Post-communist obstacles to mobilizing women in Eastern Germany

Problems of Post-Communism

Volumn 45, Issue 6, 1998, Pages 3-12

  Kamenitsa, Lynn ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0032209925     PISSN: 10758216     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/10758216.1998.11655809     Document Type: Article

References (66)

1. The term "women's movements" is used broadly here to denote movements dedicated to furthering women's interests and rights as women. Using an inclusive definition of feminism, it could be argued that most of these movements are also feminist. However, because many women's movements in East-Central Europe reject the label "feminist," I reserve this term for movements that are explicitly committed to changing gendered power hierarchies.
2. This article draws on a broad literature on women's movements in East-Central Europe and my own research on the women's movement in eastern Germany, including interviews with activists in 1990, 1991-92, and 1994.
3. See Chris Corrin, ed., Superwomen and the Double Burden: Women's Experiences of Change in Central and Eastern Europe and the Former Soviet Union (Toronto: Second Story Press, 1992).
4. Lynn Kamenitsa, "East German Feminists in the New German Democracy: Opportunities, Obstacles and Adaptation," Women and Politics 17, no. 3 (fall 1997): 41-68; idem, "Equality Offices in Eastern Germany: Does Institutionalization Help Marginalized Groups?" German Politics and Society 17, no. 3 (fall 1997): 24-43.
5. Lynn Kamenitsa, "East German Feminists in the New German Democracy: Opportunities, Obstacles and Adaptation," Women and Politics 17, no. 3 (fall 1997): 41-68; idem, "Equality Offices in Eastern Germany: Does Institutionalization Help Marginalized Groups?" German Politics and Society 17, no. 3 (fall 1997): 24-43.
6. Lynn Kamenitsa, "Social Movement Marginalization in the Democratic Transition: The Case of the East German Women's Movement" (Ph.D. dissertation, Indiana University, 1993); idem, "East German Feminists in the New German Democracy."
7. Lynn Kamenitsa, "Social Movement Marginalization in the Democratic Transition: The Case of the East German Women's Movement" (Ph.D. dissertation, Indiana University, 1993); idem, "East German Feminists in the New German Democracy."
8. Judit Acsady and Agnes Hochberg, "Feminism Misinterpreted in Hungary," Peace Review 4, no. 4 (winter 1992): 49; Barbara Einhorn, Cinderella Goes to Market (London: Verso, 1993), pp. 182-215; Shana Penn, "The National Secret," Journal of Women's History 5, no. 3 (winter 1994): 57; Marilyn Rueschemeyer, "Difficulties and Opportunities in the Transition Period," in Women in the Politics of Postcommunist Eastern Europe, ed. Rueschemeyer (Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 1994), p. 233.
9. Judit Acsady and Agnes Hochberg, "Feminism Misinterpreted in Hungary," Peace Review 4, no. 4 (winter 1992): 49; Barbara Einhorn, Cinderella Goes to Market (London: Verso, 1993), pp. 182-215; Shana Penn, "The National Secret," Journal of Women's History 5, no. 3 (winter 1994): 57; Marilyn Rueschemeyer, "Difficulties and Opportunities in the Transition Period," in Women in the Politics of Postcommunist Eastern Europe, ed. Rueschemeyer (Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 1994), p. 233.
10. Judit Acsady and Agnes Hochberg, "Feminism Misinterpreted in Hungary," Peace Review 4, no. 4 (winter 1992): 49; Barbara Einhorn, Cinderella Goes to Market (London: Verso, 1993), pp. 182-215; Shana Penn, "The National Secret," Journal of Women's History 5, no. 3 (winter 1994): 57; Marilyn Rueschemeyer, "Difficulties and Opportunities in the Transition Period," in Women in the Politics of Postcommunist Eastern Europe, ed. Rueschemeyer (Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 1994), p. 233.
11. Judit Acsady and Agnes Hochberg, "Feminism Misinterpreted in Hungary," Peace Review 4, no. 4 (winter 1992): 49; Barbara Einhorn, Cinderella Goes to Market (London: Verso, 1993), pp. 182-215; Shana Penn, "The National Secret," Journal of Women's History 5, no. 3 (winter 1994): 57; Marilyn Rueschemeyer, "Difficulties and Opportunities in the Transition Period," in Women in the Politics of Postcommunist Eastern Europe, ed. Rueschemeyer (Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 1994), p. 233.
