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1
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85033897699
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World Bank, Countries and Regions: Estonia. Available at http:// www.worldbank.org/html/extdr/offrep/eca/estcb.htm.
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Countries and Regions: Estonia
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3
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85033901423
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Estonia Customs Office data from http://www.customs.ee/statistika/ indexeng.htm. In 1997, 17.8 percent of Estonia's exports went to Russia, 15.6 percent to Finland, 13.4 percent to Sweden, 8.7 percent to Latvia, and 6.2 percent to Lithuania. Of Estonia's imports, 30.9 percent came from Finland, 11.7 percent from Russia, 9.6 percent from Sweden, 9.2 percent from Germany, and 4.2 percent from the United States.
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(1997)
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5
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85033888887
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paper presented to the third annual convention of the Association for the Study of Nationalities, Columbia University, New York, April 16-19
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Registered permanent residents of Estonia who are not citizens are entitled to vote in local elections but not in national ones. On the national level, according to Aleksei Semionov, director of the Legal Information Center for Human Rights in Tallinn, 455,000 of Estonia's population was disenfranchised between March 3, 1991 (when 1,144,000 voted in the independence referendum), and June 28, 1992 (when 689,000 voted in the constitutional referendum). Aleksei Semionov, "Citizenship Legislation, Population Behavior and Integration Prospects in Estonia" (paper presented to the third annual convention of the Association for the Study of Nationalities, Columbia University, New York, April 16-19, 1998).
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(1998)
Citizenship Legislation, Population Behavior and Integration Prospects in Estonia
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Semionov, A.1
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6
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85033888559
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note
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We shall use the term "Russian-speaking population" to refer collectively to ethnic Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians, and Jews. "Russian-speakers" first emerged as an interest group that organized around the principle of opposing Estonia's 1989 language law and restrictive policies toward granting citizenship. The vast majority (85 percent) of the "Russian-speakers" in Estonia at the time of the 1989 census were Russians, 9 percent Ukrainians, 5 percent Belarusians, and 1 percent Jews. The inclusion of Jews as "Russian-speakers" for purposes of data analyses follows common practice and does not distort our overall results because there were few self-identified Jews in our survey. In fact, however, a sizable proportion of the Jews in Estonia are fully integrated into Estonian society, speak Estonian with native fluency, or hold prominent positions, and should probably not be thought of as a separate nationality or as "Russian-speakers."
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7
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85033878611
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According to data from the Russian State Statistical Committee on registered migrants, net migration from Estonia to Russia peaked in 1992 and totaled about 58,000 persons between 1992 and 1996, inclusive. Many of these migrants were probably military officers and their family members. Additional non-Estonians emigrated to other successor states of the Soviet Union or elsewhere. The Estonian Statistical Office reports a net emigration of about 69,000 persons between 1992 and 1996 (see http://www.stat.ee). All these figures are "registered" migrants and subject to error. Goskomstat Rossii, Rossiiskii statisticheskii ezhegodnik: Statisticheskii sbornik [Russian Statistical Yearbook: Statistical Collection] (Moscow: Goskomstat Rossii, 1997).
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8
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0003688626
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Russian Statistical Yearbook: Statistical Collection Moscow: Goskomstat Rossii
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According to data from the Russian State Statistical Committee on registered migrants, net migration from Estonia to Russia peaked in 1992 and totaled about 58,000 persons between 1992 and 1996, inclusive. Many of these migrants were probably military officers and their family members. Additional non-Estonians emigrated to other successor states of the Soviet Union or elsewhere. The Estonian Statistical Office reports a net emigration of about 69,000 persons between 1992 and 1996 (see http://www.stat.ee). All these figures are "registered" migrants and subject to error. Goskomstat Rossii, Rossiiskii statisticheskii ezhegodnik: Statisticheskii sbornik [Russian Statistical Yearbook: Statistical Collection] (Moscow: Goskomstat Rossii, 1997).
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(1997)
Rossiiskii Statisticheskii Ezhegodnik: Statisticheskii Sbornik
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Rossii, G.1
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9
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0003676925
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Washington, DC: IMF
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International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook, May 1997 (Washington, DC: IMF, 1997).
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(1997)
World Economic Outlook, May 1997
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10
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85033886069
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note
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Calculated from the 1995 Baltic Election Study survey in Estonia. This survey, based on a representative sample of adults living in Estonia, was designed by Hans-Dieter Klingemann and Mikk Titma and funded by the Fritz Thyssen Foundation. The survey was conducted in Estonia by the Center for Social Research in Eastern Europe. We also use the 1992 Baltic Election Survey in Estonia, which was sponsored and administered by the same individuals and organizations.
