Toxicity of heavy metals to microorganisms and microbial processes in agricultural soils: A review

Soil Biology and Biochemistry

Volumn 30, Issue 10-11, 1998, Pages 1389-1414

  Giller, Ken E ^a   Witter, Ernst ^b   Mcgrath, Steve P ^c  

^a IMPERIAL COLLEGE LONDON   (United Kingdom)

^b SWEDISH UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES   (Sweden)

^c ROTHAMSTED RESEARCH   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

BIODIVERSITY; HEAVY METAL; MICROBIAL PROCESS; PLANT GROWTH; REVIEW; SEWAGE SLUDGE; SOIL; TOXICITY;

HEAVY METAL; MICROBIAL PROCESSES; SOIL MICROORGANISM; SOIL POLLUTION; TOXICITY;

ANIMALIA;

EID: 0032171231     PISSN: 00380717     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S0038-0717(97)00270-8     Document Type: Article

References (228)

1. Ahmad M. H. and Smith E. (1985) Utilization of carbon and nitrogen sources and acid/alkali production by cowpea rhizobia. Plant and Soil 86, 279-282.
2. Al-Khafaji A. A. and Tabatabai M. A. (1979) Effects of trace elements on arylsulfatase activity in soils. Soil Science 127, 129-133.
3. Amann R. I., Ludwig W. and Schleifer K.-H. (1995) Phylogenetic identification and in situ detection of individual microbial cells without cultivation. Microbiological Reviews 59, 143-169.
4. Anderson, T.-H. (1994) Physiological analysis of microbial communities in soil: Applications and limitations. In Beyond the Biomass. Compositional and Functional Analysis of Soil Microbial Communities, eds. K. Ritz, J. Dighton and K. E. Giller, pp. 67-76. John Wiley, Chichester.
5. Anderson T.-H. and Domsch K. H. (1985a) Determination of ecophysiological maintenance carbon requirements of soil microorganisms in a dormant state. Biology and Fertility of Soils 1, 81-89.
6. Anderson T.-H. and Domsch K. H. (1985b) Maintenance carbon requirements of actively-metabolizing microbial populations under in situ conditions. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 17, 197-203.
7. Anderson T.-H. and Joergensen R. G. (1997) Relationship between SIR and FE estimates of microbial biomass C in deciduous forest soils at different pH. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 29, 1033-1042.
8. Angle J. S., Chaney R. L. and Rhee D. (1993a) Bacterial resistance to heavy metals related to extractable and total metal concentrations in soil and media. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 25, 1443-1446.
9. Angle J. S., McGrath S. P., Chaudri A. M., Chaney R. L. and Giller K. E. (1993b) Inoculation effects on legumes grown in soil previously contaminated with sewage sludge. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 25, 575-580.
10. 14C-labeled glucose in soil in relation to amendment with organic materials. Soil Science and Plant Nutrition 41, 245-252.
11. Aoyama M., Itaya S. and Otowa M. (1993) Effects of copper on the decomposition of plant residues, microbial biomass and beta-glucosidase activity in soils. Soil Science and Plant Nutrition 39, 557-566.
12. Atlas, R. M. (1984) Use of microbial diversity measurements to assess environmental stress. In Current Perspectives in Microbial Ecology, eds. M. J. Klug and C. A. Reddy, pp. 540-545. American Society for Microbiology, Washington.
13. Austin M. P. (1987) Models for the analysis of species' response to environmental gradients. Vegetatio 69, 35-45.
14. Austin M. P. and Smith T. M. (1989) A new model for the continuum concept. Vegetatio 83, 35-47.
15. Bååth E. (1989) Effects of heavy metals in soil on microbial processes and populations: a review. Water, Air and Soil Pollution 47, 335-379.
16. Bååth E. (1992) Measurement of heavy metal tolerance of soil bacteria using thymidine incorporation into bacteria extracted after homogenization-centrifugation. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 24, 1167-1172.
17. Bååth, E., Díaz-Raviña, M., Frostegård, Å. and Campbell, C. (1998) The effect of metal rich sludge amendments on the soil microbial community. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 64, 238-245.
18. Babich H. and Stotzky G. (1980) Environmental factors that influence the toxicity of heavy metal and gaseous pollutants to microorganisms. CRC Critical Reviews in Microbiology 8, 99-145.
19. Balsalobre C., Calonge J., Jiménez E., Lafuente R., Mouriño M., Muño M. T., Riquelme M. and MasCastella J. (1993) Using the metabolic capacity of Rhodobacter sphaeroides to assess heavy metal toxicity. Environmental Toxicology and Water Quality 8, 437-450.
20. 14C] glucose in a pasture soil. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 26, 727-733.
21. Bardgett R. D., Speir T. W., Ross D. J., Yeates G. W. and Kettles H. A. (1994) Impact of pasture contamination by copper, chromium, and arsenic timber preservative on soil microbial properties and nematodes. Biology and Fertility of Soils 18, 71-79.
22. Barkay T. and Olson B. H. (1986) Phenotypic and genotypic adaptation of aerobic heterotrophic sediment bacterial communities to mercury stress. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 52, 403-406.
