade Secretariats: The Industrial Trade Union Internationals (Washington, 1995), p. 45.
2. Kurt P. Tudyka, Tom Etty and Marian Sucha (eds), Macht ohne Grenzen und grenzenlose Ohnmacht. Arbeitnehmerbewußtsein und die Bedingungen gewerkschaftlicher Gegenstrategien in multinationalen Konzernen (Frankfurt a. M., 1978), pp. 154-159; Kurt P. Tudyka, "Internationale Berufssekretariate", in Siegfried Mielke (ed.), Internationales Gewerkschaftshandbuch (Opladen, 1983), pp. 35-36; Peter Rütters, Chancen internationaler Gewerkschaftspolitik. Struktur und Einfluß der Internationalen Union der Lebens- und Genußmittelarbeiter-Gewerkschaften (1945-1985) (Cologne, 1989), pp. 9-13, 264; idem, Der Internationale Bergarbeiterverband 1890 bis 1993. Entwicklung und Politik (Cologne, 1995), p. 13; John P. Windmuller, "International Trade Union Organisations. Structure. Functions. Limitations", in S. Barkin et al. (eds), International Labor (New York and London, 1967), pp. 92-100; John P. Windmuller, International Trade Union Movement (Deventer, 1982), pp. 444-449; idem, International Trade Secretariats: The Industrial Trade Union Internationals (Washington, 1995), p. 45.
3. Kurt P. Tudyka, Tom Etty and Marian Sucha (eds), Macht ohne Grenzen und grenzenlose Ohnmacht. Arbeitnehmerbewußtsein und die Bedingungen gewerkschaftlicher Gegenstrategien in multinationalen Konzernen (Frankfurt a. M., 1978), pp. 154-159; Kurt P. Tudyka, "Internationale Berufssekretariate", in Siegfried Mielke (ed.), Internationales Gewerkschaftshandbuch (Opladen, 1983), pp. 35-36; Peter Rütters, Chancen internationaler Gewerkschaftspolitik. Struktur und Einfluß der Internationalen Union der Lebens- und Genußmittelarbeiter-Gewerkschaften (1945-1985) (Cologne, 1989), pp. 9-13, 264; idem, Der Internationale Bergarbeiterverband 1890 bis 1993. Entwicklung und Politik (Cologne, 1995), p. 13; John P. Windmuller, "International Trade Union Organisations. Structure. Functions. Limitations", in S. Barkin et al. (eds), International Labor (New York and London, 1967), pp. 92-100; John P. Windmuller, International Trade Union Movement (Deventer, 1982), pp. 444-449; idem, International Trade Secretariats: The Industrial Trade Union Internationals (Washington, 1995), p. 45.
4. Kurt P. Tudyka, Tom Etty and Marian Sucha (eds), Macht ohne Grenzen und grenzenlose Ohnmacht. Arbeitnehmerbewußtsein und die Bedingungen gewerkschaftlicher Gegenstrategien in multinationalen Konzernen (Frankfurt a. M., 1978), pp. 154-159; Kurt P. Tudyka, "Internationale Berufssekretariate", in Siegfried Mielke (ed.), Internationales Gewerkschaftshandbuch (Opladen, 1983), pp. 35-36; Peter Rütters, Chancen internationaler Gewerkschaftspolitik. Struktur und Einfluß der Internationalen Union der Lebens- und Genußmittelarbeiter-Gewerkschaften (1945-1985) (Cologne, 1989), pp. 9-13, 264; idem, Der Internationale Bergarbeiterverband 1890 bis 1993. Entwicklung und Politik (Cologne, 1995), p. 13; John P. Windmuller, "International Trade Union Organisations. Structure. Functions. Limitations", in S. Barkin et al. (eds), International Labor (New York and London, 1967), pp. 92-100; John P. Windmuller, International Trade Union Movement (Deventer, 1982), pp. 444-449; idem, International Trade Secretariats: The Industrial Trade Union Internationals (Washington, 1995), p. 45.
5. Kurt P. Tudyka, Tom Etty and Marian Sucha (eds), Macht ohne Grenzen und grenzenlose Ohnmacht. Arbeitnehmerbewußtsein und die Bedingungen gewerkschaftlicher Gegenstrategien in multinationalen Konzernen (Frankfurt a. M., 1978), pp. 154-159; Kurt P. Tudyka, "Internationale Berufssekretariate", in Siegfried Mielke (ed.), Internationales Gewerkschaftshandbuch (Opladen, 1983), pp. 35-36; Peter Rütters, Chancen internationaler Gewerkschaftspolitik. Struktur und Einfluß der Internationalen Union der Lebens- und Genußmittelarbeiter-Gewerkschaften (1945-1985) (Cologne, 1989), pp. 9-13, 264; idem, Der Internationale Bergarbeiterverband 1890 bis 1993. Entwicklung und Politik (Cologne, 1995), p. 13; John P. Windmuller, "International Trade Union Organisations. Structure. Functions. Limitations", in S. Barkin et al. (eds), International Labor (New York and London, 1967), pp. 92-100; John P. Windmuller, International Trade Union Movement (Deventer, 1982), pp. 444-449; idem, International Trade Secretariats: The Industrial Trade Union Internationals (Washington, 1995), p. 45.
6. Kurt P. Tudyka, Tom Etty and Marian Sucha (eds), Macht ohne Grenzen und grenzenlose Ohnmacht. Arbeitnehmerbewußtsein und die Bedingungen gewerkschaftlicher Gegenstrategien in multinationalen Konzernen (Frankfurt a. M., 1978), pp. 154-159; Kurt P. Tudyka, "Internationale Berufssekretariate", in Siegfried Mielke (ed.), Internationales Gewerkschaftshandbuch (Opladen, 1983), pp. 35-36; Peter Rütters, Chancen internationaler Gewerkschaftspolitik. Struktur und Einfluß der Internationalen Union der Lebens- und Genußmittelarbeiter-Gewerkschaften (1945-1985) (Cologne, 1989), pp. 9-13, 264; idem, Der Internationale Bergarbeiterverband 1890 bis 1993. Entwicklung und Politik (Cologne, 1995), p. 13; John P. Windmuller, "International Trade Union Organisations. Structure. Functions. Limitations", in S. Barkin et al. (eds), International Labor (New York and London, 1967), pp. 92-100; John P. Windmuller, International Trade Union Movement (Deventer, 1982), pp. 444-449; idem, International Trade Secretariats: The Industrial Trade Union Internationals (Washington, 1995), p. 45.
7. Kurt P. Tudyka, Tom Etty and Marian Sucha (eds), Macht ohne Grenzen und grenzenlose Ohnmacht. Arbeitnehmerbewußtsein und die Bedingungen gewerkschaftlicher Gegenstrategien in multinationalen Konzernen (Frankfurt a. M., 1978), pp. 154-159; Kurt P. Tudyka, "Internationale Berufssekretariate", in Siegfried Mielke (ed.), Internationales Gewerkschaftshandbuch (Opladen, 1983), pp. 35-36; Peter Rütters, Chancen internationaler Gewerkschaftspolitik. Struktur und Einfluß der Internationalen Union der Lebens- und Genußmittelarbeiter-Gewerkschaften (1945-1985) (Cologne, 1989), pp. 9-13, 264; idem, Der Internationale Bergarbeiterverband 1890 bis 1993. Entwicklung und Politik (Cologne, 1995), p. 13; John P. Windmuller, "International Trade Union Organisations. Structure. Functions. Limitations", in S. Barkin et al. (eds), International Labor (New York and London, 1967), pp. 92-100; John P. Windmuller, International Trade Union Movement (Deventer, 1982), pp. 444-449; idem, International Trade Secretariats: The Industrial Trade Union Internationals (Washington, 1995), p. 45.
8. See Otto Keck, "Der neue Internationalismus in der Theorie der Internationalen Politik", Politische Vierteljahresschrift, 4 (1991), pp. 635-653; Beate Kohler-Koch, "Inselillusion und Interdependenz: Nationales Regieren unter den Bedingungen von 'international governance'", in Bernhard Blanke and Helmut Wollmann (eds), Die alte Bundesrepublik. Kontinuität und Wandel (= Leviathan, Sonderheft 12) (Opladen, 1991), pp. 45-67; Beate Kohler-Koch, "Zur Empirie und Theorie internationaler Regime", in idem (ed.), Regime in den internationalen Beziehungen (Baden-Baden, 1989), pp. 17-21.
9. See Otto Keck, "Der neue Internationalismus in der Theorie der Internationalen Politik", Politische Vierteljahresschrift, 4 (1991), pp. 635-653; Beate Kohler-Koch, "Inselillusion und Interdependenz: Nationales Regieren unter den Bedingungen von 'international governance'", in Bernhard Blanke and Helmut Wollmann (eds), Die alte Bundesrepublik. Kontinuität und Wandel (= Leviathan, Sonderheft 12) (Opladen, 1991), pp. 45-67; Beate Kohler-Koch, "Zur Empirie und Theorie internationaler Regime", in idem (ed.), Regime in den internationalen Beziehungen (Baden-Baden, 1989), pp. 17-21.
10. See Otto Keck, "Der neue Internationalismus in der Theorie der Internationalen Politik", Politische Vierteljahresschrift, 4 (1991), pp. 635-653; Beate Kohler-Koch, "Inselillusion und Interdependenz: Nationales Regieren unter den Bedingungen von 'international governance'", in Bernhard Blanke and Helmut Wollmann (eds), Die alte Bundesrepublik. Kontinuität und Wandel (= Leviathan, Sonderheft 12) (Opladen, 1991), pp. 45-67; Beate Kohler-Koch, "Zur Empirie und Theorie internationaler Regime", in idem (ed.), Regime in den internationalen Beziehungen (Baden-Baden, 1989), pp. 17-21.
11. Otto Jacobi, "Supranationale Arbeitsbeziehungen in Europa. Ein Literaturbericht", in Ulrich Mückenberger, Eberhardt Schmidt and Rainer Zoll (eds), Die Modernisierung der Gewerkschaften in Europa (Münster, 1996), p. 189.
12. Already suggested by Edo Fimmen, Vereinigte Staaten Europas oder Europa AG (Jena, n.d. [1925]); Wolfgang Lecher and Hans-Wolfgang Platzer (eds), Europäische Union - Europäische Arbeitsbeziehungen? Nationale Voraussetzungen und internationaler Rahmen (Cologne, 1994), pp. 28-35; Rainer Hoffmann, "Europäisierung als Modernisierung", in Mückenberger et al., Modernisierung, pp. 292-304.
13. Already suggested by Edo Fimmen, Vereinigte Staaten Europas oder Europa AG (Jena, n.d. [1925]); Wolfgang Lecher and Hans-Wolfgang Platzer (eds), Europäische Union - Europäische Arbeitsbeziehungen? Nationale Voraussetzungen und internationaler Rahmen (Cologne, 1994), pp. 28-35; Rainer Hoffmann, "Europäisierung als Modernisierung", in Mückenberger et al., Modernisierung, pp. 292-304.
14. Already suggested by Edo Fimmen, Vereinigte Staaten Europas oder Europa AG (Jena, n.d. [1925]); Wolfgang Lecher and Hans-Wolfgang Platzer (eds), Europäische Union - Europäische Arbeitsbeziehungen? Nationale Voraussetzungen und internationaler Rahmen (Cologne, 1994), pp. 28-35; Rainer Hoffmann, "Europäisierung als Modernisierung", in Mückenberger et al., Modernisierung, pp. 292-304.
15. From the viewpoint of actor theory, these are responsible for the failure to remove national defensive barrier mentalities: Ulrich Mückenberger, Cornelia Stroh and Rainer Zoll, "Die Modernisierung der Gewerkschaften in der Europäischen Union", in Mückenberger et al. Modernisierung, p. 24.
16. Such as different industrial relations, legal systems and the ways in which trade unions are tied into or excluded from the political system of the relevant nation-state.
17. Jelle Visser and Bernhard Ebbinghaus, "Barrieren und Wege 'grenzenloser Solidarität'. Gewerkschaften und Europäische Integration", in Wolfgang Streeck (ed.), Staat und Verbände (= Politische Vierteljahresschrift, Sonderheft 25) (Opladen, 1994), pp. 223-255; Klaus Armingeon, Staat und Arbeitsbeziehungen. Ein internationaler Vergleich (Opladen, 1994); Reinhard Bispink and Wolfgang Lecher (eds), Tarifpolitik und Tarifsysteme in Europa. Ein Handbuch über 14 Länder und europäische Kollektivverhandlungen (Cologne, 1993).
18. Jelle Visser and Bernhard Ebbinghaus, "Barrieren und Wege 'grenzenloser Solidarität'. Gewerkschaften und Europäische Integration", in Wolfgang Streeck (ed.), Staat und Verbände (= Politische Vierteljahresschrift, Sonderheft 25) (Opladen, 1994), pp. 223-255; Klaus Armingeon, Staat und Arbeitsbeziehungen. Ein internationaler Vergleich (Opladen, 1994); Reinhard Bispink and Wolfgang Lecher (eds), Tarifpolitik und Tarifsysteme in Europa. Ein Handbuch über 14 Länder und europäische Kollektivverhandlungen (Cologne, 1993).
19. Jelle Visser and Bernhard Ebbinghaus, "Barrieren und Wege 'grenzenloser Solidarität'. Gewerkschaften und Europäische Integration", in Wolfgang Streeck (ed.), Staat und Verbände (= Politische Vierteljahresschrift, Sonderheft 25) (Opladen, 1994), pp. 223-255; Klaus Armingeon, Staat und Arbeitsbeziehungen. Ein internationaler Vergleich (Opladen, 1994); Reinhard Bispink and Wolfgang Lecher (eds), Tarifpolitik und Tarifsysteme in Europa. Ein Handbuch über 14 Länder und europäische Kollektivverhandlungen (Cologne, 1993).