12. See Einhorn, Cinderella, pp. 182-215.
13. See Mira Marody, "Why I Am Not a Feminist: Some Remarks on the Problem of Gender Identity in the United States and Poland," Social Research 60, no. 4 (winter 1993): 861.
14. Hana Havelkova, "A Few Prefeminist Thoughts," in Gender Politics and Post-Communism, ed. Nanette Funk and Magda Mueller (New York: Routledge, 1993): 68; Hana Havelkova, "'Patriarchy' in Czech Society," Hypatia 8, no. 4 (fall 1993): 91.
15. Hana Havelkova, "A Few Prefeminist Thoughts," in Gender Politics and Post-Communism, ed. Nanette Funk and Magda Mueller (New York: Routledge, 1993): 68; Hana Havelkova, "'Patriarchy' in Czech Society," Hypatia 8, no. 4 (fall 1993): 91.
16. Myra Marx Ferree, "The Rise and Fall of 'Mommy Politics': Feminism and Unification in (East) Germany," Feminist Studies 19, no. 1 (spring 1993): 94-95; idem, "After the Wall: Explaining the Status of Women in the Former GDR," Sociological Focus 26, no. 1 (February 1995): 15-16.
17. Myra Marx Ferree, "The Rise and Fall of 'Mommy Politics': Feminism and Unification in (East) Germany," Feminist Studies 19, no. 1 (spring 1993): 94-95; idem, "After the Wall: Explaining the Status of Women in the Former GDR," Sociological Focus 26, no. 1 (February 1995): 15-16.
18. On the role of the socialist state in reinforcing traditional roles and women's ties to families see Acsady and Hochberg, "Feminism Misinterpreted"; Jacqueline Heinen, "Polish Democracy Is a Masculine Democracy," Women's Studies International Forum 15, no. 1 (January 1992): 129-38; Sharon Wolchik, "Women in Transition in the Czech and Slovak Republics: The First Three Years," Journal of Women's History 5, no. 3 (winter 1994): 100-107; Eva Fodor, "The Political Woman? Women and Politics in Hungary," in Rueschemeyer, ed., Women in the Politics, pp. 171-200; Maria Todorova, "Historical Tradition and Transformation in Bulgaria: Women's Issues or Feminist Issues?" Journal of Women's History 5, no. 3 (winter 1994): 129-143; Peggy Watson, "Eastern Europe's Silent Revolution: Gender," Sociology 27, no. 3 (August 1993): 471-87; Anna Titkow, "Polish Women in Politics: An Introduction to the Status of Women in Poland," in Rueschemeyer, ed., Women in the Politics, pp. 29-34; Alena Heitlinger, "Framing Feminism in Post-Communist Czech Republic," Communist and Post-Communist Studies 29, no. 1 (March 1996): 77-93.
19. On the role of the socialist state in reinforcing traditional roles and women's ties to families see Acsady and Hochberg, "Feminism Misinterpreted"; Jacqueline Heinen, "Polish Democracy Is a Masculine Democracy," Women's Studies International Forum 15, no. 1 (January 1992): 129-38; Sharon Wolchik, "Women in Transition in the Czech and Slovak Republics: The First Three Years," Journal of Women's History 5, no. 3 (winter 1994): 100-107; Eva Fodor, "The Political Woman? Women and Politics in Hungary," in Rueschemeyer, ed., Women in the Politics, pp. 171-200; Maria Todorova, "Historical Tradition and Transformation in Bulgaria: Women's Issues or Feminist Issues?" Journal of Women's History 5, no. 3 (winter 1994): 129-143; Peggy Watson, "Eastern Europe's Silent Revolution: Gender," Sociology 27, no. 3 (August 1993): 471-87; Anna Titkow, "Polish Women in Politics: An Introduction to the Status of Women in Poland," in Rueschemeyer, ed., Women in the Politics, pp. 29-34; Alena Heitlinger, "Framing Feminism in Post-Communist Czech Republic," Communist and Post-Communist Studies 29, no. 1 (March 1996): 77-93.