23. Barkay T., Tripp S. C. and Olson B. H. (1985) Effect of metal-rich sewage sludge application on the bacterial communities of grasslands. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 49, 333-337.
24. Belliveau B. H., Starodub M. E. and Trevors J. T. (1991) Occurrence of antibiotic and metal resistance and plasmids in Bacillus strains isolated from marine sediment. Canadian Journal of Microbiology 37, 513-520.
25. Berdicevsky I., Duek L., Merzbach D. and Yannai S. (1993) Susceptibility of different yeast species to environmental toxic metals. Environmental Pollution 80, 41-44.
26. Berg B., Ekbohm G., Söderström B. E. and Staaf H. (1991) Reduction of decomposition rates of Scots pine needle litter due to heavy-metal pollution. Water, Air and Soil Pollution 59, 165-178.
27. Bewley R. J. F. and Stotzky G. (1983a) Effects of cadmium and zinc on microbial-activity in soil; influence of clay minerals. Part I. Metals added individually. The Science of the Total Environment 31, 41-55.
28. Bewley R. J. F. and Stotzky G. (1983b) Effects of cadmium and zinc on microbial-activity in soil; influence of clay minerals. Part II. Metals added simultaneously. The Science of the Total Environment 31, 57-69.
29. Bhuiya M. R. H. and Cornfield A. H. (1972) Effects of addition of 1000 ppm Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn on carbon dioxide release during incubation of soil alone and after treatment with straw. Environmental Pollution 3, 173-177.
30. Bird N. P., Chambers J. G., Leech R. W. and Cummins D. (1985) A note on the use of metal species in microbiological tests involving growth media. Journal of Applied Bacteriology 59, 353-355.
31. Bitton G. and Koopman B. (1992) Bacterial and enzymatic bioassays for toxicity testing. Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 125, 1-22.
32. 4 to soil. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 22, 707-713.
33. 14C[U] glucose in soil is affected by the amount and timing of glucose additions. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 26, 511-517.
34. Brendecke J. W., Axelson R. D. and Pepper I. L. (1993) Soil microbial activity as an indicator of soil fertility: Long-term effects of municipal sewage sludge on an arid soil. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 25, 751-758.
35. Brookes, P. C. (1993) The potential of microbiological properties as indicators in soil pollution monitoring. In Soil Monitoring. Early Detection and Surveying of Soil Contamination and Degradation, eds. R. Schulin, A. Desaules, R. Webster and B. von Steiger, pp. 229-254. Birkhäuser Verlag, Basel.
36. Brookes P. C. and McGrath S. P. (1984) Effects of metal toxicity on the size of the soil microbial biomass. Journal of Soil Science 35, 341-346.
37. Brown P. E. and Minges G. A. (1916) The effect of some manganese salts on ammonification and nitrification. Soil Science 1, 67-85.
38. Brynhildsen L., Lundgren B. V., Allard B. and Rosswall T. (1988) Effects of glucose concentrations on cadmium, copper, mercury and zinc toxicity to a Klebsiella sp.. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 54, 1689-1693.
39. Burkhardt C., Insam H., Hutchinson T. C. and Reber H. H. (1993) Impact of heavy metals on the degradative capabilities of soil bacterial communities. Biology and Fertility of Soils 16, 154-156.
40. Campbell J. I. A., Jacobsen C. S. and Sørensen J. (1995) Species variation and plasmid incidence among fluorescent Pseudomonas strains isolated from agricultural and industrial soils. FEMS Microbiology Ecology 18, 51-62.
41. Cervantes C. (1994) Copper resistance mechanisms in bacteria and fungi. FEMS Microbiology Reviews 14, 121-138.
42. Chander K. and Brookes P. C. (1991a) Effects of heavy metals from past applications on microbial biomass and organic matter accumulation in a sandy loam U.K. soil. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 23, 927-932.
43. Chander K. and Brookes P. C. (1991b) Microbial biomass dynamics during the decomposition of glucose and maize in metal contaminated and non-contaminated soils. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 23, 917-925.
44. Chander K. and Brookes P. C. (1991c) Plant inputs of carbon to metal contaminated soil and effects on soil microbial biomass. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 23, 1169-1177.
45. Chander K. and Brookes P. C. (1991d) Is the dehydrogenase assay invalid as a method to estimate activity in copper contaminated soils? Soil Biology and Biochemistry 23, 909-915.
46. Chander K. and Brookes P. C. (1992) Synthesis of microbial biomass from added glucose in metal-contaminated and non-contaminated soils following repeated fumigation. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 24, 613-614.
47. Chang F. H. and Broadbent F. E. (1981) Influence of trace metals on carbon dioxide evolution from a Yolo soil. Soil Science 132, 416-421.
48. Chaudri, A. M. (1993) Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of London.
49. Chaudri A. M., McGrath S. P. and Giller K. E. (1992a) Metal tolerance of isolates of Rhizobium leguminosarum biovar trifolii from soil contaminated by past applications of sewage sludge. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 24, 83-88.
50. Chaudri A. M., McGrath S. P. and Giller K. E. (1992b) Survival of the indigenous population of Rhizobium leguminosarum biovar trifolii in soil spiked with Cd, Zn, Cu and Ni salts. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 24, 625-632.