20. Windmuller, Movement, pp. 439-441; Marion F. Hellmann and Werner Olle, "Die Internationale Textil-, Bekleidungs- und Lederarbeiter Vereinigung (ITBLV) - Internationale Zusammenarbeit der Gewerkschaften unter den Bedingungen einer 'neuen Weltarbeitsteilung'", in Werner Olle (ed.), Einführung in die internationale Gewerkschaftspolitik. Vol. 1, Ansatzpunkte gewerkschaftlicher Internationalisierung (Berlin, 1978), pp. 130-150; Eckart Hildebrandt, Werner Olle and Wolfgang Schoeller, "National unterschiedliche Produktionsbedingungen als Schranke einer gewerkschaftlichen Internationalisierung", Probleme des Klassenkampfs, 24 (1976), pp. 27-57.
21. Windmuller, Movement, pp. 439-441; Marion F. Hellmann and Werner Olle, "Die Internationale Textil-, Bekleidungs- und Lederarbeiter Vereinigung (ITBLV) - Internationale Zusammenarbeit der Gewerkschaften unter den Bedingungen einer 'neuen Weltarbeitsteilung'", in Werner Olle (ed.), Einführung in die internationale Gewerkschaftspolitik. Vol. 1, Ansatzpunkte gewerkschaftlicher Internationalisierung (Berlin, 1978), pp. 130-150; Eckart Hildebrandt, Werner Olle and Wolfgang Schoeller, "National unterschiedliche Produktionsbedingungen als Schranke einer gewerkschaftlichen Internationalisierung", Probleme des Klassenkampfs, 24 (1976), pp. 27-57.
22. Windmuller, Movement, pp. 439-441; Marion F. Hellmann and Werner Olle, "Die Internationale Textil-, Bekleidungs- und Lederarbeiter Vereinigung (ITBLV) - Internationale Zusammenarbeit der Gewerkschaften unter den Bedingungen einer 'neuen Weltarbeitsteilung'", in Werner Olle (ed.), Einführung in die internationale Gewerkschaftspolitik. Vol. 1, Ansatzpunkte gewerkschaftlicher Internationalisierung (Berlin, 1978), pp. 130-150; Eckart Hildebrandt, Werner Olle and Wolfgang Schoeller, "National unterschiedliche Produktionsbedingungen als Schranke einer gewerkschaftlichen Internationalisierung", Probleme des Klassenkampfs, 24 (1976), pp. 27-57.
23. Rütters, Bergarbeiterverband, pp. 12, 14; Visser and Ebbinghaus, "Barrieren", pp. 245, 248-249.
24. Rütters, Bergarbeiterverband, pp. 12, 14; Visser and Ebbinghaus, "Barrieren", pp. 245, 248-249.
25. Tudyka et al., Ohnmacht, pp. 11, 37.
26. Werner Reutter, "Internationale Berufssekretariate. Organisationsstrukturen und Politik gegenüber Multinationalen Konzernen", WSI-Mitteilungen, 9 (1996), p. 591.
27. Rütters, Chancen, pp. 9-11, 264-267; idem, Bergarbeiterverband, pp. 13; Reutter, "Berufssekretariate", pp. 591-592; similarly also Windmuller, Movement, pp. 444-449; idem, Secretariats, p. 45.
28. Rütters, Chancen, pp. 9-11, 264-267; idem, Bergarbeiterverband, pp. 13; Reutter, "Berufssekretariate", pp. 591-592; similarly also Windmuller, Movement, pp. 444-449; idem, Secretariats, p. 45.
29. Rütters, Chancen, pp. 9-11, 264-267; idem, Bergarbeiterverband, pp. 13; Reutter, "Berufssekretariate", pp. 591-592; similarly also Windmuller, Movement, pp. 444-449; idem, Secretariats, p. 45.
30. Rütters, Chancen, pp. 9-11, 264-267; idem, Bergarbeiterverband, pp. 13; Reutter, "Berufssekretariate", pp. 591-592; similarly also Windmuller, Movement, pp. 444-449; idem, Secretariats, p. 45.
31. Rütters, Chancen, pp. 9-11, 264-267; idem, Bergarbeiterverband, pp. 13; Reutter, "Berufssekretariate", pp. 591-592; similarly also Windmuller, Movement, pp. 444-449; idem, Secretariats, p. 45.
32. Treated in detail in Sigrid Koch-Baumgarten, Konstitutionsbedingungen und Funktionsmechanismen gewerkschaftlichen Internationalismus am Beispiel der Internationalen Transportarbeiterföderation 1896-1995 (Habilitation dissertation, FU Berlin, 1996), pp. 324-388, which primarily makes use of ITF organizational files from the ITF collection (MSS 159) of the Modern Records Centre (MRC) of the University of Warwick, UK.
33. There only exists one now dated study based on limited material: Herbert R. Northrup and Richard L. Rowan, The International Transport Workers' Federation and Flag of Convenience Shipping (Philadelphia, 1983); this met with very little response from trade union studies. One reason for the long neglect of this area in research could be the "exclusivity" of merchant shipping -practically an "exotic sector" for trade union studies. The transport industry in general has never formed the focus of trade union analyses, and general statements are usually based on models from the metal industry or other manufacturing sectors.
34. See Lewis L. Lorwin, Die Internationale der Arbeit. Geschichte und Ausblick (Berlin, 1930); Hans Gottfurcht, Die internationale Gewerkschaftsbewegung im Weltgeschehen (Cologne, 1962); Ernst Piehl, Multinationale Konzerne und internationale Gewerkschaftbewegung (Düsseldorf, 1973); Kurt P. Tudyka (ed.), Multinationale Konzerne und Gewerkschaftsstrategie (Hamburg, 1974); Lecher and Platzer, Union.
35. See Lewis L. Lorwin, Die Internationale der Arbeit. Geschichte und Ausblick (Berlin, 1930); Hans Gottfurcht, Die internationale Gewerkschaftsbewegung im Weltgeschehen (Cologne, 1962); Ernst Piehl, Multinationale Konzerne und internationale Gewerkschaftbewegung (Düsseldorf, 1973); Kurt P. Tudyka (ed.), Multinationale Konzerne und Gewerkschaftsstrategie (Hamburg, 1974); Lecher and Platzer, Union.
36. See Lewis L. Lorwin, Die Internationale der Arbeit. Geschichte und Ausblick (Berlin, 1930); Hans Gottfurcht, Die internationale Gewerkschaftsbewegung im Weltgeschehen (Cologne, 1962); Ernst Piehl, Multinationale Konzerne und internationale Gewerkschaftbewegung (Düsseldorf, 1973); Kurt P. Tudyka (ed.), Multinationale Konzerne und Gewerkschaftsstrategie (Hamburg, 1974); Lecher and Platzer, Union.
37. See Lewis L. Lorwin, Die Internationale der Arbeit. Geschichte und Ausblick (Berlin, 1930); Hans Gottfurcht, Die internationale Gewerkschaftsbewegung im Weltgeschehen (Cologne, 1962); Ernst Piehl, Multinationale Konzerne und internationale Gewerkschaftbewegung (Düsseldorf, 1973); Kurt P. Tudyka (ed.), Multinationale Konzerne und Gewerkschaftsstrategie (Hamburg, 1974); Lecher and Platzer, Union.
38. See Lewis L. Lorwin, Die Internationale der Arbeit. Geschichte und Ausblick (Berlin, 1930); Hans Gottfurcht, Die internationale Gewerkschaftsbewegung im Weltgeschehen (Cologne, 1962); Ernst Piehl, Multinationale Konzerne und internationale Gewerkschaftbewegung (Düsseldorf, 1973); Kurt P. Tudyka (ed.), Multinationale Konzerne und Gewerkschaftsstrategie (Hamburg, 1974); Lecher and Platzer, Union.
39. Keck, "Internationalismus", p. 637; Kohler-Koch, "Empirie", pp. 22-23.
40. Keck, "Internationalismus", p. 637; Kohler-Koch, "Empirie", pp. 22-23.
41. Stephen D. Krasner, "Structural Causes and Regime Consequences: Regimes as Intervening Variables", in idem (ed.), International Regimes (Ithaca, NY, and London 1983), p. 2.
42. Kohler-Koch, "Empirie", p. 20; idem, "Inselillusion", pp. 48-50.
43. Kohler-Koch, "Empirie", p. 20; idem, "Inselillusion", pp. 48-50.
44. Although widely differing national engagement reserves are laid down in national laws of the flag, varying between 25 per cent and 75 per cent for crews and usually 100 per cent for officers and captains; Marco Nuñez-Müller, Die Staatszugehörigkeit von Handelsschiffen im Völkerrecht: Voraussetzungen und Rechtsfolgen der Flaggenverleihung unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der sogenannten Billigflaggen (Berlin, 1994), p. 137; Boleslaw A. Boszek, Flags of Convenience. An International Legal Study (Cambridge, MA, 1962), pp. 30-31; Heinrich Schulte, Die "billigen Flaggen" im Völkerrecht. Zur Frage des "genuine link" (Frankfurt a.M. and Berlin, 1962), pp. 68-69, 115; Nikolaos Skourtos, Billig-Flaggen-Praxis und staatliche Verleihungsfreiheit (Cologne [etc.], 1990), pp. 16-17, 60-62, 79.
45. Although widely differing national engagement reserves are laid down in national laws of the flag, varying between 25 per cent and 75 per cent for crews and usually 100 per cent for officers and captains; Marco Nuñez-Müller, Die Staatszugehörigkeit von Handelsschiffen im Völkerrecht: Voraussetzungen und Rechtsfolgen der Flaggenverleihung unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der sogenannten Billigflaggen (Berlin, 1994), p. 137; Boleslaw A. Boszek, Flags of Convenience. An International Legal Study (Cambridge, MA, 1962), pp. 30-31; Heinrich Schulte, Die "billigen Flaggen" im Völkerrecht. Zur Frage des "genuine link" (Frankfurt a.M. and Berlin, 1962), pp. 68-69, 115; Nikolaos Skourtos, Billig-Flaggen-Praxis und staatliche Verleihungsfreiheit (Cologne [etc.], 1990), pp. 16-17, 60-62, 79.
46. Although widely differing national engagement reserves are laid down in national laws of the flag, varying between 25 per cent and 75 per cent for crews and usually 100 per cent for officers and captains; Marco Nuñez-Müller, Die Staatszugehörigkeit von Handelsschiffen im Völkerrecht: Voraussetzungen und Rechtsfolgen der Flaggenverleihung unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der sogenannten Billigflaggen (Berlin, 1994), p. 137; Boleslaw A. Boszek, Flags of Convenience. An International Legal Study (Cambridge, MA, 1962), pp. 30-31; Heinrich Schulte, Die "billigen Flaggen" im Völkerrecht. Zur Frage des "genuine link" (Frankfurt a.M. and Berlin, 1962), pp. 68-69, 115; Nikolaos Skourtos, Billig-Flaggen-Praxis und staatliche Verleihungsfreiheit (Cologne [etc.], 1990), pp. 16-17, 60-62, 79.
47. Although widely differing national engagement reserves are laid down in national laws of the flag, varying between 25 per cent and 75 per cent for crews and usually 100 per cent for officers and captains; Marco Nuñez-Müller, Die Staatszugehörigkeit von Handelsschiffen im Völkerrecht: Voraussetzungen und Rechtsfolgen der Flaggenverleihung unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der sogenannten Billigflaggen (Berlin, 1994), p. 137; Boleslaw A. Boszek, Flags of Convenience. An International Legal Study (Cambridge, MA, 1962), pp. 30-31; Heinrich Schulte, Die "billigen Flaggen" im Völkerrecht. Zur Frage des "genuine link" (Frankfurt a.M. and Berlin, 1962), pp. 68-69, 115; Nikolaos Skourtos, Billig-Flaggen-Praxis und staatliche Verleihungsfreiheit (Cologne [etc.], 1990), pp. 16-17, 60-62, 79.
48. For instance, in the three most important FOC countries Liberia, Panama and Cyprus in the early 1980s, 99.8 per cent, 87.6 per cent and 90 per cent respectively of the ships sailing under their national flags were owned by international capital: Table II in ITF, European Merchant Shipping. Towards a Common Maritime Transport Policy (London, 1985), p. 13.
49. This is what made the proposition attractive to the providing states (and in some cases still does today); by creating shipping registries they can open up a source of revenue without any great advance investment. In the final analysis they are practising a "commercial exploitation" of state sovereignty: Skourtos, Billig-Flaggen-Praxis, pp. II, 182-183; P. Biebig, W. Althof and N. Wegener, Seeverkehrswirtschaft (Munich and Vienna, 1994), p. 39; Martin Stopford, Maritime Economics (London, 1988), p. 160.
50. This is what made the proposition attractive to the providing states (and in some cases still does today); by creating shipping registries they can open up a source of revenue without any great advance investment. In the final analysis they are practising a "commercial exploitation" of state sovereignty: Skourtos, Billig-Flaggen-Praxis, pp. II, 182-183; P. Biebig, W. Althof and N. Wegener, Seeverkehrswirtschaft (Munich and Vienna, 1994), p. 39; Martin Stopford, Maritime Economics (London, 1988), p. 160.