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11
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85033900701
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note
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Based on figures from the Estonian Department of Migration and Citizenship, Aleksei Semionov states that 85,829 Estonian inhabitants have been naturalized (presumably by late 1997). (See note 5.) This figure is smaller than the number given in the UN 1997 Estonian Human Development Report. Semionov reports that of these 85,829 naturalized citizens, 25,251 or 29.4 percent were ethnic Estonians.
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12
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85033895651
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note
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Ibid.
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13
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85033893150
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note
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According to current plans (as of April 1998), the 2000 census will include questions on self-identified nationality, citizenship (including the categories "not specified" and "no citizenship"), native language, degree of knowledge of Estonian language (usual language; can speak, read, or write Estonian; don't know Estonian), and religion (whether the individual is a believer, and if so in which religion; is indifferent to religion; is an atheist; doesn't know, or declines to answer). This information, along with the place of birth, provides a rich basis for determining the ethnic and civic composition of Estonia's population.
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14
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0031833461
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Winners take all: The politics of partial reform in postcommunist transitions
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January
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Joel S. Hellman, "Winners Take All: The Politics of Partial Reform in Postcommunist Transitions," World Politics 50 (January 1998): 203-34.
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(1998)
World Politics
, vol.50
, pp. 203-234
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Hellman, J.S.1
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15
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85033888258
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"When communists win elections," radio free europe/ radio liberty [RFE/RL]
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April 6
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Paul Goble, "When Communists Win Elections," Radio Free Europe/ Radio Liberty [RFE/RL], "Newsline on the Web" (April 6, 1998). Available at http://www.rferl.org/newsline/1998/04/060498.html.
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(1998)
Newsline on the Web
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Goble, P.1
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16
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0031686403
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Winners and losers in the postcommunist transition: New evidence from estonia
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May-June
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Mikk Titma, Nancy Brandon Tuma, and Brian D. Silver, "Winners and Losers in the Postcommunist Transition: New Evidence from Estonia," Post-Soviet Affairs 14 (May-June 1998): 114-36. For data on changing unemployment for categories of the population, see Estonian Statistical Office, Estonian Labour Force Survey 1995 (Viljandi, 1997) available at http:// www.stat.vil.ee/l-market.
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(1998)
Post-Soviet Affairs
, vol.14
, pp. 114-136
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Titma, M.1
Tuma, N.B.2
Silver, B.D.3
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17
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0031686403
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Viljandi
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Mikk Titma, Nancy Brandon Tuma, and Brian D. Silver, "Winners and Losers in the Postcommunist Transition: New Evidence from Estonia," Post-Soviet Affairs 14 (May-June 1998): 114-36. For data on changing unemployment for categories of the population, see Estonian Statistical Office, Estonian Labour Force Survey 1995 (Viljandi, 1997) available at http:// www.stat.vil.ee/l-market.
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(1997)
Estonian Labour Force Survey 1995
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18
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0013486848
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Bilingualism and maintenance of the mother tongue in soviet central asia
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September
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Brian D. Silver, "Bilingualism and Maintenance of the Mother Tongue in Soviet Central Asia," Slavic Review 35, no. 3 (September 1976): 406-24; Donna Bahry and Brian D. Silver, "The Intimidation Factor in Soviet Politics: The Symbolic Uses of Terror," American Political Science Review 81 (December 1987): 1065-98.
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(1976)
Slavic Review
, vol.35
, Issue.3
, pp. 406-424
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Silver, B.D.1
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19
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0000956590
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The intimidation factor in soviet politics: The symbolic uses of terror
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December
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Brian D. Silver, "Bilingualism and Maintenance of the Mother Tongue in Soviet Central Asia," Slavic Review 35, no. 3 (September 1976): 406-24; Donna Bahry and Brian D. Silver, "The Intimidation Factor in Soviet Politics: The Symbolic Uses of Terror," American Political Science Review 81 (December 1987): 1065-98.
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(1987)
American Political Science Review
, vol.81
, pp. 1065-1098
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Bahry, D.1
Silver, B.D.2
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20
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85033901099
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Michigan residents express satisfaction with state legislature and legislators
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Briefing Paper No. 95-03, Michigan State University
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Carol S. Weissert, "Michigan Residents Express Satisfaction with State Legislature and Legislators," State of the State Survey, Briefing Paper No. 95-03, Michigan State University, 1995.
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(1995)
State of the State Survey
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Weissert, C.S.1
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21
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85007787839
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the annual meeting of the American Political Science Association, Washington, DC, August 28-31
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The 1990-93 World Values Survey data were obtained from the Inter-University Consortium for Political and Social Research. The figures reported here are based on an analysis in Brian D. Silver and Kathleen M. Dowley, "Measuring Political Culture in Multi-Ethnic Societies: Reaggregating the World Values Survey" (paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Political Science Association, Washington, DC, August 28-31, 1997).