51. Chaudri, A. M., McGrath, S. P., Giller, K. E., Angle J. S. and Chaney, R. L. (1993a) Screening of isolates and strains of Rhizobium leguminosarum biovar trifolii for heavy metal resistance using buffered media. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 12, 1643-1651.
52. Chaudri A. M., McGrath S. P., Giller K. E., Rietz E. and Sauerbeck D. (1993b) Enumeration of indigenous Rhizobium leguminosarum biovar trifolii in soils previously treated with metal-contaminated sewage sludge. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 25, 301-309.
53. Checkai R. T., Corey R. B. and Helmke P. A. (1987) Effects of ionic and complexed metal concentrations on plant uptake of cadmium and micronutrient metals from solution. Plant and Soil 99, 335-345.
54. Christensen T. H. (1984) Cadmium soil sorption at low concentrations. I. Effect of time, cadmium load, pH and calcium. Water, Air and Soil Pollution 21, 105-114.
55. Christie P. and Beattie J. A. M. (1989) Grassland soil microbial biomass and accumulation of potentially toxic metals from long term slurry application. Journal of Applied Ecology 26, 597-612.
56. Codina J. C., Peréz-García G. A., Romero P. and De Vicente A. (1993) A comparison of microbial bioassays for the detection of metal toxicity. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 25, 250-254.
57. Connell J. H. (1978) Diversity in tropical rainforests and coral reefs. Science 199, 1302-1310.
58. Cooksey D. A. (1993) Copper uptake and resistance in bacteria. Molecular Microbiology 7, 1-5.
59. Cornfield A. H. (1977) Effects of addition of 12 metals on carbon dioxide release during incubation of and acid sandy soil. Geoderma 19, 199-203.
60. Coughtrey P. J., Jones C. H., Martin M. H. and Shales S. W. (1979) Litter accumulation in woodlands contaminated by Pb, Zn, Cd and Cu. Oecologia 39, 51-60.
61. Dahlin, S. and Witter, E. (1998) Can the low microbial biomass C-to-organic C ratios in an acid and a metal contaminated soil be explained by differences in growth characteristics, substrate utilisation efficiency or maintenance requirements? Soil Biology and Biochemistry. In press.
62. Dahlin S., Witter E., Mårtensson A. M., Turner A. and Bååth E. (1997) Where's the limit? Changes in the microbiological properties of agricultural soils at low levels of metal contamination Soil Biology and Biochemistry 29, 1405-1415.
63. Daif M. A. and Beusichem M. L. (1981) Effects of some trace elements on urea hydrolysis in soils. Netherlands Journal of Agricultural Science 29, 249-257.
64. Dar G. H. and Mishra M. M. (1994) Influence of cadmium on carbon and nitrogen mineralization in sewage sludge amended soils. Environmental Pollution 84, 285-290.
65. Denneman, C. A. J. and van Gestel, C. A. M. (1990) Bodemverontreiniging en Bodemecosystemen: Voorstel voor C-(toetsings)waarden op Basis van Ecotoxicological Risico's. RIVM (National Institute of Public Health and Environmental Protection), Bilthoven, The Netherlands.
66. Department of the Environment (1989) Code of Practice for the Agricultural Use of Sewage Sludge. HMSO, London.
67. Díaz-Raviña M., Bååth E. and Frostegård A. (1994) Multiple heavy metal tolerance of soil bacterial communities and its measurement by a thymidine incorporation technique. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 60, 2238-2247.
68. Díaz-Raviña M. and Bååth E. (1996) The development of metal tolerance in soil bacterial communities exposed to experimentally increased metal levels. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 62, 2970-2977.
69. Diels L. and Mergeay M. (1990) DNA probe-mediated detection of resistant bacteria from soils highly polluted by heavy metals. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 56, 1485-1491.
70. Doelman P. and Haanstra L. (1979) Effects of lead on soil respiration and dehydrogenase activity. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 11, 475-479.
71. Doelman P. and Haanstra L. (1984) Short-term and long-term effects of cadmium, chromium, copper, nickel, lead and zinc on soil microbial respiration in relation to abiotic soil factors. Plant and Soil 79, 317-327.
72. Doelman P. and Haanstra L. (1986) Short and long term effects of heavy metals on urease activity in soils. Biology and Fertility of Soils 2, 213-218.
73. Doelman P., Jansen E., Michels M. and van Til M. (1994) Effects of heavy metals in soil on microbial diversity and activity as shown by the sensitivity-resistance index, an ecologically relevant parameter. Biology and Fertility of Soil 17, 177-184.
74. Dumontet S. and Mathur S. P. (1989) Evaluation of respiration based methods for measuring microbial biomass in metal contaminated acidic mineral and organic soils. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 21, 431-436.
75. Dumontet S., Dinel H. and Lévesque P. E. N. (1992) The distribution of pollutant heavy metals and their effect on soil respiration and acid phosphatase activity in mineral soils of the Rouyn-Noranda region, Québec. Science of the Total Environment 121, 231-245.
76. El-Aziz R., Angle J. S. and Chaney R. L. (1991) Metal tolerance of Rhizobium meliloti isolated from heavy metal contaminated soil. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 23, 795-798.