51. This is what made the proposition attractive to the providing states (and in some cases still does today); by creating shipping registries they can open up a source of revenue without any great advance investment. In the final analysis they are practising a "commercial exploitation" of state sovereignty: Skourtos, Billig-Flaggen-Praxis, pp. II, 182-183; P. Biebig, W. Althof and N. Wegener, Seeverkehrswirtschaft (Munich and Vienna, 1994), p. 39; Martin Stopford, Maritime Economics (London, 1988), p. 160.
52. Biebig et al., Seeverkehrswirtschaft, pp. 40, 121.
53. Friedrich Leffler, Das Heuerverhältnis auf ausgeflaggten deutschen Schiffen (Berlin, 1977).
54. See also the recent survey of FOC definitions in Nuñez-Müller, Staatsangehörigkeit, pp. 48-49; also Basil N. Metaxas, Flags of Convenience - A Study of Internationalism (Aldershot, 1985).
55. See also the recent survey of FOC definitions in Nuñez-Müller, Staatsangehörigkeit, pp. 48-49; also Basil N. Metaxas, Flags of Convenience - A Study of Internationalism (Aldershot, 1985).
56. For example, in the 1950s monthly wage costs for the same size of ship varied from $29,400 in the United States to $10,300 in the Nordic countries and $5,500/6,400 in the United Kingdom, despite the considerably lower crew numbers (48 against 80) on US ships: Alan W. Cafruny, Ruling the Waves. The Political Economy of International Shipping (Berkeley, Los Angeles and London, 1987), p. 94. In the 1980s the costs for an Asian crew were less than 30 per cent of those for a US crew: Chung H. Lee and Seij Naya, Trade and Investment in Services in the Asia-Pacific Region (Inha University, Korea, 1988), p. 109. On German ships, FOC registration cut costs by between one-third and one-half: Jürgen Basedow, "Billigflaggen, Zweitregister, Kollisionsrecht in der deutschen Schiffahrtspolitik", in Ulrich Drobnig, Jürgen Basedow and Rüdiger Wolfrum, Recht der Flaggen und "Billige Flaggen". Neuere Entwicklungen im Internationalen Privatrecht und Völkerrecht (Heidelberg, 1990), pp. 79-80.
57. For example, in the 1950s monthly wage costs for the same size of ship varied from $29,400 in the United States to $10,300 in the Nordic countries and $5,500/6,400 in the United Kingdom, despite the considerably lower crew numbers (48 against 80) on US ships: Alan W. Cafruny, Ruling the Waves. The Political Economy of International Shipping (Berkeley, Los Angeles and London, 1987), p. 94. In the 1980s the costs for an Asian crew were less than 30 per cent of those for a US crew: Chung H. Lee and Seij Naya, Trade and Investment in Services in the Asia-Pacific Region (Inha University, Korea, 1988), p. 109. On German ships, FOC registration cut costs by between one-third and one-half: Jürgen Basedow, "Billigflaggen, Zweitregister, Kollisionsrecht in der deutschen Schiffahrtspolitik", in Ulrich Drobnig, Jürgen Basedow and Rüdiger Wolfrum, Recht der Flaggen und "Billige Flaggen". Neuere Entwicklungen im Internationalen Privatrecht und Völkerrecht (Heidelberg, 1990), pp. 79-80.
58. For example, in the 1950s monthly wage costs for the same size of ship varied from $29,400 in the United States to $10,300 in the Nordic countries and $5,500/6,400 in the United Kingdom, despite the considerably lower crew numbers (48 against 80) on US ships: Alan W. Cafruny, Ruling the Waves. The Political Economy of International Shipping (Berkeley, Los Angeles and London, 1987), p. 94. In the 1980s the costs for an Asian crew were less than 30 per cent of those for a US crew: Chung H. Lee and Seij Naya, Trade and Investment in Services in the Asia-Pacific Region (Inha University, Korea, 1988), p. 109. On German ships, FOC registration cut costs by between one-third and one-half: Jürgen Basedow, "Billigflaggen, Zweitregister, Kollisionsrecht in der deutschen Schiffahrtspolitik", in Ulrich Drobnig, Jürgen Basedow and Rüdiger Wolfrum, Recht der Flaggen und "Billige Flaggen". Neuere Entwicklungen im Internationalen Privatrecht und Völkerrecht (Heidelberg, 1990), pp. 79-80.
59. Cafruny, Ruling the Waves, pp. 92, 94, 106; Skourtos, Billig-Flaggen-Praxis, p. 6; Ulrich Drobnig, "Billige Flaggen im Internationalen Privatrecht", in Drobnig et al., Recht der Flagge, p. 33; Metaxas, Study, pp. 10, 41-42. Nevertheless flags of convenience are not a synonym for extremely substandard ships, as is suggested by the trade union side. Only a part of FOC shipping consists of "floating coffins" operated by "hyenas of the sea" (Internationale Transportarbeiterzeitung (ITZ), 7/8-1950, p. 4; ITF-Journal, 1/2-1949, pp. 1-3), i.e. obsolete or even scarcely seaworthy ships with appalling crew accommodation and safety provision and extremely poor pay and working conditions. In part they are "highly professional and enforce international conventions on safety": Stopford, Economics, pp. 160, 161. Legal standards and legal reality are poor only by comparison with the advanced industrial countries, but not when compared with the national registries of other developing countries or the former COMECON states: Metaxas, Study, pp. 40-45; Boszek, Flags, pp. 67-68.
60. Cafruny, Ruling the Waves, pp. 92, 94, 106; Skourtos, Billig-Flaggen-Praxis, p. 6; Ulrich Drobnig, "Billige Flaggen im Internationalen Privatrecht", in Drobnig et al., Recht der Flagge, p. 33; Metaxas, Study, pp. 10, 41-42. Nevertheless flags of convenience are not a synonym for extremely substandard ships, as is suggested by the trade union side. Only a part of FOC shipping consists of "floating coffins" operated by "hyenas of the sea" (Internationale Transportarbeiterzeitung (ITZ), 7/8-1950, p. 4; ITF-Journal, 1/2-1949, pp. 1-3), i.e. obsolete or even scarcely seaworthy ships with appalling crew accommodation and safety provision and extremely poor pay and working conditions. In part they are "highly professional and enforce international conventions on safety": Stopford, Economics, pp. 160, 161. Legal standards and legal reality are poor only by comparison with the advanced industrial countries, but not when compared with the national registries of other developing countries or the former COMECON states: Metaxas, Study, pp. 40-45; Boszek, Flags, pp. 67-68.
61. Cafruny, Ruling the Waves, pp. 92, 94, 106; Skourtos, Billig-Flaggen-Praxis, p. 6; Ulrich Drobnig, "Billige Flaggen im Internationalen Privatrecht", in Drobnig et al., Recht der Flagge, p. 33; Metaxas, Study, pp. 10, 41-42. Nevertheless flags of convenience are not a synonym for extremely substandard ships, as is suggested by the trade union side. Only a part of FOC shipping consists of "floating coffins" operated by "hyenas of the sea" (Internationale Transportarbeiterzeitung (ITZ), 7/8-1950, p. 4; ITF-Journal, 1/2-1949, pp. 1-3), i.e. obsolete or even scarcely seaworthy ships with appalling crew accommodation and safety provision and extremely poor pay and working conditions. In part they are "highly professional and enforce international conventions on safety": Stopford, Economics, pp. 160, 161. Legal standards and legal reality are poor only by comparison with the advanced industrial countries, but not when compared with the national registries of other developing countries or the former COMECON states: Metaxas, Study, pp. 40-45; Boszek, Flags, pp. 67-68.
62. Cafruny, Ruling the Waves, pp. 92, 94, 106; Skourtos, Billig-Flaggen-Praxis, p. 6; Ulrich Drobnig, "Billige Flaggen im Internationalen Privatrecht", in Drobnig et al., Recht der Flagge, p. 33; Metaxas, Study, pp. 10, 41-42. Nevertheless flags of convenience are not a synonym for extremely substandard ships, as is suggested by the trade union side. Only a part of FOC shipping consists of "floating coffins" operated by "hyenas of the sea" (Internationale Transportarbeiterzeitung (ITZ), 7/8-1950, p. 4; ITF-Journal, 1/2-1949, pp. 1-3), i.e. obsolete or even scarcely seaworthy ships with appalling crew accommodation and safety provision and extremely poor pay and working conditions. In part they are "highly professional and enforce international conventions on safety": Stopford, Economics, pp. 160, 161. Legal standards and legal reality are poor only by comparison with the advanced industrial countries, but not when compared with the national registries of other developing countries or the former COMECON states: Metaxas, Study, pp. 40-45; Boszek, Flags, pp. 67-68.
63. Cafruny, Ruling the Waves, pp. 92, 94, 106; Skourtos, Billig-Flaggen-Praxis, p. 6; Ulrich Drobnig, "Billige Flaggen im Internationalen Privatrecht", in Drobnig et al., Recht der Flagge, p. 33; Metaxas, Study, pp. 10, 41-42. Nevertheless flags of convenience are not a synonym for extremely substandard ships, as is suggested by the trade union side. Only a part of FOC shipping consists of "floating coffins" operated by "hyenas of the sea" (Internationale Transportarbeiterzeitung (ITZ), 7/8-1950, p. 4; ITF-Journal, 1/2-1949, pp. 1-3), i.e. obsolete or even scarcely seaworthy ships with appalling crew accommodation and safety provision and extremely poor pay and working conditions. In part they are "highly professional and enforce international conventions on safety": Stopford, Economics, pp. 160, 161. Legal standards and legal reality are poor only by comparison with the advanced industrial countries, but not when compared with the national registries of other developing countries or the former COMECON states: Metaxas, Study, pp. 40-45; Boszek, Flags, pp. 67-68.
64. Cafruny, Ruling the Waves, pp. 92, 94, 106; Skourtos, Billig-Flaggen-Praxis, p. 6; Ulrich Drobnig, "Billige Flaggen im Internationalen Privatrecht", in Drobnig et al., Recht der Flagge, p. 33; Metaxas, Study, pp. 10, 41-42. Nevertheless flags of convenience are not a synonym for extremely substandard ships, as is suggested by the trade union side. Only a part of FOC shipping consists of "floating coffins" operated by "hyenas of the sea" (Internationale Transportarbeiterzeitung (ITZ), 7/8-1950, p. 4; ITF-Journal, 1/2-1949, pp. 1-3), i.e. obsolete or even scarcely seaworthy ships with appalling crew accommodation and safety provision and extremely poor pay and working conditions. In part they are "highly professional and enforce international conventions on safety": Stopford, Economics, pp. 160, 161. Legal standards and legal reality are poor only by comparison with the advanced industrial countries, but not when compared with the national registries of other developing countries or the former COMECON states: Metaxas, Study, pp. 40-45; Boszek, Flags, pp. 67-68.
65. Cafruny, Ruling the Waves, pp. 92, 94, 106; Skourtos, Billig-Flaggen-Praxis, p. 6; Ulrich Drobnig, "Billige Flaggen im Internationalen Privatrecht", in Drobnig et al., Recht der Flagge, p. 33; Metaxas, Study, pp. 10, 41-42. Nevertheless flags of convenience are not a synonym for extremely substandard ships, as is suggested by the trade union side. Only a part of FOC shipping consists of "floating coffins" operated by "hyenas of the sea" (Internationale Transportarbeiterzeitung (ITZ), 7/8-1950, p. 4; ITF-Journal, 1/2-1949, pp. 1-3), i.e. obsolete or even scarcely seaworthy ships with appalling crew accommodation and safety provision and extremely poor pay and working conditions. In part they are "highly professional and enforce international conventions on safety": Stopford, Economics, pp. 160, 161. Legal standards and legal reality are poor only by comparison with the advanced industrial countries, but not when compared with the national registries of other developing countries or the former COMECON states: Metaxas, Study, pp. 40-45; Boszek, Flags, pp. 67-68.
66. Cafruny, Ruling the Waves, pp. 92, 94, 106; Skourtos, Billig-Flaggen-Praxis, p. 6; Ulrich Drobnig, "Billige Flaggen im Internationalen Privatrecht", in Drobnig et al., Recht der Flagge, p. 33; Metaxas, Study, pp. 10, 41-42. Nevertheless flags of convenience are not a synonym for extremely substandard ships, as is suggested by the trade union side. Only a part of FOC shipping consists of "floating coffins" operated by "hyenas of the sea" (Internationale Transportarbeiterzeitung (ITZ), 7/8-1950, p. 4; ITF-Journal, 1/2-1949, pp. 1-3), i.e. obsolete or even scarcely seaworthy ships with appalling crew accommodation and safety provision and extremely poor pay and working conditions. In part they are "highly professional and enforce international conventions on safety": Stopford, Economics, pp. 160, 161. Legal standards and legal reality are poor only by comparison with the advanced industrial countries, but not when compared with the national registries of other developing countries or the former COMECON states: Metaxas, Study, pp. 40-45; Boszek, Flags, pp. 67-68.
67. Cafruny, Ruling the Waves, pp. 92, 94, 106; Skourtos, Billig-Flaggen-Praxis, p. 6; Ulrich Drobnig, "Billige Flaggen im Internationalen Privatrecht", in Drobnig et al., Recht der Flagge, p. 33; Metaxas, Study, pp. 10, 41-42. Nevertheless flags of convenience are not a synonym for extremely substandard ships, as is suggested by the trade union side. Only a part of FOC shipping consists of "floating coffins" operated by "hyenas of the sea" (Internationale Transportarbeiterzeitung (ITZ), 7/8-1950, p. 4; ITF-Journal, 1/2-1949, pp. 1-3), i.e. obsolete or even scarcely seaworthy ships with appalling crew accommodation and safety provision and extremely poor pay and working conditions. In part they are "highly professional and enforce international conventions on safety": Stopford, Economics, pp. 160, 161. Legal standards and legal reality are poor only by comparison with the advanced industrial countries, but not when compared with the national registries of other developing countries or the former COMECON states: Metaxas, Study, pp. 40-45; Boszek, Flags, pp. 67-68.