20. On the role of the socialist state in reinforcing traditional roles and women's ties to families see Acsady and Hochberg, "Feminism Misinterpreted"; Jacqueline Heinen, "Polish Democracy Is a Masculine Democracy," Women's Studies International Forum 15, no. 1 (January 1992): 129-38; Sharon Wolchik, "Women in Transition in the Czech and Slovak Republics: The First Three Years," Journal of Women's History 5, no. 3 (winter 1994): 100-107; Eva Fodor, "The Political Woman? Women and Politics in Hungary," in Rueschemeyer, ed., Women in the Politics, pp. 171-200; Maria Todorova, "Historical Tradition and Transformation in Bulgaria: Women's Issues or Feminist Issues?" Journal of Women's History 5, no. 3 (winter 1994): 129-143; Peggy Watson, "Eastern Europe's Silent Revolution: Gender," Sociology 27, no. 3 (August 1993): 471-87; Anna Titkow, "Polish Women in Politics: An Introduction to the Status of Women in Poland," in Rueschemeyer, ed., Women in the Politics, pp. 29-34; Alena Heitlinger, "Framing Feminism in Post-Communist Czech Republic," Communist and Post-Communist Studies 29, no. 1 (March 1996): 77-93.
21. On the role of the socialist state in reinforcing traditional roles and women's ties to families see Acsady and Hochberg, "Feminism Misinterpreted"; Jacqueline Heinen, "Polish Democracy Is a Masculine Democracy," Women's Studies International Forum 15, no. 1 (January 1992): 129-38; Sharon Wolchik, "Women in Transition in the Czech and Slovak Republics: The First Three Years," Journal of Women's History 5, no. 3 (winter 1994): 100-107; Eva Fodor, "The Political Woman? Women and Politics in Hungary," in Rueschemeyer, ed., Women in the Politics, pp. 171-200; Maria Todorova, "Historical Tradition and Transformation in Bulgaria: Women's Issues or Feminist Issues?" Journal of Women's History 5, no. 3 (winter 1994): 129-143; Peggy Watson, "Eastern Europe's Silent Revolution: Gender," Sociology 27, no. 3 (August 1993): 471-87; Anna Titkow, "Polish Women in Politics: An Introduction to the Status of Women in Poland," in Rueschemeyer, ed., Women in the Politics, pp. 29-34; Alena Heitlinger, "Framing Feminism in Post-Communist Czech Republic," Communist and Post-Communist Studies 29, no. 1 (March 1996): 77-93.
22. On the role of the socialist state in reinforcing traditional roles and women's ties to families see Acsady and Hochberg, "Feminism Misinterpreted"; Jacqueline Heinen, "Polish Democracy Is a Masculine Democracy," Women's Studies International Forum 15, no. 1 (January 1992): 129-38; Sharon Wolchik, "Women in Transition in the Czech and Slovak Republics: The First Three Years," Journal of Women's History 5, no. 3 (winter 1994): 100-107; Eva Fodor, "The Political Woman? Women and Politics in Hungary," in Rueschemeyer, ed., Women in the Politics, pp. 171-200; Maria Todorova, "Historical Tradition and Transformation in Bulgaria: Women's Issues or Feminist Issues?" Journal of Women's History 5, no. 3 (winter 1994): 129-143; Peggy Watson, "Eastern Europe's Silent Revolution: Gender," Sociology 27, no. 3 (August 1993): 471-87; Anna Titkow, "Polish Women in Politics: An Introduction to the Status of Women in Poland," in Rueschemeyer, ed., Women in the Politics, pp. 29-34; Alena Heitlinger, "Framing Feminism in Post-Communist Czech Republic," Communist and Post-Communist Studies 29, no. 1 (March 1996): 77-93.
23. On the role of the socialist state in reinforcing traditional roles and women's ties to families see Acsady and Hochberg, "Feminism Misinterpreted"; Jacqueline Heinen, "Polish Democracy Is a Masculine Democracy," Women's Studies International Forum 15, no. 1 (January 1992): 129-38; Sharon Wolchik, "Women in Transition in the Czech and Slovak Republics: The First Three Years," Journal of Women's History 5, no. 3 (winter 1994): 100-107; Eva Fodor, "The Political Woman? Women and Politics in Hungary," in Rueschemeyer, ed., Women in the Politics, pp. 171-200; Maria Todorova, "Historical Tradition and Transformation in Bulgaria: Women's Issues or Feminist Issues?" Journal of Women's History 5, no. 3 (winter 1994): 129-143; Peggy Watson, "Eastern Europe's Silent Revolution: Gender," Sociology 27, no. 3 (August 1993): 471-87; Anna Titkow, "Polish Women in Politics: An Introduction to the Status of Women in Poland," in Rueschemeyer, ed., Women in the Politics, pp. 29-34; Alena Heitlinger, "Framing Feminism in Post-Communist Czech Republic," Communist and Post-Communist Studies 29, no. 1 (March 1996): 77-93.