77. Filser J., Fromm H., Nagel R. F. and Winter K. (1995) Effects of previous intensive agricultural management on microorganisms and the biodiversity of soil fauna. Plant and Soil 170, 123-129.
78. Flemming C. A. and Trevors J. T. (1989) Copper toxicity and chemistry in the environment: A review. Water, Air and Soil Pollution 44, 143-158.
79. Fließbach, A. and Reber, H. H. (1992) Effects of long term sewage sludge applications on soil microbial parameters. In Effects of Organic Contaminants in Sewage Sludge on Soil Fertility, Plants and Animals. Document No. EUR14236, eds. J. E. Hall, D. R. Sauerbeck and P. L'Hermite, pp. 184-192. Office for Official Publications of the European Community, Luxembourg.
80. Fließbach A., Martens R. and Reber H. H. (1994) Soil microbial biomass and microbial activity in soils treated with heavy metal contaminated sewage sludge. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 26, 1201-1205.
81. Frankenberger W. T., Johanson J. B. and Lund L. J. (1986) Effects of trace elements and pesticides on dephosphorylation of RNA and DNA added to soils. Journal of Environmental Quality 15, 81-86.
82. Freedman B. and Hutchinson T. C. (1980) Effects of smelter pollutants on forest litter decomposition near a nickel copper smelter at Sudbury, Ontario. Canadian Journal of Botany 58, 1722-1736.
83. Frostegård Å., Tunlid A. and Bååth E. (1993) Phospholipid fatty acid composition, biomass and activity of microbial communities from two soil types experimentally exposed to different metals. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 59, 3605-3617.
84. Frostegård Å., Tunlid A. and Bååth E. (1996) Changes in microbial community structure during long-term incubation in two soils experimentally contaminated with metals. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 28, 55-63.
85. Gadd G. M. (1990) Heavy metal accumulation by bacteria and other microorganisms. Experientia 46, 834-840.
86. Gadd G. M. (1992) Metals and microorganisms: a problem of definition. FEMS Microbiology Letters 100, 197-203.
87. Gadd G. M. and Griffiths A. J. (1978) Microorganisms and heavy metal toxicity. Microbial Ecology 4, 303-317.
88. Giashuddin M. and Cornfield A. H. (1978) Incubation studies on effects of adding varying levels of nickel (as sulphate) on nitrogen and carbon mineralization in soil. Environmental Pollution 15, 231-234.
89. Giashuddin M. and Cornfield A. H. (1979) Effects of adding nickel (as oxide) to soil on nitrogen and carbon mineralization at different pH values. Environmental Pollution 19, 67-70.
90. Giller, K. E. (1996) Microbial ecology of tropical soils. In Soil Microbiology: Challenges of the XXI Century. III Symposio Brasiliero sobre Microbiologia do Solo, eds. M. Hungria, E. L. Balota, A. Colozzi-Filho and D. S. Andrade, pp. 188-210. IAPAR, Londrina, Parana.
91. Giller K. E. and McGrath S. P. (1989) Muck, metals and microbes. New Scientist 124(1689), 31-32.
92. 2-fixation by isotope-dilution. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 19, 459-463.
93. Giller K. E., McGrath S. P. and Hirsch P. R. (1989) Absence of nitrogen fixation in clover grown on soil subject to long term contamination with heavy metals is due to survival of only ineffective Rhizobium. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 21, 841-848.
94. Giller K. E., Nussbaum R., Chaudri A. M. and McGrath S. P. (1993) Rhizobium meliloti is less sensitive to heavy-metal contamination in soil than R. leguminosarum bv. trifolii or R. loti. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 25, 273-278.
95. Giller K. E., Beare M. H., Lavelle P., Izac A.-M. N. and Swift M. J. (1997) Agricultural intensification, soil biodiversity and ecosystem function. Applied Soil Ecology 6, 3-16.
96. Gordon A. S., Harwood V. J. and Sayyar S. (1993) Growth, copper-tolerant cells, and extracellular protein production in copper stressed cultures of Vibrio alginolyticus. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 59, 60-66.
97. Grime J. P. (1977) Evidence for the existence of three primary strategies in plants and its relevance to ecological and evolutionary theory. American Naturalist 111, 1169-1194.
98. Grime, J. P. (1979) Plant Strategies and Vegetation Processes. John Wiley, New York.
99. Haanstra L. and Doelman P. (1984) Glutamic acid decomposition as a sensitive measure of heavy-metal pollution in soil. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 16, 595-600.
100. Haanstra L. and Doelman P. (1991) An ecological dose-response model approach to short-and long-term effects of heavy metals on arylsulphatase activity in soil. Biology and Fertility of Soils 11, 18-23.
101. Haanstra L., Doelman P. and Oude Voshaar J. H. (1985) The use of sigmoidal dose response curves in soil ecotoxicological research. Plant and Soil 84, 293-297.
102. Harden T., Joergensen R. G., Meyer B. and Wolters V. (1993) Mineralization of straw and formation of soil microbial biomass in a soil treated with simazine and dinoterb. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 25, 1273-1276.