68. N. Ademuni-Odeke, Protectionism and the Future of International Shipping. The Nature, Development and Role of Flag Discriminations and Preferences, Cargo Reservations and Cabotage Restrictions (Dordrecht, Boston and Lancaster, 1984), p. 10.
69. Stopford, Economics, pp. 158-160; Boszek, Flags, pp. 10-12; 26-30.
70. Stopford, Economics, pp. 158-160; Boszek, Flags, pp. 10-12; 26-30.
71. Cafruny, Ruling the Waves, pp. 89-90, 113, 267.
72. ITF, Seafarers' Bulletin, 1992, p. 47; ITF-news, 2/1988, p. 9.
73. ITF, Seafarers' Bulletin, 1992, p. 47; ITF-news, 2/1988, p. 9.
74. Drobnig, "Privatrecht", p. 34.
75. Biebig et al., Seeverkehrswirtschaft, p. 38; Metaxas, Study, p. 18.
76. Biebig et al., Seeverkehrswirtschaft, p. 38; Metaxas, Study, p. 18.
77. ITF, Seeleute-Bulletin, 1993, p. 4; ITF-news, 4/1997, p. 13.
78. ITF, Seeleute-Bulletin, 1993, p. 4; ITF-news, 4/1997, p. 13.
79. Such as strikes in France and complaints to the constitutional court in Germany: Drobnig, "Privatrecht", pp. 37, 58-62; ITF-news, 6/1986, p. 16, 4/1990, p. 12; ITF, Seeleute-Bulletin, 1991, p. 21; Wolfgang Däubler, Das Zweite Schiffsregister. Völkerrechtliche und verfassungsrechtliche Probleme einer deutschen 'Billig-Flagge' (Baden-Baden, 1988), pp. 9-11.
80. Such as strikes in France and complaints to the constitutional court in Germany: Drobnig, "Privatrecht", pp. 37, 58-62; ITF-news, 6/1986, p. 16, 4/1990, p. 12; ITF, Seeleute-Bulletin, 1991, p. 21; Wolfgang Däubler, Das Zweite Schiffsregister. Völkerrechtliche und verfassungsrechtliche Probleme einer deutschen 'Billig-Flagge' (Baden-Baden, 1988), pp. 9-11.
81. Such as strikes in France and complaints to the constitutional court in Germany: Drobnig, "Privatrecht", pp. 37, 58-62; ITF-news, 6/1986, p. 16, 4/1990, p. 12; ITF, Seeleute-Bulletin, 1991, p. 21; Wolfgang Däubler, Das Zweite Schiffsregister. Völkerrechtliche und verfassungsrechtliche Probleme einer deutschen 'Billig-Flagge' (Baden-Baden, 1988), pp. 9-11.
82. Such as strikes in France and complaints to the constitutional court in Germany: Drobnig, "Privatrecht", pp. 37, 58-62; ITF-news, 6/1986, p. 16, 4/1990, p. 12; ITF, Seeleute-Bulletin, 1991, p. 21; Wolfgang Däubler, Das Zweite Schiffsregister. Völkerrechtliche und verfassungsrechtliche Probleme einer deutschen 'Billig-Flagge' (Baden-Baden, 1988), pp. 9-11.
83. Such as strikes in France and complaints to the constitutional court in Germany: Drobnig, "Privatrecht", pp. 37, 58-62; ITF-news, 6/1986, p. 16, 4/1990, p. 12; ITF, Seeleute-Bulletin, 1991, p. 21; Wolfgang Däubler, Das Zweite Schiffsregister. Völkerrechtliche und verfassungsrechtliche Probleme einer deutschen 'Billig-Flagge' (Baden-Baden, 1988), pp. 9-11.
84. Cafruny, Ruling the Waves, pp. 94, 106.
85. ITF, Seeleute-Bulletin, 1986, p. 3.
86. Ibid., 1991, p. 12.
87. Basedow, "Billigflaggen", p. 110.
88. Discussed in detail in Koch-Baumgarten, Konstitutionsbedingungen, pp. 299-302, 362.
89. Cafruny, Ruling the Waves, pp. 108-109, 267.
90. ITF-news, 5/1994, p. 21; ITF, Merchant Shipping; Berthold Busch, Die Verkehrspolitik der EG unter dem Einfluß der Binnenmarktvollendung (Cologne, 1991), pp. 21-22.
91. ITF-news, 5/1994, p. 21; ITF, Merchant Shipping; Berthold Busch, Die Verkehrspolitik der EG unter dem Einfluß der Binnenmarktvollendung (Cologne, 1991), pp. 21-22.
92. ITF-news, 5/1994, p. 21; ITF, Merchant Shipping; Berthold Busch, Die Verkehrspolitik der EG unter dem Einfluß der Binnenmarktvollendung (Cologne, 1991), pp. 21-22.
93. On corresponding problems with the application of national legal systems in adjudication and international law, see Leffer, Heuerverhältnis, pp. 11, 81, 89-90; Däubler, Zweite Schiffsregister, pp. 22, 25; Rolf Birk, Die Rechtmäßigkeit des Streiks auf ausländischen Schiffen in deutschen Häfen (London, 1982), pp. 34-36; Basedow, "Billigflaggen", pp. 81-83.
94. On corresponding problems with the application of national legal systems in adjudication and international law, see Leffer, Heuerverhältnis, pp. 11, 81, 89-90; Däubler, Zweite Schiffsregister, pp. 22, 25; Rolf Birk, Die Rechtmäßigkeit des Streiks auf ausländischen Schiffen in deutschen Häfen (London, 1982), pp. 34-36; Basedow, "Billigflaggen", pp. 81-83.
95. On corresponding problems with the application of national legal systems in adjudication and international law, see Leffer, Heuerverhältnis, pp. 11, 81, 89-90; Däubler, Zweite Schiffsregister, pp. 22, 25; Rolf Birk, Die Rechtmäßigkeit des Streiks auf ausländischen Schiffen in deutschen Häfen (London, 1982), pp. 34-36; Basedow, "Billigflaggen", pp. 81-83.
96. On corresponding problems with the application of national legal systems in adjudication and international law, see Leffer, Heuerverhältnis, pp. 11, 81, 89-90; Däubler, Zweite Schiffsregister, pp. 22, 25; Rolf Birk, Die Rechtmäßigkeit des Streiks auf ausländischen Schiffen in deutschen Häfen (London, 1982), pp. 34-36; Basedow, "Billigflaggen", pp. 81-83.
97. ITF, Asian Seafarers' Conference, Hong Kong, 6-8 March 1980, Report, p. 2 (Doc. 8o/S2/Rpt); speech by C.V. Devan Nair, General Secretary of the Singapore Trade Union Congress at international seafarers' conference of the Asian ITF member associations on 28/29 April 1979 in Singapore, excerpts printed in ITF Circular 61/S11/D3 of 24 May 1979, both in MRC 159/nn.
98. ITF, Asian Seafarers' Conference, Hong Kong, 6-8 March 1980, Report, p. 2 (Doc. 8o/S2/Rpt); speech by C.V. Devan Nair, General Secretary of the Singapore Trade Union Congress at international seafarers' conference of the Asian ITF member associations on 28/29 April 1979 in Singapore, excerpts printed in ITF Circular 61/S11/D3 of 24 May 1979, both in MRC 159/nn.
99. For Germany, Däubler, Zweite Schiffsregister, p. 14; Basedow, "Billigflaggen", pp. 98-100; Drobnig, "Privatrecht", pp. 64-66.
100. For Germany, Däubler, Zweite Schiffsregister, p. 14; Basedow, "Billigflaggen", pp. 98-100; Drobnig, "Privatrecht", pp. 64-66.
101. For Germany, Däubler, Zweite Schiffsregister, p. 14; Basedow, "Billigflaggen", pp. 98-100; Drobnig, "Privatrecht", pp. 64-66.
102. Alongside ideologically differentiated trade union umbrella organizations, such as the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions (ICFTU), the second column of international trade union organizations is formed by International Trade Associations, including the ITSs which are loosely associated with the ICFTU. In 1993-1994 there were 15 ITSs with more than 100 million members.
103. For decades, the US unions in particular played a special extra-constitutional role within the organization which effectively included a right of veto. Aside from a brief intermezzo before 1914, US unions did not join the ITF until 1942 (Seamen's International Union) and in the post-war years (Railway Labor Executive Association, National Maritime Union). From 1950-1976 they were constantly the national group with the highest membership and operated more or less as the trade union hegemonial power of the West. FOC policies apart, they were not interested in international cooperation in pursuit of industrial interests. They primarily pursued a political international unionism, focusing on anti-communist containment policy in areas of trade union activity in the conflict between the systems. On the foreign policy of the US trade unions, see Gary K. Busch, The Political Role of International Trade Unions (London, 1983); Philip Taft, Gewerkschaftliche Außenpolitik. Das Beispiel der amerikanischen Gewerkschaften (Cologne, 1975); Horst Lademacher (ed.), Die Gewerkschaften im Ost-West-Konflikt. Die Politik der AFL im Europa der Nachkriegszeit (Melsungen, 1982).
104. For decades, the US unions in particular played a special extra-constitutional role within the organization which effectively included a right of veto. Aside from a brief intermezzo before 1914, US unions did not join the ITF until 1942 (Seamen's International Union) and in the post-war years (Railway Labor Executive Association, National Maritime Union). From 1950-1976 they were constantly the national group with the highest membership and operated more or less as the trade union hegemonial power of the West. FOC policies apart, they were not interested in international cooperation in pursuit of industrial interests. They primarily pursued a political international unionism, focusing on anti-communist containment policy in areas of trade union activity in the conflict between the systems. On the foreign policy of the US trade unions, see Gary K. Busch, The Political Role of International Trade Unions (London, 1983); Philip Taft, Gewerkschaftliche Außenpolitik. Das Beispiel der amerikanischen Gewerkschaften (Cologne, 1975); Horst Lademacher (ed.), Die Gewerkschaften im Ost-West-Konflikt. Die Politik der AFL im Europa der Nachkriegszeit (Melsungen, 1982).
105. For decades, the US unions in particular played a special extra-constitutional role within the organization which effectively included a right of veto. Aside from a brief intermezzo before 1914, US unions did not join the ITF until 1942 (Seamen's International Union) and in the post-war years (Railway Labor Executive Association, National Maritime Union). From 1950-1976 they were constantly the national group with the highest membership and operated more or less as the trade union hegemonial power of the West. FOC policies apart, they were not interested in international cooperation in pursuit of industrial interests. They primarily pursued a political international unionism, focusing on anti-communist containment policy in areas of trade union activity in the conflict between the systems. On the foreign policy of the US trade unions, see Gary K. Busch, The Political Role of International Trade Unions (London, 1983); Philip Taft, Gewerkschaftliche Außenpolitik. Das Beispiel der amerikanischen Gewerkschaften (Cologne, 1975); Horst Lademacher (ed.), Die Gewerkschaften im Ost-West-Konflikt. Die Politik der AFL im Europa der Nachkriegszeit (Melsungen, 1982).
106. For instance, until 1990 the allocation of mandates and voting rights to member unions was linked not to their membership numbers but to the amounts they paid in contributions; this effectively created a two-class membership which proved a barrier to the representation and participation of poorer unions from the developing and emerging countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America: Konstitutionsbedingungen, pp. 267-268. The brief presentation of the ITF in the present study is based on the detailed organizational analysis given there on pp. 243-293.
107. In 1949 the fleet of Panama, the largest flag of convenience in the 1940s, consisted of 306 US ships and 90 British, 20 Greek and 16 Norwegian ships: Boszek, Flags, pp. 12, 66. According to ITF sources, 11 Norwegian and 18 Swedish ships were under foreign flags: ITF, International Seafarers' Conference, Geneva, 23-24 November 1948, Secretary's Report (Doc. 1 SC-2a), in MRC 159/1/5/18.
108. In 1949 the fleet of Panama, the largest flag of convenience in the 1940s, consisted of 306 US ships and 90 British, 20 Greek and 16 Norwegian ships: Boszek, Flags, pp. 12, 66. According to ITF sources, 11 Norwegian and 18 Swedish ships were under foreign flags: ITF, International Seafarers' Conference, Geneva, 23-24 November 1948, Secretary's Report (Doc. 1 SC-2a), in MRC 159/1/5/18.
109. ITF, Protokoll Kongreß Oslo 1948, p. 259.
110. ITF, Minutes of the International Seafarers' Conference, London, 28-30 October 1946, p. 33, and Geneva, 23-24 November 1948, p. 5, in MRC 159/1/5/16(2) and 159/1/5/29. Also see ITF, transfers to Panama Registry, Circular to affiliated Seafarers' Unions, Oldenbroek, 21 April 1947, in MRC 159/3/D/257; SIU statement in opposition to the continued transfer of American-built flag vessels to Panamanian and Honduran Registry, Lundebergh, 3 January 1950, in MRC 159/1/5/B/15/2.
111. ITF, Minutes of the International Seafarers' Conference, London, 28-30 October 1946, p. 33, and Geneva, 23-24 November 1948, p. 5, in MRC 159/1/5/16(2) and 159/1/5/29. Also see ITF, transfers to Panama Registry, Circular to affiliated Seafarers' Unions, Oldenbroek, 21 April 1947, in MRC 159/3/D/257; SIU statement in opposition to the continued transfer of American-built flag vessels to Panamanian and Honduran Registry, Lundebergh, 3 January 1950, in MRC 159/1/5/B/15/2.