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(1997)
Measuring Political Culture in Multi-ethnic Societies: Reaggregating the World Values Survey
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Silver, B.D.1
Dowley, K.M.2
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23
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85033893420
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the Carnegie Endowment International Migration Policy Program conference on comparative citizenship, Washington, DC, June 4-7
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Incidentally, the existence of numerous "stateless" people is being anticipated in all of the new censuses planned in the post-Soviet states. To our knowledge, however, among these states only Russia is planning to allow people to claim dual citizenship. For an analysis of citizenship policy among post-Soviet states, see Lowell Barrington, "The Making of Citizenship Policy in the Baltic States and Ukraine" (paper presented at the Carnegie Endowment International Migration Policy Program conference on comparative citizenship, Washington, DC, June 4-7, 1998); and idem, "The Domestic and International Consequences of Citizenship in the Soviet Successor States," Europe-Asia Studies 47 (July 1995): 731-64.
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(1998)
The Making of Citizenship Policy in the Baltic States and Ukraine
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Barrington, L.1
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24
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0029532414
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The domestic and international consequences of citizenship in the soviet successor states
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July
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Incidentally, the existence of numerous "stateless" people is being anticipated in all of the new censuses planned in the post-Soviet states. To our knowledge, however, among these states only Russia is planning to allow people to claim dual citizenship. For an analysis of citizenship policy among post-Soviet states, see Lowell Barrington, "The Making of Citizenship Policy in the Baltic States and Ukraine" (paper presented at the Carnegie Endowment International Migration Policy Program conference on comparative citizenship, Washington, DC, June 4-7, 1998); and idem, "The Domestic and International Consequences of Citizenship in the Soviet Successor States," Europe-Asia Studies 47 (July 1995): 731-64.
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(1995)
Europe-asia Studies
, vol.47
, pp. 731-764
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25
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85033871470
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note
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We should be cautious in interpreting this relationship. While it could have come about because being Estonian-born increases the likelihood of an individual applying for citizenship, it could also have come about because Estonian officials are more likely to grant citizenship to Estonian-born Russian-speakers than to those born abroad. Thus, there could be a selection factor at work in the granting of citizenship.
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26
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85033888813
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note
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The predictors are correlated with one another, but in a multivariate logistic regression analysis, the coefficients for each of these predictors are statistically significant.
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27
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85033875441
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note
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Calculating the index as the arithmetic mean across items weights the items equally. Creating a single index is justified by a factor analysis revealing that all the items belong to a common underlying factor.
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28
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84937274077
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Support for an independent estonia
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summer
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Brian D. Silver and Mikk Titma, "Support for an Independent Estonia," International Journal of Sociology 26, no. 2 (summer 1997): 3-24.
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(1997)
International Journal of Sociology
, vol.26
, Issue.2
, pp. 3-24
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Silver, B.D.1
Titma, M.2
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31
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85033874879
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Special thanks are due to Rein Murakas and Nancy Tuma for contributing to the development of this measure. The basic approach is to compare the respondent's main occupation in 1992 and 1997, using fifteen categories based on the International Standard Classification of Occupation (ISCO) codes. For further information, see Titma, Tuma, and Silver, "Winners and Losers."
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Winners and Losers
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Titma1
Tuma2
Silver3
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32
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85033874879
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The figures exclude persons who were unemployed or for whom occupational information is missing in either 1992 or 1997. The summary frequencies on upward and downward mobility mask an enormous amount of actual job changing. For a detailed analysis of occupational mobility in the cohort, see Titma, Tuma, and Silver, "Winners and Losers."
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Winners and Losers
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Titma1
Tuma2
Silver3
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33
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85033888468
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note
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We tested further for effects of income levels, and again found no relationship between income in 1997 and the degree of confidence in Estonian institutions, either among Estonians or among Russian-speakers.
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35
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85033902835
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This goal is described as follows: "Provide conditions for preservation and development of the Estonian language, culture, and nation. Estonia is the only home for the Estonian people and therefore, Estonia's people, language and culture must be preserved and developed here. Our citizenship law is based on that premise. The spirit of national cultural traditions and their preservation is the basis for our laws regarding foreign residents, our language, and the education of our younger generation." The fifteenth goal is "To Assist Non-Estonians with Integration into Estonian Society." See "The Government's Basic Goals for 1997 and 1998" at http://www.rk.ee/valitsus/valproto.html.
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The Government's Basic Goals for 1997 and 1998
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36
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85033878482
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the third annual meeting of the Association for the Study of Nationalities, Columbia University, New York, April 16-18
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Erik S. Herron, "Ethnicity, Institutions and Regime Support: The Russian Diaspora in Comparative Perspective" (paper presented at the third annual meeting of the Association for the Study of Nationalities, Columbia University, New York, April 16-18, 1998).
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(1998)
Ethnicity, Institutions and Regime Support: The Russian Diaspora in Comparative Perspective
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Herron, E.S.1
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