103. Harris, P. J. (1994) Consequences of the spatial distribution of microbial communities in soil. In Beyond the Biomass. Compositional and Functional Analysis of Soil Microbial Communities, eds. K. Ritz, J. Dighton and K. E. Giller, pp. 239-246. John Wiley, Chichester.
104. Hattori H. (1991) Influence of cadmium on decomposition of glucose and cellulose in soil. Soil Science and Plant Nutrition 37, 39-46.
105. Hattori H. (1992) Influence of heavy metals on soil microbial activities. Soil Science and Plant Nutrition 38, 93-100.
106. Heckman J. R., Angle J. S. and Chaney R. L. (1986) Soybean nodulation and nitrogen fixation on soil previously amended with sewage sludge. Biology and Fertility of Soils 2, 181-185.
107. Hernandez B. S. and Focht D. D. (1984) Invalidity of the concept of slow growth and alkali production in cowpea rhizobia. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 48, 206-210.
108. Hess T. F., Schmidt S. K. and Colores G. M. (1996) Maintenance energy model for microbial degradation of toxic chemicals in soil. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 28, 907-915.
109. Hirsch P. R., Jones M. J., McGrath S. P. and Giller K. E. (1993) Heavy-metals from past applications of sewage sludge decrease the genetic diversity of Rhizobium leguminosarum biovar trifolii populations. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 25, 1485-1490.
110. Holm P. E., Christensen T. H., Tjell J. C. and McGrath S. P. (1995) Speciation of cadmium and zinc with application to soil solutions. Journal of Environmental Quality 24, 183-190.
111. Hughes M. N. and Poole R. K. (1991) Metal speciation and microbial growth: the hard (and soft) facts. Journal of General Microbiology 137, 725-734.
112. Huysman F., Verstraete W. and Brookes P. C. (1994) Effect of manuring practices and increased copper concentrations on soil microbial populations. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 26, 103-110.
113. Ibekwe A. M., Angle J. S., Chaney R. L. and van Berkum P. (1995) Sewage sludge and heavy metal effects on nodulation and nitrogen fixation in legumes. Journal of Environmental Quality 24, 1199-1204.
114. Insam H., Hutchinson T. C. and Reber H. H. (1996) Effects of heavy metal stress on the metabolic quotient of the soil microflora. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 28, 691-694.
115. Kandeler E., Lüftenegger G. and Schwarz S. (1992) Soil microbial processes and testacea (protozoa) as indicators of heavy metal pollution. Zeitschrift für Pflanzenernährung und Bodenkunde 155, 319-322.
116. Kandeler E., Kampichler C. and Horak O. (1996) Influence of heavy metals on the functional diversity of soil microbial communities. Biology and Fertility of Soils 23, 299-306.
117. Killham K. (1985) A physiological determination of the impact of environmental stress on the activity of microbial biomass. Environmental Pollution (Series A) 38, 283-294.
118. Kinkle B. K., Angle J. S. and Keyser H. H. (1987) Long-term effects of metal rich sewage sludge applications on soil populations of Bradyrhizobium japonicum. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 53, 315-319.
119. Knight B. and McGrath S. P. (1995) A method to buffer the concentrations of free Zn and Cd ions using a cation exchange resin in bacterial toxicity studies. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 14, 2033-2039.
120. Knight B., McGrath S. P. and Chaudri A. M. (1997) Biomass carbon measurements and substrate utilization patterns of microbial populations from soils amended with cadmium, copper or zinc. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 63, 39-43.
121. Kozdrój J. (1995) Microbial responses to single or successive soil contamination with Cd or Cu. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 27, 1459-1465.
122. Kuperman R. G. and Carreiro M. M. (1997) Soil heavy metal concentrations, microbial biomass and enzyme activities in a contaminated grassland ecosystem. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 29, 179-190.
123. 14C-labelled plant residues. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 27, 777-783.
124. Leita L., Denobili M., Muhlbachova G., Mondini C., Marchiol L. and Zerbi G. (1995) Bioavailability and effects of heavy metals on soil microbial biomass survival during laboratory incubation. Biology and Fertility of Soils 19, 103-108.
125. Leung, D. and Miles, R. J. (1991) Heavy metal resistant strains of Rhizobium leguminosarum biovar trifolii: isolation, characterisation and root nodule induction. In Heavy Metals in the Environment, pp. 302-305. CEP, Edinburgh.
126. Lighthart B., Baham J. and Volk V. V. (1983) Microbial respiration and chemical speciation in metal-amended soils. Journal of Environmental Quality 12, 543-548.
127. Lilley A. K., Bailey M. J., Day M. J. and Fry J. C. (1996) Diversity of mercury resistance plasmids obtained by exogenous isolation from the bacteria of sugar-beet in 3 successive years. FEMS Microbiology Ecology 20, 211-227.
128. Lin Q. and Brookes P. C. (1996) Comparison of methods to measure microbial biomass in unamended, ryegrass amended and fumigated soils. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 28, 933-939.
129. Lipman C. B. and Burgess P. S. (1914) The effects of copper, zinc, iron and lead salts on ammonification and nitrification in soils. University of California Publications in Agricultural Science 1, 127-139.