112. Boszek, Flags, p. 24. The flag transfer from high-standard countries to other national registries is a traditional form of change of flag which is still common today and exists independently of the FOC phenomenon. For instance, US ships currently sail under 36 different flags, Greek and Japanese ships under 23: Biebig et al., Seeverkehrswirtschaft, p. 39. On the British attitude, see ITF, Management Committee, Minutes of Meeting, 12-13 April 1949, p. 3, in MRC 159/1/4/56, and ITF, International Seafarers' Conference, Geneva, 23-24 November 1948 (Doc. 1 SC-2e), in MRC 159/1/5/18.
113. Boszek, Flags, p. 24. The flag transfer from high-standard countries to other national registries is a traditional form of change of flag which is still common today and exists independently of the FOC phenomenon. For instance, US ships currently sail under 36 different flags, Greek and Japanese ships under 23: Biebig et al., Seeverkehrswirtschaft, p. 39. On the British attitude, see
114. Boszek, Flags, p. 24. The flag transfer from high-standard countries to other national registries is a traditional form of change of flag which is still common today and exists independently of the FOC phenomenon. For instance, US ships currently sail under 36 different flags, Greek and Japanese ships under 23: Biebig et al., Seeverkehrswirtschaft, p. 39. On the British attitude, see ITF, Management Committee, Minutes of Meeting, 12-13 April 1949, p. 3, in MRC 159/1/4/56, and ITF, International Seafarers' Conference, Geneva, 23-24 November 1948 (Doc. 1 SC-2e), in MRC 159/1/5/18.
115. Boszek, Flags, p. 24. The flag transfer from high-standard countries to other national registries is a traditional form of change of flag which is still common today and exists independently of the FOC phenomenon. For instance, US ships currently sail under 36 different flags, Greek and Japanese ships under 23: Biebig et al., Seeverkehrswirtschaft, p. 39. On the British attitude, see ITF, Management Committee, Minutes of Meeting, 12-13 April 1949, p. 3, in MRC 159/1/4/56, and ITF, International Seafarers' Conference, Geneva, 23-24 November 1948 (Doc. 1 SC-2e), in MRC 159/1/5/18.
116. ITF, Flags of Convenience - The ITF's Campaign (London, n.d. [1993]), pp. 39-40 (hereafter ITF, FOC); Northrup and Rowan, ITF, pp. 32-33; Bob Reinalda (ed.), The International Transport Workers' Federation (ITF) 1914-1945. The Edo Fimmens Era (Amsterdam, 1997), pp. 138-140.
117. ITF, Flags of Convenience - The ITF's Campaign (London, n.d. [1993]), pp. 39-40 (hereafter ITF, FOC); Northrup and Rowan, ITF, pp. 32-33; Bob Reinalda (ed.), The International Transport Workers' Federation (ITF) 1914-1945. The Edo Fimmens Era (Amsterdam, 1997), pp. 138-140.
118. ITF, Flags of Convenience - The ITF's Campaign (London, n.d. [1993]), pp. 39-40 (hereafter ITF, FOC); Northrup and Rowan, ITF, pp. 32-33; Bob Reinalda (ed.), The International Transport Workers' Federation (ITF) 1914-1945. The Edo Fimmens Era (Amsterdam, 1997), pp. 138-140.
119. ITF, Protokoll Weltkongreß Oslo 1948, pp. 250, 259-260; ITF, International Seafarers' Conference, Geneva, 23-24 November 1948, Issue of Panamanian Registry (Doc. 1 SC-2), pp. 6, 8, in MRC 159/1/5/29, and ITF, Joint Conference of Dock Workers and Seafarers, London, 15-17 February 1949; Die Frage unlauteren Flaggenwechsels, Der Osloer Beschluß (Doc. 1 DS-1), in MRC 159/1/5/F/3.
120. ITF, Protokoll Weltkongreß Oslo 1948, pp. 250, 259-260; ITF, International Seafarers' Conference, Geneva, 23-24 November 1948, Issue of Panamanian Registry (Doc. 1 SC-2), pp. 6, 8, in MRC 159/1/5/29, and ITF, Joint Conference of Dock Workers and Seafarers, London, 15-17 February 1949; Die Frage unlauteren Flaggenwechsels, Der Osloer Beschluß (Doc. 1 DS-1), in MRC 159/1/5/F/3.
121. ITF, Protokoll Weltkongreß Oslo 1948, pp. 250, 259-260; ITF, International Seafarers' Conference, Geneva, 23-24 November 1948, Issue of Panamanian Registry (Doc. 1 SC-2), pp. 6, 8, in MRC 159/1/5/29, and ITF, Joint Conference of Dock Workers and Seafarers, London, 15-17 February 1949; Die Frage unlauteren Flaggenwechsels, Der Osloer Beschluß (Doc. 1 DS-1), in MRC 159/1/5/F/3.
122. ITF, Protokoll Weltkongreß Oslo 1948, pp. 250, 259-260; ITF, International Seafarers' Conference, Geneva, 23-24 November 1948, Issue of Panamanian Registry (Doc. 1 SC-2), pp. 6, 8, in MRC 159/1/5/29, and ITF, Joint Conference of Dock Workers and Seafarers, London, 15-17 February 1949; Die Frage unlauteren Flaggenwechsels, Der Osloer Beschluß (Doc. 1 DS-1), in MRC 159/1/5/F/3.
123. ITF, Minutes of Boycott Committee Meeting, London, 29-30 April 1949 and Rotterdam, 28 August 1949, in MRC 159/1/5/B/1.
124. ITF, Minutes of Management Committee Meeting, 12-13 April 1949, pp. 3-4, in MRC 159/1/4/56; ITF, Protokoll Exekutivkomitee, Antwerp Session, 11-12 May 1949, Flaggenwechsel (Doc. 11 EC-10), in MRC 159/1/3/62.
125. ITF, Minutes of Management Committee Meeting, 12-13 April 1949, pp. 3-4, in MRC 159/1/4/56; ITF, Protokoll Exekutivkomitee, Antwerp Session, 11-12 May 1949, Flaggenwechsel (Doc. 11 EC-10), in MRC 159/1/3/62.
126. The trade union abbreviation for the first international open registries of Panama, Liberia, Honduras and Costa Rica; ITF, Panlibhonco. The Modern Shipping Problem (London, n.d. [1957]). In detail in Koch-Baumgarten, Konstitutionsbedingungen, pp. 335-340.
127. The trade union abbreviation for the first international open registries of Panama, Liberia, Honduras and Costa Rica; ITF, Panlibhonco. The Modern Shipping Problem (London, n.d. [1957]). In detail in Koch-Baumgarten, Konstitutionsbedingungen, pp. 335-340.
128. ITF, Report on Activities 1952-53, p. 98.
129. For the Nordic countries: ITF, Report by the Secretariat on the conference of the Seafarers' Section in London, 29 June 1951, in MRC 159/1/5/B/2; ITF, Boycott Committee Meeting, 28-29 April 1952, Report of the Secretariat (Doc. BC 52-1), p. 6, in MRC 159/1/5/B/3.
130. For the Nordic countries: ITF, Report by the Secretariat on the conference of the Seafarers' Section in London, 29 June 1951, in MRC 159/1/5/B/2; ITF, Boycott Committee Meeting, 28-29 April 1952, Report of the Secretariat (Doc. BC 52-1), p. 6, in MRC 159/1/5/B/3.
131. Lundebergh (SIU), in ITF, Minutes of General Council, Copenhagen Meeting, July 1953. in MRC 159/1/2/38, and Minutes of Executive Committee, Bern, May 1950, in MRC 159/1/3/65.
132. Lundebergh (SIU), in ITF, Minutes of General Council, Copenhagen Meeting, July 1953. in MRC 159/1/2/38, and Minutes of Executive Committee, Bern, May 1950, in MRC 159/1/3/65.
133. ITF, Executive Committee, 29-30 January 1951 (Doc. 16 EC-2), in MRC 159/1/3/67; International Committee for the Promotion of Fair Practices, 3rd Meeting, London, 15-16 March 1954: Conclusion of Collective Agreements (Doc. 54/FP1/2d), in MRC 159/1/5/24.
134. ITF, Executive Committee, 29-30 January 1951 (Doc. 16 EC-2), in MRC 159/1/3/67; International Committee for the Promotion of Fair Practices, 3rd Meeting, London, 15-16 March 1954: Conclusion of Collective Agreements (Doc. 54/FP1/2d), in MRC 159/1/5/24.
135. Agreement on "Foreign employed seamen", in ITF, Report on Activities 1952-53, pp. 95-96. The following remarks on standardization of collective bargaining rights in the FOC sector are also based on this source.
136. First drafts of an international collective agreement in MRC 159/1/5/B/3.
137. ITF, Boycott Committee Meeting, 15 January 1951 in London. Explanatory Report from the Secretariat (Doc. 1-BC), in MRC 159/1/5/22; ITF, Circular 19/25 April 1950, Richtlinien für das Vorgehen gegen den Normen nicht entsprechende Schiffe, p. 4f., in MRC 159/3/D/266.
138. ITF, Boycott Committee Meeting, 15 January 1951 in London. Explanatory Report from the Secretariat (Doc. 1-BC), in MRC 159/1/5/22; ITF, Circular 19/25 April 1950, Richtlinien für das Vorgehen gegen den Normen nicht entsprechende Schiffe, p. 4f., in MRC 159/3/D/266.
139. ITF, Circulars 31/5.8.1952 and 50/S22/5.1.1956, in MRC 159/3/D/275 and 283.
140. Reutter, "Berufssekretariate", p. 590; Wolfgang Lecher, "Perspektiven europäischer Kollektivverhandlungen", in Bispink and Lecher, Tarifsysteme, p. 402.
141. Reutter, "Berufssekretariate", p. 590; Wolfgang Lecher, "Perspektiven europäischer Kollektivverhandlungen", in Bispink and Lecher, Tarifsysteme, p. 402.
142. ITF, Special Seafarers' Section Rules 1980 (Doc. EB/Jul 80/min), copy in author's possession; ITF, FOC, p. 14; materials of the ITF Boycott Committee and the Seafarers' Section 1952-1954, in MRC 159/5/B/3-5, MRC 159/1/5/24, 33. The ITF only theoretically gives this multinational membership section, unique in the ITS, organizational authority independent of the national member unions. In practice it is a dead organization section with no representational or participatory structures for its membership. The decision-making bodies of the SSS are made up of representatives of national seafarers' unions. Detailed treatment in Koch-Baumgarten, Konstitutionsbedingungen, pp. 260-62, 277-278; Northrup and Rowan, ITF, pp. 124-132.
143. ITF, Special Seafarers' Section Rules 1980 (Doc. EB/Jul 80/min), copy in author's possession; ITF, FOC, p. 14; materials of the ITF Boycott Committee and the Seafarers' Section 1952-1954, in MRC 159/5/B/3-5, MRC 159/1/5/24, 33. The ITF only theoretically gives this multinational membership section, unique in the ITS, organizational authority independent of the national member unions. In practice it is a dead organization section with no representational or participatory structures for its membership. The decision-making bodies of the SSS are made up of representatives of national seafarers' unions. Detailed treatment in Koch-Baumgarten, Konstitutionsbedingungen, pp. 260-62, 277-278; Northrup and Rowan, ITF, pp. 124-132.
144. ITF, Special Seafarers' Section Rules 1980 (Doc. EB/Jul 80/min), copy in author's possession; ITF, FOC, p. 14; materials of the ITF Boycott Committee and the Seafarers' Section 1952-1954, in MRC 159/5/B/3-5, MRC 159/1/5/24, 33. The ITF only theoretically gives this multinational membership section, unique in the ITS, organizational authority independent of the national member unions. In practice it is a dead organization section with no representational or participatory structures for its membership. The decision-making bodies of the SSS are made up of representatives of national seafarers' unions. Detailed treatment in Koch-Baumgarten, Konstitutionsbedingungen, pp. 260-62, 277-278; Northrup and Rowan, ITF, pp. 124-132.
145. Dockworkers' unions are integrated as central actors in the ITF's FOC policy because they implement the boycott measures against flags of convenience to enforce collective bargaining agreements. This deputizing policy is the consequence of the compulsory membership of FOC crews, who showed no interest in organizing themselves (indeed there is evidence of their resistance to trade union organization in the 1950s) and took no initiative in concluding ITF collective bargaining agreements: Letter of L. Passalski to O. Becu, 23 April 1953, in MRC 159/3/D/111; ITF, General Council Meeting, Helsinki, 15-17 June 1955, Report on Activities, pp. 37-38, in MRC 159/1/2/39. Since the 1980s the ITF has striven to create incentives to organize with the introduction of welfare assistance for members: see ITF, Seafarers' International Assistance, Welfare and Protection Fund, Rules, Annex 2, ITF, Executive Board, Minutes, Meeting, 25 July 1980 (Doc. EB/25 Jul 10/Min), in MRC 159/1/nn; ITF-news 6/7-1991, p. 12. The transnational trade union regulation of the FOC sector is not motivated primarily by representation of FOC crews' interests. What is to make is rather the representation of the interests of the regular ITF member unions, which as representatives of the organized sector of the maritime labour market (the ∀insiders∀) are defending their employment and wage interests by externally organizing and standardizing the unorganized union of that market (the "outsiders").