24. On the role of the socialist state in reinforcing traditional roles and women's ties to families see Acsady and Hochberg, "Feminism Misinterpreted"; Jacqueline Heinen, "Polish Democracy Is a Masculine Democracy," Women's Studies International Forum 15, no. 1 (January 1992): 129-38; Sharon Wolchik, "Women in Transition in the Czech and Slovak Republics: The First Three Years," Journal of Women's History 5, no. 3 (winter 1994): 100-107; Eva Fodor, "The Political Woman? Women and Politics in Hungary," in Rueschemeyer, ed., Women in the Politics, pp. 171-200; Maria Todorova, "Historical Tradition and Transformation in Bulgaria: Women's Issues or Feminist Issues?" Journal of Women's History 5, no. 3 (winter 1994): 129-143; Peggy Watson, "Eastern Europe's Silent Revolution: Gender," Sociology 27, no. 3 (August 1993): 471-87; Anna Titkow, "Polish Women in Politics: An Introduction to the Status of Women in Poland," in Rueschemeyer, ed., Women in the Politics, pp. 29-34; Alena Heitlinger, "Framing Feminism in Post-Communist Czech Republic," Communist and Post-Communist Studies 29, no. 1 (March 1996): 77-93.
25. On the role of the socialist state in reinforcing traditional roles and women's ties to families see Acsady and Hochberg, "Feminism Misinterpreted"; Jacqueline Heinen, "Polish Democracy Is a Masculine Democracy," Women's Studies International Forum 15, no. 1 (January 1992): 129-38; Sharon Wolchik, "Women in Transition in the Czech and Slovak Republics: The First Three Years," Journal of Women's History 5, no. 3 (winter 1994): 100-107; Eva Fodor, "The Political Woman? Women and Politics in Hungary," in Rueschemeyer, ed., Women in the Politics, pp. 171-200; Maria Todorova, "Historical Tradition and Transformation in Bulgaria: Women's Issues or Feminist Issues?" Journal of Women's History 5, no. 3 (winter 1994): 129-143; Peggy Watson, "Eastern Europe's Silent Revolution: Gender," Sociology 27, no. 3 (August 1993): 471-87; Anna Titkow, "Polish Women in Politics: An Introduction to the Status of Women in Poland," in Rueschemeyer, ed., Women in the Politics, pp. 29-34; Alena Heitlinger, "Framing Feminism in Post-Communist Czech Republic," Communist and Post-Communist Studies 29, no. 1 (March 1996): 77-93.
26. Jirina Siklova, "Are Women in Central and Eastern Europe Conservative?" in Funk and Mueller, ed., Gender Politics, p. 76.
27. Watson, "Eastern Europe's Silent Revolution," p. 473.
28. Valentine M. Moghadam, "Introduction: Gender Dynamics of Economic and Political Change: Efficiency, Equality, and Women," in Democratic Reform and the Position of Women in Transitional Economies, ed. Valentine M. Moghadam (Oxford: Clarendon, 1993), p. 4.
29. Die Frauen in der Allianz für Deutschland: Die Frau und der Sozialismus (Women in the Alliance for Germany: The Woman Under Socialism), campaign pamphlet from February 1990.
30. Lynn Kamenitsa, "The Process of Political Marginalization: East German Social Movements After the Wall," Comparative Politics 30, no. 3 (April 1998): 313-33.
31. Rueschemeyer, "Difficulties and Opportunities," p. 231.
32. Mira Janova and Mariette Sineau, "Women's Participation in Political Power in Europe: An Essay in East-West Comparison," Women's Studies International Forum 15, no. 1 (January-February 1992): 117.