130. Liu Y. (1996a) Bioenergetic interpretation on the S-0/X-0 ratio in substrate-sufficient batch culture. Water Research 30, 2766-2770.
131. Liu Y. (1996b) A growth yield model for substrate-sufficient continuous culture of microorganisms. Environmental Technology 17, 649-653.
132. Long, E. (1989) Metal that spoils all soils. Farmers Weekly 26th May, 56-57.
133. MAFF/DoE (1993) Review of the Rules for Sewage Sludge Application to Agricultural Land: Soil Fertility Aspects of Potentially Toxic Elements. Report of the Independent Scientific Committee, PB 1561, MAFF Publications, London.
134. Maliszewska W., Dec S., Wierzbicka H. and Wozniakowska A. (1985) The influence of various heavy metal compounds on the development and activity of soil micro-organisms. Environmental Pollution (Series A) 37, 195-215.
135. Mårtensson A. M. and Witter E. (1990) Influence of various soil amendments on nitrogen-fixing soil microorganisms in a long-term field experiment, with special reference to sewage sludge. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 22, 977-982.
136. Mateos M. P. and Carcedo S. G. (1988) Influence of heavy metals on soil oxidoreductases. Biological Agriculture and Horticulture 5, 135-142.
137. Mathur S. P., Hamilton H. A. and Levesque M. P. (1979) The mitigating effect of residual fertilizer copper on the decomposition of an organic soil in situ. Soil Science Society of America Journal 43, 200-203.
138. McGrath, S. P. (1987) Long-term metal transfers following applications of sewage sludge. In Pollutant Transport and Fate in Ecosystems, eds. P. J. Coughtrey, M. H. Martin and M. H. Unsworth, pp. 301-317. Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford.
139. McGrath, S. P. (1994) Effects of heavy metals from sewage sludge on soil microbes in agricultural ecosystems. In Toxic Metals in Soil-Plant Systems, ed. S. M. Ross, pp. 242-274. John Wiley, Chichester.
140. McGrath S. P., Sanders J. R., Laurie S. H. and Tanock N. P. (1986) Experimental determinations and computer predictions of trace metal ion concentrations in dilute complex solutions. Analyst 111, 459-465.
141. McGrath S. P., Brookes P. C. and Giller K. E. (1988) Effects of potentially toxic metals in soil derived from past applications of sewage sludge on nitrogen fixation by Trifolium repens L.. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 20, 415-424.
142. McGrath S. P., Chang A. C., Page A. L. and Witter E. (1994) Land application of sewage sludge: scientific perspectives of heavy metal loading limits in Europe and the United States. Environmental Reviews 2, 1-11.
143. McGrath S. P., Chaudri A. M. and Giller K. E. (1995) Long-term effects of land application of sewage sludge: Soils, microorganisms and plants. Journal of Industrial Microbiology 14, 94-104.
144. Mehra R. K. and Winge D. R. (1991) Metal ion resistance in fungi: molecular mechanisms and their regulated expression. Biotechnology Letters 14, 7-10.
145. Mergeay M., Nies D., Schlegel H. G., Gerits J., Charles P. and van Gijsegem F. (1985) Alcaligenes eutrophus CH34 is a facultative chemolithotroph with plasmid-bound resistance to heavy metals. Journal of Bacteriology 162, 328-334.
146. Mikkelsen J. P. (1974) Indvirkning af bly på jordbundens mikrobiologiske aktivitet. Statens Forsøgsvirksomhed i Plantekultur 1173, 509-516.
147. Minnich M. M. and McBride M. B. (1986) Effect of copper activity on carbon and nitrogen mineralization in field-aged copper-enriched soils. Plant and Soil 91, 231-240.
148. Morgan, H. E. (1988) The Shipham report: An investigation into Cd contamination and its implications for human health. Science of the Total Environment, Special Issue 75.
149. Naidu C. K. and Reddy T. K. R. (1988) Effect of cadmium on microorganisms and microbe-mediated mineralization process in soil. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 41, 657-663.
150. Nies D.H., Nies A., Chu L. and Silver S. (1989) Expression and nucleotide sequence of a plasmid-determined divalent cation efflux system from Alcaligenes eutrophus. Proceedings of the National Academy of the U.S.A. 86, 7351-7355.
151. Nordgren A., Bååth E. and Söderström B. E. (1988) Evaluation of soil respiration characteristics to assess heavy metal effects on soil microorganisms using glutamic acid as a substrate. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 20, 949-954.
152. Obbard J. P. and Jones K. C. (1993a) The effect of heavy metals on dinitrogen fixation by Rhizobium-white clover in a range of long-term sewage sludge amended and metal contaminated soils. Environmental Pollution 79, 105-112.
153. Obbard J. P. and Jones K. C. (1993b) The use of the cotton-strip assay to assess cellulose decomposition in heavy metal-contaminated sewage sludge-amended soils. Environmental Pollution 81, 173-178.
154. Obbard J. P., Sauerbeck D. R. and Jones K. C. (1993) Rhizobium leguminosarum bv. trifolii in soils amended with heavy metal contaminated sewage sludges. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 25, 227-231.
155. Ocio J. A. and Brookes P. C. (1990) An evaluation of methods for measuring the microbial biomass in soils following recent additions of wheat straw and the characterization of the biomass that develops. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 22, 685-694.