146. Dockworkers' unions are integrated as central actors in the ITF's FOC policy because they implement the boycott measures against flags of convenience to enforce collective bargaining agreements. This deputizing policy is the consequence of the compulsory membership of FOC crews, who showed no interest in organizing themselves (indeed there is evidence of their resistance to trade union organization in the 1950s) and took no initiative in concluding ITF collective bargaining agreements: Letter of L. Passalski to O. Becu, 23 April 1953, in MRC 159/3/D/111; ITF, General Council Meeting, Helsinki, 15-17 June 1955, Report on Activities, pp. 37-38, in MRC 159/1/2/39. Since the 1980s the ITF has striven to create incentives to organize with the introduction of welfare assistance for members: see ITF, Seafarers' International Assistance, Welfare and Protection Fund, Rules, Annex 2, ITF, Executive Board, Minutes, Meeting, 25 July 1980 (Doc. EB/25 Jul 10/Min), in MRC 159/1/nn; ITF-news 6/7-1991, p. 12. The transnational trade union regulation of the FOC sector is not motivated primarily by representation of FOC crews' interests. What is to make is rather the representation of the interests of the regular ITF member unions, which as representatives of the organized sector of the maritime labour market (the ∀insiders∀) are defending their employment and wage interests by externally organizing and standardizing the unorganized union of that market (the "outsiders").
147. ITF, Report on Activities 1952-53, p. 99; ITF, FOC, pp. 6, 14.
148. ITF, Report on Activities 1952-53, p. 99; ITF, FOC, pp. 6, 14.
149. Northrup and Rowan, ITF, pp. 140-141.
150. ITF, FPC, Meeting, 13-14 March 1958 and Meeting, Stockholm, 4 March 1957, Special Officer's Report and minutes, in MRC 159/1/5/B/7 and 159/1/5/24; ITF, International Campaign Committee for the Promotion of Fair Practices, 3rd Meeting, 15-16 March 1954, Conclusion of Collective Agreements (Doc. 54/FP1/2d), in MRC 159/1/5/24; the ITF collection of collective agreements on FOC ships, in MRC 159/3/D/286 and 159/1/5/15.
151. ITF, FPC, Meeting, 13-14 March 1958 and Meeting, Stockholm, 4 March 1957, Special Officer's Report and minutes, in MRC 159/1/5/B/7 and 159/1/5/24; ITF, International Campaign Committee for the Promotion of Fair Practices, 3rd Meeting, 15-16 March 1954, Conclusion of Collective Agreements (Doc. 54/FP1/2d), in MRC 159/1/5/24; the ITF collection of collective agreements on FOC ships, in MRC 159/3/D/286 and 159/1/5/15.
152. ITF, FPC, Meeting, 13-14 March 1958 and Meeting, Stockholm, 4 March 1957, Special Officer's Report and minutes, in MRC 159/1/5/B/7 and 159/1/5/24; ITF, International Campaign Committee for the Promotion of Fair Practices, 3rd Meeting, 15-16 March 1954, Conclusion of Collective Agreements (Doc. 54/FP1/2d), in MRC 159/1/5/24; the ITF collection of collective agreements on FOC ships, in MRC 159/3/D/286 and 159/1/5/15.
153. ITF, Report on the conference of the seafarers' section in Ostend, 3-4 October 1955 (Doc. 55/S2/13), in MRC 159/1/5/25 and FPC, Meeting, Stockholm, 14-16 May 1957: Reduction of Rate of Welfare Fund Contributions, in MRC 159/1/5/B/7; submissions by PNO to the FPC, undated, around 1956/1957), in MRC 159/1/5/B/8.
154. ITF, Executive Committee, Meeting, 18-20 November 1959, Rome (Doc. 38 EC-2), and Copenhagen, 6-8 August 1959 (Doc. 37 EC-8), in MRC 159/1/3/90 and 88; ITF, FPC, Meeting, 13-14 April 1959, Report, and Antwerp, 30 November-2 December 1959, Report and Minutes; Preliminary Meeting Subcommittee, Athens, 23-24 October 1959, in MRC 159/1/5/B/12-14; ITF, Tätigkeitsbericht 1958-59, pp. 70-71; Materials of ITF Seafarers' Conference, Geneva, 22 September 1961, in MRC 159/3/D/82.
155. ITF, Executive Committee, Meeting, 18-20 November 1959, Rome (Doc. 38 EC-2), and Copenhagen, 6-8 August 1959 (Doc. 37 EC-8), in MRC 159/1/3/90 and 88; ITF, FPC, Meeting, 13-14 April 1959, Report, and Antwerp, 30 November-2 December 1959, Report and Minutes; Preliminary Meeting Subcommittee, Athens, 23-24 October 1959, in MRC 159/1/5/B/12-14; ITF, Tätigkeitsbericht 1958-59, pp. 70-71; Materials of ITF Seafarers' Conference, Geneva, 22 September 1961, in MRC 159/3/D/82.
156. ITF, Executive Committee, Meeting, 18-20 November 1959, Rome (Doc. 38 EC-2), and Copenhagen, 6-8 August 1959 (Doc. 37 EC-8), in MRC 159/1/3/90 and 88; ITF, FPC, Meeting, 13-14 April 1959, Report, and Antwerp, 30 November-2 December 1959, Report and Minutes; Preliminary Meeting Subcommittee, Athens, 23-24 October 1959, in MRC 159/1/5/B/12-14; ITF, Tätigkeitsbericht 1958-59, pp. 70-71; Materials of ITF Seafarers' Conference, Geneva, 22 September 1961, in MRC 159/3/D/82.
157. ITF, Executive Committee, Meeting, 18-20 November 1959, Rome (Doc. 38 EC-2), and Copenhagen, 6-8 August 1959 (Doc. 37 EC-8), in MRC 159/1/3/90 and 88; ITF, FPC, Meeting, 13-14 April 1959, Report, and Antwerp, 30 November-2 December 1959, Report and Minutes; Preliminary Meeting Subcommittee, Athens, 23-24 October 1959, in MRC 159/1/5/B/12-14; ITF, Tätigkeitsbericht 1958-59, pp. 70-71; Materials of ITF Seafarers' Conference, Geneva, 22 September 1961, in MRC 159/3/D/82.
158. ITF, Executive Committee, Meeting, 18-20 November 1959, Rome (Doc. 38 EC-2), and Copenhagen, 6-8 August 1959 (Doc. 37 EC-8), in MRC 159/1/3/90 and 88; ITF, FPC, Meeting, 13-14 April 1959, Report, and Antwerp, 30 November-2 December 1959, Report and Minutes; Preliminary Meeting Subcommittee, Athens, 23-24 October 1959, in MRC 159/1/5/B/12-14; ITF, Tätigkeitsbericht 1958-59, pp. 70-71; Materials of ITF Seafarers' Conference, Geneva, 22 September 1961, in MRC 159/3/D/82.
159. See Northrup and Rowan, ITF, pp. 59-90; Birk, Rechtmäßigkeit, pp. 42-43.
160. See Northrup and Rowan, ITF, pp. 59-90; Birk, Rechtmäßigkeit, pp. 42-43.
161. ITF, Boycott Committee, Meeting, London, 28-29 April 1952, Report of the Secretariat (Doc. BC S2-1), in MRC 159/1/5/B/3 and ITF, Circular 2/24.1.1952, in MRC 159/3/D/274.
162. ITF, Protokoll Kongreß Wien 1956, pp. 360, 353.
163. ITF, Panlibhonco.
164. Schulte, Völkerrecht, pp. 65-67; Boszek, Flags, pp. 73-75; Cafruny, Ruling the Waves, pp. 99-100.
165. Schulte, Völkerrecht, pp. 65-67; Boszek, Flags, pp. 73-75; Cafruny, Ruling the Waves, pp. 99-100.
166. Schulte, Völkerrecht, pp. 65-67; Boszek, Flags, pp. 73-75; Cafruny, Ruling the Waves, pp. 99-100.
167. Boszek, Flags, pp. 73-75; ITF, FOC, pp. 39-40; Northrup and Rowan, ITF, p. 32.
168. Boszek, Flags, pp. 73-75; ITF, FOC, pp. 39-40; Northrup and Rowan, ITF, p. 32.
169. Boszek, Flags, pp. 73-75; ITF, FOC, pp. 39-40; Northrup and Rowan, ITF, p. 32.
170. On the ITF decision-making process: ITF, Protokoll Kongreß Amsterdam 1958, pp. 265-269, 282-285; ITF, Protokoll Kongreß Bern 1960, pp. 193-195, 202-203, 289, 296; ITF, FPC, Meeting, 13-14 March 1958 and 15-17 May 1957, in MRC 159/1/5/B/7 and 8; ITF, Memorandum on Panlibhonco Shipping 1959, in MRC 159/1/5/B/16; ITF, Executive Committee, Meeting, Copenhagen, 6-8 August 1959 (Doc. 37 EC-1-(Minutes) and Doc. 37 EC-8); on the US unions' FOC policy see also the report of the American Committee of the ITF (1958), in MRC 159/1/5/B/9.
171. On the ITF decision-making process: ITF, Protokoll Kongreß Amsterdam 1958, pp. 265-269, 282-285; ITF, Protokoll Kongreß Bern 1960, pp. 193-195, 202-203, 289, 296; ITF, FPC, Meeting, 13-14 March 1958 and 15-17 May 1957, in MRC 159/1/5/B/7 and 8; ITF, Memorandum on Panlibhonco Shipping 1959, in MRC 159/1/5/B/16; ITF, Executive Committee, Meeting, Copenhagen, 6-8 August 1959 (Doc. 37 EC-1-(Minutes) and Doc. 37 EC-8); on the US unions' FOC policy see also the report of the American Committee of the ITF (1958), in MRC 159/1/5/B/9.
172. On the ITF decision-making process: ITF, Protokoll Kongreß Amsterdam 1958, pp. 265-269, 282-285; ITF, Protokoll Kongreß Bern 1960, pp. 193-195, 202-203, 289, 296; ITF, FPC, Meeting, 13-14 March 1958 and 15-17 May 1957, in MRC 159/1/5/B/7 and 8; ITF, Memorandum on Panlibhonco Shipping 1959, in MRC 159/1/5/B/16; ITF, Executive Committee, Meeting, Copenhagen, 6-8 August 1959 (Doc. 37 EC-1-(Minutes) and Doc. 37 EC-8); on the US unions' FOC policy see also the report of the American Committee of the ITF (1958), in MRC 159/1/5/B/9.
173. On the ITF decision-making process: ITF, Protokoll Kongreß Amsterdam 1958, pp. 265-269, 282-285; ITF, Protokoll Kongreß Bern 1960, pp. 193-195, 202-203, 289, 296; ITF, FPC, Meeting, 13-14 March 1958 and 15-17 May 1957, in MRC 159/1/5/B/7 and 8; ITF, Memorandum on Panlibhonco Shipping 1959, in MRC 159/1/5/B/16; ITF, Executive Committee, Meeting, Copenhagen, 6-8 August 1959 (Doc. 37 EC-1-(Minutes) and Doc. 37 EC-8); on the US unions' FOC policy see also the report of the American Committee of the ITF (1958), in MRC 159/1/5/B/9.
174. On the ITF decision-making process: ITF, Protokoll Kongreß Amsterdam 1958, pp. 265-269, 282-285; ITF, Protokoll Kongreß Bern 1960, pp. 193-195, 202-203, 289, 296; ITF, FPC, Meeting, 13-14 March 1958 and 15-17 May 1957, in MRC 159/1/5/B/7 and 8; ITF, Memorandum on Panlibhonco Shipping 1959, in MRC 159/1/5/B/16; ITF, Executive Committee, Meeting, Copenhagen, 6-8 August 1959 (Doc. 37 EC-1-(Minutes) and Doc. 37 EC-8); on the US unions' FOC policy see also the report of the American Committee of the ITF (1958), in MRC 159/1/5/B/9.
175. On the ITF decision-making process: ITF, Protokoll Kongreß Amsterdam 1958, pp. 265-269, 282-285; ITF, Protokoll Kongreß Bern 1960, pp. 193-195, 202-203, 289, 296; ITF, FPC, Meeting, 13-14 March 1958 and 15-17 May 1957, in MRC 159/1/5/B/7 and 8; ITF, Memorandum on Panlibhonco Shipping 1959, in MRC 159/1/5/B/16; ITF, Executive Committee, Meeting, Copenhagen, 6-8 August 1959 (Doc. 37 EC-1-(Minutes) and Doc. 37 EC-8); on the US unions' FOC policy see also the report of the American Committee of the ITF (1958), in MRC 159/1/5/B/9.
176. ITF, Executive Committee, Meeting, London, 16-17 December 1958 (Doc. 35 EC-9), in MRC 159/1/3/85; ITF, Report on Conferences of Seafarers' and Dockers' Sections in London, 13-23 January 1959, in MRC 159/1/5/B/15; ITF, Circular 44/SS12 of 23 October 1958, in MRC 159/3/D/285; ITF, Tätigkeitsbericht 1958-59, pp. 63-65. The different numbers given for boycotted ships are taken from different ITF sources. ITF, FOC, p. 19, even speaks of 300-400: see also Northrup and Rowan, ITF, p. 47.
177. ITF, Executive Committee, Meeting, London, 16-17 December 1958 (Doc. 35 EC-9), in MRC 159/1/3/85; ITF, Report on Conferences of Seafarers' and Dockers' Sections in London, 13-23 January 1959, in MRC 159/1/5/B/15; ITF, Circular 44/SS12 of 23 October 1958, in MRC 159/3/D/285; ITF, Tätigkeitsbericht 1958-59, pp. 63-65. The different numbers given for boycotted ships are taken from different ITF sources. ITF, FOC, p. 19, even speaks of 300-400: see also Northrup and Rowan, ITF, p. 47.