33. Eniko Bollobas, "'Totalitarian Lib': The Legacy of Communism for Hungarian Women," in Funk and Mueller, ed., Gender Politics, p. 203; Olga Plakova, "Women in the Transition of Democracy in Post-Communist Czechoslovakia: The Case of Slovakia," History of European Ideas 19, nos. 4-6 (July 1994): 855. See also Sharon Wolchik, "Women and the Politics of Transition in the Czech and Slovak Republics," in Rueschemeyer, ed., Women in the Politics, pp. 6-7; Einhorn, Cinderella, pp. 148-81.
34. Eniko Bollobas, "'Totalitarian Lib': The Legacy of Communism for Hungarian Women," in Funk and Mueller, ed., Gender Politics, p. 203; Olga Plakova, "Women in the Transition of Democracy in Post-Communist Czechoslovakia: The Case of Slovakia," History of European Ideas 19, nos. 4-6 (July 1994): 855. See also Sharon Wolchik, "Women and the Politics of Transition in the Czech and Slovak Republics," in Rueschemeyer, ed., Women in the Politics, pp. 6-7; Einhorn, Cinderella, pp. 148-81.
35. Eniko Bollobas, "'Totalitarian Lib': The Legacy of Communism for Hungarian Women," in Funk and Mueller, ed., Gender Politics, p. 203; Olga Plakova, "Women in the Transition of Democracy in Post-Communist Czechoslovakia: The Case of Slovakia," History of European Ideas 19, nos. 4-6 (July 1994): 855. See also Sharon Wolchik, "Women and the Politics of Transition in the Czech and Slovak Republics," in Rueschemeyer, ed., Women in the Politics, pp. 6-7; Einhorn, Cinderella, pp. 148-81.
36. Eniko Bollobas, "'Totalitarian Lib': The Legacy of Communism for Hungarian Women," in Funk and Mueller, ed., Gender Politics, p. 203; Olga Plakova, "Women in the Transition of Democracy in Post-Communist Czechoslovakia: The Case of Slovakia," History of European Ideas 19, nos. 4-6 (July 1994): 855. See also Sharon Wolchik, "Women and the Politics of Transition in the Czech and Slovak Republics," in Rueschemeyer, ed., Women in the Politics, pp. 6-7; Einhorn, Cinderella, pp. 148-81.
37. Wolchik, "Women in Transition," p. 101.
38. See Wolchik, "Women and the Politics," p. 10; Einhorn, Cinderella, p. 23; Nora Jung, "Importing Feminism to Eastern Europe," History of European Ideas 19, nos. 4-6 (July 1994): 845-51 .
39. See Wolchik, "Women and the Politics," p. 10; Einhorn, Cinderella, p. 23; Nora Jung, "Importing Feminism to Eastern Europe," History of European Ideas 19, nos. 4-6 (July 1994): 845-51 .
40. See Wolchik, "Women and the Politics," p. 10; Einhorn, Cinderella, p. 23; Nora Jung, "Importing Feminism to Eastern Europe," History of European Ideas 19, nos. 4-6 (July 1994): 845-51 .
41. Jirina Smejkalova-Strickland, "Do Czech Women Need Feminism? Perspectives of Feminist Theories and Practices in Czechoslovakia," Women's Studies International Forum 17, nos. 2-3 (March-June 1994): 278-79.
42. Einhorn, Cinderella, p. 259.
43. On both points see Kamenitsa, "Social Movement Marginalization in the Democratic Transition."
44. The federal and Land (state)-level governments have provided some funding for women's movement projects, largely as part of temporary make-work programs the East. Feminists have been adept at using these funds to keep their projects going, but complain that governments use the programs as alibis for paying attention to broader women's concerns, the temporary nature of the funds leads to inconsistency in personnel and programs, and the funds cannot be used for political activity.
45. Presse-und Informationsamt der Bundesregierung, Jahresbericht der Bundesregierung zum Stande der Deutschen Einheit (Annual Report of the Federal Government on the Status of German Unity) (Bonn: Bundesministerium des Innern, 1997), p. 155. The unemployment rate for east German women was 19.9 percent and for east German men, 13.7 percent. The overall rates in 1996 were 15.7 percent in east Germany and 9.1 percent in west Germany. In March 1998, those numbers had risen to 20.6 percent in east Germany and 10.0 percent in west Germany (1998 data from The Week in Germany, April 10, 1998).
46. S. Quack and F. Maier, "From State Socialism to Market Economy - Women's Employment in East Germany," Environment and Planning 26 (August 1994): 1257-76.