156. 14C-glucose. Biology and Fertility of Soils 1, 117-122.
157. Olson B. H., Lester J. N., Cayless S. M. and Ford S. (1989) Distribution of mercury resistance determinants in bacterial communities of river sediments. Water Research 23, 271-277.
158. Olson B. H. and Thornton I. (1982) The resistance patterns to metals of bacterial populations in contaminated land. Journal of Soil Science 33, 271-277.
159. Pepper I. L., Brendecke J. W. and Axelson R. D. (1994) Letter to the Editor: Metal contamination on soil microorganisms. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 26, 1099.
160. Pirt S. J. (1965) The maintenance energy of bacteria in growing cultures. Proceedings of the Royal Society London Series B 163, 224-231.
161. Pirt, S. J. (1975) Principles of Microbe and Cell Cultivation. Blackwell, Oxford.
162. Pirt S. J. (1982) Maintenance energy: a general model for energy-limited and energy-sufficient growth. Archives of Microbiology 133, 300-302.
163. Post R. D. and Beeby A. N. (1993) Microbial biomass in suburban roadside soils: Estimates based on extracted microbial carbon and ATP. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 25, 199-204.
164. Purchase D., Miles R. J. and Young T. W. K. (1997) Cadmium uptake and nitrogen fixing ability in heavy-metal-resistant laboratory and field strains of Rhizobium leguminosarum biovar trifolii. FEMS Microbiology Ecology 22, 85-93.
165. Reber H. H. (1989) Threshold levels of cadmium for soil respiration and growth of spring wheat (Triticum aestivum, L.) and difficulties with their determination. Biology and Fertility of Soils 7, 152-157.
166. Reber H. H. (1992) Simultaneous estimates of the diversity and the degradative capability of heavy-metal-affected soil bacterial communities. Biology and Fertility of Soils 13, 181-186.
167. Romandini P., Tallandini L., Beltramini M., Salvato B. and Manzano M. (1992) Effects of copper and cadmium on growth, superoxide dismutase and catalase activities in different yeast strains. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology 103C, 255-262.
168. Ross, I. S. (1993) Membrane transport processes and response to heavy metals. In Stress Tolerance of Fungi, ed. D. H. Jennings, pp. 97-125. Marcel Dekker, New York.
169. Roszak D. B. and Colwell R. R. (1987) Survival strategies of bacteria in natural environments. Microbiological Reviews 51, 365-379.
170. Rother J. A., Millbank J. W. and Thornton I. (1983) Nitrogen fixation by white clover (Trifolium repens) in grassland soils contaminated with cadmium, lead and zinc. Journal of Soil Science 34, 127-136.
171. Rozenzweig, M. L. and Abramsky, Z. (1993) How are diversity and productivity related? In Species Diversity in Ecological Communities: Historical and Gegraphical Perspectives, eds. R. E. Ricklefs and D. Schluter, pp. 52-65. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
172. Rühling A. and Tyler G. (1973) Heavy metal pollution and decomposition of spruce needle litter. Oikos 24, 402-416.
173. Sanders J. R., McGrath S. P. and Adams T. M. (1986) Zinc, copper and nickel concentrations in ryegrass grown on sludge-contaminated soils of different pH. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 37, 961-968.
174. Saviozzi A., Levi-Menzi R., Cardelli R. and Riffaldi R. (1997) The influence of heavy metals on carbon dioxide evolution from a typic xerochrept soil. Water, Air and Soil Pollution 93, 409-417.
175. Schinner F. and Brunner I. (1984) Effect of lead and cadmium on the microbial activity of a soil. Bodenkultur 35, 1-12.
176. Shrotriya N., Joshi J. K., Mukhiya Y. K. and Singh V. P. (1984) Toxicity assessment of selected heavy metals, herbicides and fertilizers in agriculture. International Journal of Environmental Studies 22, 245-248.
177. Silver S. and Misra T. K. (1988) Plasmid-mediated heavy metal resistances. Annual Reviews of Microbiology 42, 717-743.
178. Silver S., Nucifora G., Chu L. and Misra T. K. (1989) Bacterial resistance ATPases: primary pumps for exporting toxic cations and anions. Trends in Biochemical Sciences 14, 76-80.
179. Skeffington R. A. and Bradshaw A. D. (1980) Nitrogen fixation by plants grown on reclaimed china clay waste. Journal of Applied Ecology 17, 469-477.
180. Smith, S. R. (1996) Agricultural Recycling of Sewage Sludge and the Environment. CAB International, Wallingford.
181. Smith S. R. and Giller K. E. (1992) Effective Rhizobium leguminosarum biovar trifolii present in five soils contaminated with heavy metals from long-term applications of sewage sludge or metal mine spoil. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 24, 781-788.
182. Sørensen L. H. (1983) Size and persistence of the microbial biomass formed during the humification of glucose, hemicellulose, cellulose, and straw in soils containing different amounts of clay. Plant and Soil 75, 121-130.
183. Speir T. W., Kettles H. A., Parshotam A., Searle P. L. and Vlaar L. N. C. (1995) A simple kinetic approach to derive the ecological dose value, ED(50), for the assessment of Cr(VI) toxicity to soil biological properties. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 27, 801-810.