178. ITF, Executive Committee, Meeting, London, 16-17 December 1958 (Doc. 35 EC-9), in MRC 159/1/3/85; ITF, Report on Conferences of Seafarers' and Dockers' Sections in London, 13-23 January 1959, in MRC 159/1/5/B/15; ITF, Circular 44/SS12 of 23 October 1958, in MRC 159/3/D/285; ITF, Tätigkeitsbericht 1958-59, pp. 63-65. The different numbers given for boycotted ships are taken from different ITF sources. ITF, FOC, p. 19, even speaks of 300-400: see also Northrup and Rowan, ITF, p. 47.
179. ITF, Executive Committee, Meeting, London, 16-17 December 1958 (Doc. 35 EC-9), in MRC 159/1/3/85; ITF, Report on Conferences of Seafarers' and Dockers' Sections in London, 13-23 January 1959, in MRC 159/1/5/B/15; ITF, Circular 44/SS12 of 23 October 1958, in MRC 159/3/D/285; ITF, Tätigkeitsbericht 1958-59, pp. 63-65. The different numbers given for boycotted ships are taken from different ITF sources. ITF, FOC, p. 19, even speaks of 300-400: see also Northrup and Rowan, ITF, p. 47.
180. ITF, Executive Committee, Meeting, London, 16-17 December 1958 (Doc. 35 EC-9), in MRC 159/1/3/85; ITF, Report on Conferences of Seafarers' and Dockers' Sections in London, 13-23 January 1959, in MRC 159/1/5/B/15; ITF, Circular 44/SS12 of 23 October 1958, in MRC 159/3/D/285; ITF, Tätigkeitsbericht 1958-59, pp. 63-65. The different numbers given for boycotted ships are taken from different ITF sources. ITF, FOC, p. 19, even speaks of 300-400: see also Northrup and Rowan, ITF, p. 47.
181. Cafruny, Ruling the Waves, p. 112.
182. Dierk Lindemann, Das Übereinkommen Nr. 147 von der ILO vom 29. Oktober 1976 über Mindestnormen auf Handelsschiffen: Vorgeschichte, Inhalt, Völkerrechtsfragen (Baden-Baden, 1983), pp. 36-40; Skourtos, Billig-Flaggen-Praxis, pp. 240-242.
183. Dierk Lindemann, Das Übereinkommen Nr. 147 von der ILO vom 29. Oktober 1976 über Mindestnormen auf Handelsschiffen: Vorgeschichte, Inhalt, Völkerrechtsfragen (Baden-Baden, 1983), pp. 36-40; Skourtos, Billig-Flaggen-Praxis, pp. 240-242.
184. Boszek, Flags, pp. 79-80; Northrup and Rowan, ITF, pp. 49-50.
185. Boszek, Flags, pp. 79-80; Northrup and Rowan, ITF, pp. 49-50.
186. ITF, FPC, Meeting, London, 13-14 April 1959, Resolution, Report and Minutes, in MRC 159/1/3/87, MRC 159/1/5/B/11 and 14; FPC, Meeting, Antwerp, 30 November-2 December 1959, in MRC 159/1/5/B/15; ITF, Tätigkeitsbericht 1958-59, pp. 64-65; ITF, Report on Conferences of Seafarers' and Dockers' Sections in London, 13-23 January 1959, in MRC 159/1/5/B/15; ITF, Tätigkeitsbericht 1960-61, p. 67.
187. ITF, FPC, Meeting, London, 13-14 April 1959, Resolution, Report and Minutes, in MRC 159/1/3/87, MRC 159/1/5/B/11 and 14; FPC, Meeting, Antwerp, 30 November-2 December 1959, in MRC 159/1/5/B/15; ITF, Tätigkeitsbericht 1958-59, pp. 64-65; ITF, Report on Conferences of Seafarers' and Dockers' Sections in London, 13-23 January 1959, in MRC 159/1/5/B/15; ITF, Tätigkeitsbericht 1960-61, p. 67.
188. ITF, FPC, Meeting, London, 13-14 April 1959, Resolution, Report and Minutes, in MRC 159/1/3/87, MRC 159/1/5/B/11 and 14; FPC, Meeting, Antwerp, 30 November-2 December 1959, in MRC 159/1/5/B/15; ITF, Tätigkeitsbericht 1958-59, pp. 64-65; ITF, Report on Conferences of Seafarers' and Dockers' Sections in London, 13-23 January 1959, in MRC 159/1/5/B/15; ITF, Tätigkeitsbericht 1960-61, p. 67.
189. ITF, FPC, Meeting, London, 13-14 April 1959, Resolution, Report and Minutes, in MRC 159/1/3/87, MRC 159/1/5/B/11 and 14; FPC, Meeting, Antwerp, 30 November-2 December 1959, in MRC 159/1/5/B/15; ITF, Tätigkeitsbericht 1958-59, pp. 64-65; ITF, Report on Conferences of Seafarers' and Dockers' Sections in London, 13-23 January 1959, in MRC 159/1/5/B/15; ITF, Tätigkeitsbericht 1960-61, p. 67.
190. ITF, FPC, Meeting, London, 13-14 April 1959, Resolution, Report and Minutes, in MRC 159/1/3/87, MRC 159/1/5/B/11 and 14; FPC, Meeting, Antwerp, 30 November-2 December 1959, in MRC 159/1/5/B/15; ITF, Tätigkeitsbericht 1958-59, pp. 64-65; ITF, Report on Conferences of Seafarers' and Dockers' Sections in London, 13-23 January 1959, in MRC 159/1/5/B/15; ITF, Tätigkeitsbericht 1960-61, p. 67.
191. Northrup and Rowan, ITF, pp. 53-54.
192. The number of FOCs covered by collective agreements actually rose from 95 in 1958 to 171 in 1959 and 300 in 1961: Koch-Baumgarten, Konstitutionsbedingungen, Table 6.6, p. 418. For example, in summer 1959 the Niarchos shipping consortium offered ITF member unions collective negotiations and payment of charges to the SIAWF for 206 FOC ships, on some of which US unions were also claiming representation rights: ITF, Executive Committee, Meeting, 18-20 November 1959, Rome (Doc. EC-2), and Copenhagen, 6-8 August 1959 (Doc. 37 EC-8), in MRC 159/1/3/90 and 88.
193. The number of FOCs covered by collective agreements actually rose from 95 in 1958 to 171 in 1959 and 300 in 1961: Koch-Baumgarten, Konstitutionsbedingungen, Table 6.6, p. 418. For example, in summer 1959 the Niarchos shipping consortium offered ITF member unions collective negotiations and payment of charges to the SIAWF for 206 FOC ships, on some of which US unions were also claiming representation rights: ITF, Executive Committee, Meeting, 18-20 November 1959, Rome (Doc. EC-2), and Copenhagen, 6-8 August 1959 (Doc. 37 EC-8), in MRC 159/1/3/90 and 88.
194. Boszek, Flags, pp. 79-80; ITF, Report on Activities 1962-64, pp. 43-45; ITF, Tätigkeitsbericht I960-61, p. 59.
195. Boszek, Flags, pp. 79-80; ITF, Report on Activities 1962-64, pp. 43-45; ITF, Tätigkeitsbericht I960-61, p. 59.
196. Boszek, Flags, pp. 79-80; ITF, Report on Activities 1962-64, pp. 43-45; ITF, Tätigkeitsbericht I960-61, p. 59.
197. ITF, FPC, Meetings, London and Antwerp, 1959 (n. 72); ITF, FPC, Preliminary Meeting Subcommittee, Athens, 13-24 October 1959, in MRC 159/1/5/B/12-14; ITF, Tätigkeitsbericht 1960-61, p. 59, ITF, Tätigkeitsbericht 1958-59, pp. 70-71; ITF, Yearbook 1965, pp. 43-45; Materials of ITF Seafarers' Conference in Geneva, 22 September 1961, in MRC 159/3/D/82; Boszek, Flags, pp. 78-79.
198. ITF, FPC, Meetings, London and Antwerp, 1959 (n. 72); ITF, FPC, Preliminary Meeting Subcommittee, Athens, 13-24 October 1959, in MRC 159/1/5/B/12-14; ITF, Tätigkeitsbericht 1960-61, p. 59, ITF, Tätigkeitsbericht 1958-59, pp. 70-71; ITF, Yearbook 1965, pp. 43-45; Materials of ITF Seafarers' Conference in Geneva, 22 September 1961, in MRC 159/3/D/82; Boszek, Flags, pp. 78-79.
199. ITF, FPC, Meetings, London and Antwerp, 1959 (n. 72); ITF, FPC, Preliminary Meeting Subcommittee, Athens, 13-24 October 1959, in MRC 159/1/5/B/12-14; ITF, Tätigkeitsbericht 1960-61, p. 59, ITF, Tätigkeitsbericht 1958-59, pp. 70-71; ITF, Yearbook 1965, pp. 43-45; Materials of ITF Seafarers' Conference in Geneva, 22 September 1961, in MRC 159/3/D/82; Boszek, Flags, pp. 78-79.
200. ITF, FPC, Meetings, London and Antwerp, 1959 (n. 72); ITF, FPC, Preliminary Meeting Subcommittee, Athens, 13-24 October 1959, in MRC 159/1/5/B/12-14; ITF, Tätigkeitsbericht 1960-61, p. 59, ITF, Tätigkeitsbericht 1958-59, pp. 70-71; ITF, Yearbook 1965, pp. 43-45; Materials of ITF Seafarers' Conference in Geneva, 22 September 1961, in MRC 159/3/D/82; Boszek, Flags, pp. 78-79.
201. ITF, FPC, Meetings, London and Antwerp, 1959 (n. 72); ITF, FPC, Preliminary Meeting Subcommittee, Athens, 13-24 October 1959, in MRC 159/1/5/B/12-14; ITF, Tätigkeitsbericht 1960-61, p. 59, ITF, Tätigkeitsbericht 1958-59, pp. 70-71; ITF, Yearbook 1965, pp. 43-45; Materials of ITF Seafarers' Conference in Geneva, 22 September 1961, in MRC 159/3/D/82; Boszek, Flags, pp. 78-79.
202. ITF, FPC, Meetings, London and Antwerp, 1959 (n. 72); ITF, FPC, Preliminary Meeting Subcommittee, Athens, 13-24 October 1959, in MRC 159/1/5/B/12-14; ITF, Tätigkeitsbericht 1960-61, p. 59, ITF, Tätigkeitsbericht 1958-59, pp. 70-71; ITF, Yearbook 1965, pp. 43-45; Materials of ITF Seafarers' Conference in Geneva, 22 September 1961, in MRC 159/3/D/82; Boszek, Flags, pp. 78-79.
203. ITF, FPC, Meetings, London and Antwerp, 1959 (n. 72); ITF, FPC, Preliminary Meeting Subcommittee, Athens, 13-24 October 1959, in MRC 159/1/5/B/12-14; ITF, Tätigkeitsbericht 1960-61, p. 59, ITF, Tätigkeitsbericht 1958-59, pp. 70-71; ITF, Yearbook 1965, pp. 43-45; Materials of ITF Seafarers' Conference in Geneva, 22 September 1961, in MRC 159/3/D/82; Boszek, Flags, pp. 78-79.
204. Northrup and Rowan, ITF, pp. 48-53.
205. They also compete for jobs with national seafarers on the national fleets - in a section excluded from national occupation reservations (also see n. 19) - and particularly on the ships of the second registries. The ITF regards them as "crews of convenience" where they are employed at conditions below national collective agreement provisions. Its aim is to bring them within the competence of national collective bargaining law.
206. Koch-Baumgarten, Konstitutionsbedingungen, pp. 288, 191, 365, Tables 6.1-6.4, pp. 416-417.
207. ITF, FOC, pp. 22-23.
208. ITF, Collective Agreement for Crews on Flag of Convenience Ships (n.p., n.d. [1987]).
209. In the early 1990s the ILO's minimum standard wage ($356 per month for a qualified seafarer) is only 43.4 per cent of the ITF minimum (up to $821); ITF, FOC, pp. 7-8. The latter will be increased in 1998 to $1,400: ITF-news, 4/1997, p. 13.
210. In the early 1990s the ILO's minimum standard wage ($356 per month for a qualified seafarer) is only 43.4 per cent of the ITF minimum (up to $821); ITF, FOC, pp. 7-8. The latter will be increased in 1998 to $1,400: ITF-news, 4/1997, p. 13.
211. These copy the port state controls embodied in international law (Skourtos, Billig-Flaggen-Praxis, pp. 240-241, 284-285; Lindemann, Übereinkommen, pp. 27-30), which limit the flag state's sovereignty to the ships of its fleet and authorize port states to inspect international legal standards on their territories. However, the ITF criticizes shortcomings in state controls, particularly on welfare matters: ITF, FOC, p. 37; ITF-news, 2/1988, p. 12; 9/1988, p. 15; 8/1987, pp. 3-4.
212. These copy the port state controls embodied in international law (Skourtos, Billig-Flaggen-Praxis, pp. 240-241, 284-285; Lindemann, Übereinkommen, pp. 27-30), which limit the flag state's sovereignty to the ships of its fleet and authorize port states to inspect international legal standards on their territories. However, the ITF criticizes shortcomings in state controls, particularly on welfare matters: ITF, FOC, p. 37; ITF-news, 2/1988, p. 12; 9/1988, p. 15; 8/1987, pp. 3-4.