47. Wolchik, "Women in Transition," p. 104; Rueschemeyer, "Difficulties and Opportunities," pp. 229-30.
48. Wolchik, "Women in Transition," p. 104; Rueschemeyer, "Difficulties and Opportunities," pp. 229-30.
49. Kamenitsa, "The Process of Political Marginalization."
50. Einhorn, Cinderella, p. 9.
51. Nanette Funk, "Introduction: Women and Post-Communism," in Funk and Mueller, ed., Gender Politics, p. 10. See also individual chapters.
52. Einhorn, Cinderella, pp. 39-73.
53. Ibid.; Elzbieta Pakszys and Dorota Mazurczak, "From Totalitarianism to Democracy in Poland: Women's Issues in the Sociopolitical Transition of 1989-1993," Journal of Women's History 5, no. 3 (winter 1994): 144-50; Angela Stent, "Women in the Post-Communist World: The Politics of Identity and Ethnicity," World Policy Journal 10, no. 4 (winter 1993-94): 66.
54. Ibid.; Elzbieta Pakszys and Dorota Mazurczak, "From Totalitarianism to Democracy in Poland: Women's Issues in the Sociopolitical Transition of 1989-1993," Journal of Women's History 5, no. 3 (winter 1994): 144-50; Angela Stent, "Women in the Post-Communist World: The Politics of Identity and Ethnicity," World Policy Journal 10, no. 4 (winter 1993-94): 66.
55. Ibid.; Elzbieta Pakszys and Dorota Mazurczak, "From Totalitarianism to Democracy in Poland: Women's Issues in the Sociopolitical Transition of 1989-1993," Journal of Women's History 5, no. 3 (winter 1994): 144-50; Angela Stent, "Women in the Post-Communist World: The Politics of Identity and Ethnicity," World Policy Journal 10, no. 4 (winter 1993-94): 66.
56. Wolchik, "Women in Transition," p. 101; Nanette Funk, "Abortion and German Unification," in Funk and Mueller, ed., Gender Politics, p. 199.
57. Wolchik, "Women in Transition," p. 101; Nanette Funk, "Abortion and German Unification," in Funk and Mueller, ed., Gender Politics, p. 199.
58. Elzbieta Matynia, "Women After Communism: A Bitter Freedom," Social Research 61, no. 2 (summer 1994): 352; Einhorn, Cinderella, pp. 257-59.
59. Elzbieta Matynia, "Women After Communism: A Bitter Freedom," Social Research 61, no. 2 (summer 1994): 352; Einhorn, Cinderella, pp. 257-59.
60. Moghadam, "Introduction," p. 4.
61. Kamenitsa, "The Process of Political Marginalization."
62. Watson, "Eastern Europe's Silent Revolution"; Carol Pateman, The Disorder of Women (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1989); Nira Yuval-Davis, "The Citizenship Debate: Women, Ethnic Processes and the State," Feminist Review 39 (winter 1991): 58-68; Ursula Vogel, "Is Citizenship Gender Specific?" (paper presented at annual conference of the PSA, April 1989), cited in ibid.
63. Watson, "Eastern Europe's Silent Revolution"; Carol Pateman, The Disorder of Women (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1989); Nira Yuval-Davis, "The Citizenship Debate: Women, Ethnic Processes and the State," Feminist Review 39 (winter 1991): 58-68; Ursula Vogel, "Is Citizenship Gender Specific?" (paper presented at annual conference of the PSA, April 1989), cited in ibid.
64. Watson, "Eastern Europe's Silent Revolution"; Carol Pateman, The Disorder of Women (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1989); Nira Yuval-Davis, "The Citizenship Debate: Women, Ethnic Processes and the State," Feminist Review 39 (winter 1991): 58-68; Ursula Vogel, "Is Citizenship Gender Specific?" (paper presented at annual conference of the PSA, April 1989), cited in ibid.
65. Watson, "Eastern Europe's Silent Revolution"; Carol Pateman, The Disorder of Women (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1989); Nira Yuval-Davis, "The Citizenship Debate: Women, Ethnic Processes and the State," Feminist Review 39 (winter 1991): 58-68; Ursula Vogel, "Is Citizenship Gender Specific?" (paper presented at annual conference of the PSA, April 1989), cited in ibid.
66. Watson, "Eastern Europe's Silent Revolution," p. 480.