213. These copy the port state controls embodied in international law (Skourtos, Billig-Flaggen-Praxis, pp. 240-241, 284-285; Lindemann, Übereinkommen, pp. 27-30), which limit the flag state's sovereignty to the ships of its fleet and authorize port states to inspect international legal standards on their territories. However, the ITF criticizes shortcomings in state controls, particularly on welfare matters: ITF, FOC, p. 37; ITF-news, 2/1988, p. 12; 9/1988, p. 15; 8/1987, pp. 3-4.
214. These copy the port state controls embodied in international law (Skourtos, Billig-Flaggen-Praxis, pp. 240-241, 284-285; Lindemann, Übereinkommen, pp. 27-30), which limit the flag state's sovereignty to the ships of its fleet and authorize port states to inspect international legal standards on their territories. However, the ITF criticizes shortcomings in state controls, particularly on welfare matters: ITF, FOC, p. 37; ITF-news, 2/1988, p. 12; 9/1988, p. 15; 8/1987, pp. 3-4.
215. These copy the port state controls embodied in international law (Skourtos, Billig-Flaggen-Praxis, pp. 240-241, 284-285; Lindemann, Übereinkommen, pp. 27-30), which limit the flag state's sovereignty to the ships of its fleet and authorize port states to inspect international legal standards on their territories. However, the ITF criticizes shortcomings in state controls, particularly on welfare matters: ITF, FOC, p. 37; ITF-news, 2/1988, p. 12; 9/1988, p. 15; 8/1987, pp. 3-4.
216. These copy the port state controls embodied in international law (Skourtos, Billig-Flaggen-Praxis, pp. 240-241, 284-285; Lindemann, Übereinkommen, pp. 27-30), which limit the flag state's sovereignty to the ships of its fleet and authorize port states to inspect international legal standards on their territories. However, the ITF criticizes shortcomings in state controls, particularly on welfare matters: ITF, FOC, p. 37; ITF-news, 2/1988, p. 12; 9/1988, p. 15; 8/1987, pp. 3-4.
217. The achievement of collective agreements on FOC ships depends very much on the use of the boycott; of 2,200 existing collective agreements in 1980-1982, 250 had been achieved only with the use or threat of a boycott: ITF, Report on Activities 1980-1982, p. 142; ITF, FOC, pp. 12-13, 45; ITF, Seeleute-Bulletin, 1993, p. 20.
218. The achievement of collective agreements on FOC ships depends very much on the use of the boycott; of 2,200 existing collective agreements in 1980-1982, 250 had been achieved only with the use or threat of a boycott: ITF, Report on Activities 1980-1982, p. 142; ITF, FOC, pp. 12-13, 45; ITF, Seeleute-Bulletin, 1993, p. 20.
219. The achievement of collective agreements on FOC ships depends very much on the use of the boycott; of 2,200 existing collective agreements in 1980-1982, 250 had been achieved only with the use or threat of a boycott: ITF, Report on Activities 1980-1982, p. 142; ITF, FOC, pp. 12-13, 45; ITF, Seeleute-Bulletin, 1993, p. 20.
220. This resistance refutes the harmonistic assumptions in trade union studies that employees' organizations have a general interest in setting minimum international standards oriented towards the most advanced standards. See, for instance, Michael Wortmann, Gewerkschaftliche Solidaritet mit der Dritten Welt. Veränderte Interessen in der neuen internationalen Arbeitsteilung (Saarbrücken and Fort Lauderdale, 1984), pp. 1, 42-53.
221. C. Leggett, "Corporatist Trade Unionism in Singapore", in Stephen Frenkel (ed.), Organized Labor in the Asia-Pacific Region. A Comparative Study of Trade Unionism in Nine Countries (Ithaca, NY, 1993), p. 224.
222. ITF, Concluding Statement, ITF Asian Pacific Seafarers' Committee, Taipei, 10-12 April 1984, appendix to Doc. 84/S5/6-1, in MRC 159/nn; ITF-news, 3/1987, p. 7, 1/1990, p. 17; ITF, Asian Seafarers' Regional Committee, Meeting, Singapore, 17-19 September 1980 (Doc. 80/S7/Rpt), p. 6; Asia Pacific Regional Conference, New Delhi, 2-5 March 1982: Report, in MRC 159/nn.
223. ITF, Concluding Statement, ITF Asian Pacific Seafarers' Committee, Taipei, 10-12 April 1984, appendix to Doc. 84/S5/6-1, in MRC 159/nn; ITF-news, 3/1987, p. 7, 1/1990, p. 17; ITF, Asian Seafarers' Regional Committee, Meeting, Singapore, 17-19 September 1980 (Doc. 80/S7/Rpt), p. 6; Asia Pacific Regional Conference, New Delhi, 2-5 March 1982: Report, in MRC 159/nn.
224. ITF, Concluding Statement, ITF Asian Pacific Seafarers' Committee, Taipei, 10-12 April 1984, appendix to Doc. 84/S5/6-1, in MRC 159/nn; ITF-news, 3/1987, p. 7, 1/1990, p. 17; ITF, Asian Seafarers' Regional Committee, Meeting, Singapore, 17-19 September 1980 (Doc. 80/S7/Rpt), p. 6; Asia Pacific Regional Conference, New Delhi, 2-5 March 1982: Report, in MRC 159/nn.
225. ITF, Concluding Statement, ITF Asian Pacific Seafarers' Committee, Taipei, 10-12 April 1984, appendix to Doc. 84/S5/6-1, in MRC 159/nn; ITF-news, 3/1987, p. 7, 1/1990, p. 17; ITF, Asian Seafarers' Regional Committee, Meeting, Singapore, 17-19 September 1980 (Doc. 80/S7/Rpt), p. 6; Asia Pacific Regional Conference, New Delhi, 2-5 March 1982: Report, in MRC 159/nn.
226. ITF, Concluding Statement, ITF Asian Pacific Seafarers' Committee, Taipei, 10-12 April 1984, appendix to Doc. 84/S5/6-1, in MRC 159/nn; ITF-news, 3/1987, p. 7, 1/1990, p. 17; ITF, Asian Seafarers' Regional Committee, Meeting, Singapore, 17-19 September 1980 (Doc. 80/S7/Rpt), p. 6; Asia Pacific Regional Conference, New Delhi, 2-5 March 1982: Report, in MRC 159/nn.
227. Until the intervention of the ASEAN governments against ITF regional policy in Asia in the ILO in 1980.
228. In detail in Koch-Baumgarten, Konstitutionsbedingungen, pp. 374-376; generally also Lennart Jonnsson, Funny Flags. ITF's Campaign - Past, Present, Future (Falköping, 1996), pp. 56-57, 63-65.
229. In detail in Koch-Baumgarten, Konstitutionsbedingungen, pp. 374-376; generally also Lennart Jonnsson, Funny Flags. ITF's Campaign - Past, Present, Future (Falköping, 1996), pp. 56-57, 63-65.
230. TCCAs replace individual monthly wage rates measured by qualifications by total wage costs for a ship. Ultimately they recognize national Asian collective agreements and wage levels; their wage standards are 61 per cent of the levels in the ITF standard agreements: ITF, FOC, pp. 22-23; Johnsson, Funny Flags, pp. 269, 306.
231. TCCAs replace individual monthly wage rates measured by qualifications by total wage costs for a ship. Ultimately they recognize national Asian collective agreements and wage levels; their wage standards are 61 per cent of the levels in the ITF standard agreements: ITF, FOC, pp. 22-23; Johnsson, Funny Flags, pp. 269, 306.
232. ITF-news, 11/12-1988, p. 2; 1/2-1993, p. 19; ITF, Seeleute-Bulletin, 1986, pp. 3, 17; ITF, FOC, p. 8; Johnsson, Funny Flags, pp. 55, 59.
233. ITF-news, 11/12-1988, p. 2; 1/2-1993, p. 19; ITF, Seeleute-Bulletin, 1986, pp. 3, 17; ITF, FOC, p. 8; Johnsson, Funny Flags, pp. 55, 59.
234. ITF-news, 11/12-1988, p. 2; 1/2-1993, p. 19; ITF, Seeleute-Bulletin, 1986, pp. 3, 17; ITF, FOC, p. 8; Johnsson, Funny Flags, pp. 55, 59.
235. ITF-news, 11/12-1988, p. 2; 1/2-1993, p. 19; ITF, Seeleute-Bulletin, 1986, pp. 3, 17; ITF, FOC, p. 8; Johnsson, Funny Flags, pp. 55, 59.
236. ITF-news, 11/12-1988, p. 2; 1/2-1993, p. 19; ITF, Seeleute-Bulletin, 1986, pp. 3, 17; ITF, FOC, p. 8; Johnsson, Funny Flags, pp. 55, 59.
237. ITF-news, 7/8-1988, p. 9; 12/1991, p. 21.
238. ITF-news, 7/8-1988, p. 9; 12/1991, p. 21.
239. Johnsson, Funny Flags, p. 94; ITF-news, 3/1998, p. 9.
240. Johnsson, Funny Flags, p. 94; ITF-news, 3/1998, p. 9.
241. Northrup and Rowan, ITF, pp. 98/99; ITF-news, 3/1998, p. 9.
242. Northrup and Rowan, ITF, pp. 98/99; ITF-news, 3/1998, p. 9.
243. ITF-news, 6/7-1992, p. 10; 1/1994, p. 11; 3/1990, pp. 15-16 and ITF, Seeleute-Bulletin, 1993, pp. 5-12.
244. ITF-news, 6/7-1992, p. 10; 1/1994, p. 11; 3/1990, pp. 15-16 and ITF, Seeleute-Bulletin, 1993, pp. 5-12.
245. ITF-news, 6/7-1992, p. 10; 1/1994, p. 11; 3/1990, pp. 15-16 and ITF, Seeleute-Bulletin, 1993, pp. 5-12.
246. ITF-news, 6/7-1992, p. 10; 1/1994, p. 11; 3/1990, pp. 15-16 and ITF, Seeleute-Bulletin, 1993, pp. 5-12.
247. Northrup and Rowan, ITF, pp. 55-96; ITF, Seeleute-Bulletin, 1993, pp. 5-12.
248. Northrup and Rowan, ITF, pp. 55-96; ITF, Seeleute-Bulletin, 1993, pp. 5-12.
249. ITF, FOC, p. 8; Birk, Rechtmäßigkeit, p. 31; ITF-news, 7/8-1988, p. 9, 7/1989, pp. 1-2; 9/1989, p. 13; 10/1992, p. 12; 3/1993, p. 12; Northrup and Rowan, ITF, p. 100; Johnsson, Funny Flags, pp. 96, 156-157.
250. ITF, FOC, p. 8; Birk, Rechtmäßigkeit, p. 31; ITF-news, 7/8-1988, p. 9, 7/1989, pp. 1-2; 9/1989, p. 13; 10/1992, p. 12; 3/1993, p. 12; Northrup and Rowan, ITF, p. 100; Johnsson, Funny Flags, pp. 96, 156-157.
251. ITF, FOC, p. 8; Birk, Rechtmäßigkeit, p. 31; ITF-news, 7/8-1988, p. 9, 7/1989, pp. 1-2; 9/1989, p. 13; 10/1992, p. 12; 3/1993, p. 12; Northrup and Rowan, ITF, p. 100; Johnsson, Funny Flags, pp. 96, 156-157.
252. ITF, FOC, p. 8; Birk, Rechtmäßigkeit, p. 31; ITF-news, 7/8-1988, p. 9, 7/1989, pp. 1-2; 9/1989, p. 13; 10/1992, p. 12; 3/1993, p. 12; Northrup and Rowan, ITF, p. 100; Johnsson, Funny Flags, pp. 96, 156-157.
253. ITF, FOC, p. 8; Birk, Rechtmäßigkeit, p. 31; ITF-news, 7/8-1988, p. 9, 7/1989, pp. 1-2; 9/1989, p. 13; 10/1992, p. 12; 3/1993, p. 12; Northrup and Rowan, ITF, p. 100; Johnsson, Funny Flags, pp. 96, 156-157.
254. ITF, FOC, p. 8; Birk, Rechtmäßigkeit, p. 31; ITF-news, 7/8-1988, p. 9, 7/1989, pp. 1-2; 9/1989, p. 13; 10/1992, p. 12; 3/1993, p. 12; Northrup and Rowan, ITF, p. 100; Johnsson, Funny Flags, pp. 96, 156-157.
255. ITF, FOC, p. 8; Birk, Rechtmäßigkeit, p. 31; ITF-news, 7/8-1988, p. 9, 7/1989, pp. 1-2; 9/1989, p. 13; 10/1992, p. 12; 3/1993, p. 12; Northrup and Rowan, ITF, p. 100; Johnsson, Funny Flags, pp. 96, 156-157.
256. ITF, FOC, p. 8; Birk, Rechtmäßigkeit, p. 31; ITF-news, 7/8-1988, p. 9, 7/1989, pp. 1-2; 9/1989, p. 13; 10/1992, p. 12; 3/1993, p. 12; Northrup and Rowan, ITF, p. 100; Johnsson, Funny Flags, pp. 96, 156-157.
257. ITF, FOC, p. 8; Birk, Rechtmäßigkeit, p. 31; ITF-news, 7/8-1988, p. 9, 7/1989, pp. 1-2; 9/1989, p. 13; 10/1992, p. 12; 3/1993, p. 12; Northrup and Rowan, ITF, p. 100; Johnsson, Funny Flags, pp. 96, 156-157.
258. In the case example, between FOC shipowners from the industrial countries and trade unions and seafarers from the labour-exporting countries, and between shipowners of the national fleets and trade unions of the capital-exporting countries.