184. Stadelmann F. X., Gupta S. K., Rudaz A. and Santschi-Fuhrimann E. (1984) Die Schwermetallbelastung des Bodens als Gefahr für die Bodenmikroorganismen. Schweizerische Landwirtschaftliche Forschung 23, 227-239.
185. Stadelmann, F. X. and Santschi-Fuhrimann, E. (1987) Beitrag zur Abstützung von Schwermetall-Richtwerten im Boden mit Hilfe von Bodenatmungsmessungen. Eidgenössische Forschungsanstalt für Agrikulturchemie und Umwelthygiene (FAC), Liebefeld-Bern.
186. Stoppel R. D. and Schlegel H. G. (1995) Nickel-resistant bacteria from anthropogenically nickel-polluted and naturally nickel-percolated ecosystems. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 61, 2276-2285.
187. Strojan C. L. (1978) Forest leaf litter decomposition in the vicinity of a zinc smelter. Oecologia 32, 203-212.
188. Sunda W. G., Engel D. W. and Thuotte R. M. (1978) Effect of chemical speciation on toxicity of cadmium to grass shrimp. Environmental Science and Technology 12, 409-413.
189. Tabatabai M. A. (1977) Effects of trace elements on urease activity in soils. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 9, 9-13.
190. Tempest, D. W. and Neijssel, O. M. (1980) Growth yield values in relation to respiration. In Diversity of Bacterial Respiratory Systems, ed. C. J. Knowles, Vol. 2, pp. 1-31. CRC Press, Boca Raton.
191. Tiller K., Merry R. and McLaughlin M. (1994) Cadmium: a modern day problem. Rural Research 162, 32-35.
192. Tomsett, A. B. (1993) Genetics and molecular biology of metal tolerance in fungi. In Stress Tolerance of Fungi, ed. D. H. Jennings, pp. 69-95. Marcel Dekker, New York.
193. Torslov J. (1993) Comparison of bacterial toxicity tests based on growth, dehydrogenase activity and esterase activity of Pseudomonas fluorescens. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety 25, 33-40.
194. Torsvik V., Goksøyr J. and Daae F. L. (1990) High diversity in DNA of soil bacteria. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 56, 782-787.
195. Torsvik, V., Goksøyr, J., Daae, F. L., Sørheim, R., Michalsen, J. and Salte, K. (1994) Use of DNA analysis to determine the diversity of microbial communities. In Beyond the Biomass. Compositional and Functional Analysis of Soil Microbial Communities, eds. K. Ritz, J. Dighton and K. E. Giller, pp. 39-48. John Wiley, Chichester.
196. Trevors J. T. and Cotter C. M. (1990) Copper toxicity and uptake in microorganisms. Journal of Industrial Microbiology 6, 77-84.
197. Tsai C.-S., Killham K. and Cresser M. S. (1997) Dynamic response of microbial biomass, respiration rate and ATP to glucose additions. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 29, 1249-1256.
198. Tu C. M. (1988) Effects of selected pesticides on activities of invertase, amylase and microbial respiration in sandy soil. Chemosphere 17, 159-163.
199. Turner, A., Dahlin, S. and Knight, B. (1998) Survival of Rhizobium leguminosarum bv. trifolii and size and turnover of microbial biomass in soils amended with metal salts. Soil Biology and Biochemistry. In press.
200. Turner, A. P., Giller, K. E. and McGrath, S. P. (1993) Long-term effects on Rhizobium leguminosarum bv. trifolii of heavy metal contamination of land from the application of sewage sludge. In Heavy Metals in the Environment, pp. 442-445. CEP Consultants, Ottawa.
201. Tyler, G. (1975) Effect of heavy metal pollution on decomposition and mineralization rates in forest soil. In Heavy Metals in the Environment, eds. T. C. Hutchinson, A. L. Page and J. C. Loon, pp. 217-226. Toronto, Canada.
202. Tyler G., Balsberg-Påhlsson A. M., Bengtsson G., Bååth E. and Tranvik L. (1989) Heavy-metal ecology of terrestrial plants, microorganisms and invertebrates: a review. Water, Air and Soil Pollution 47, 189-215.
203. Valsecchi G., Gigliotti C. and Farini A. (1995) Microbial biomass, activity and organic matter accumulation in soils contaminated with heavy metals. Biology and Fertility of Soils 20, 253-259.
204. Van Beelen P., Fleuren-Kemilä A. K., Huys M. P. A., van Montfort A. C. P. and van Vlaardingen P. L. A. (1991) The toxic effects of pollutants on the mineralization of acetate in subsoil microcosms. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 10, 775-789.
205. Van Berg, R., Denneman, C. A. J. and Roels, J. M. (1993) Risk assessment of contaminated soil: Proposal for adjusted, toxicologically based Dutch clean-up criteria. In Contaminated Soil '93, eds. F. Arendt, G. J. Annokkée, R. Bosman and W. J. van den Brink, pp. 349-364. Kluwer Academic Publishers, The Netherlands.
206. 4 under different moisture regimes. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 17, 747-756.
207. Vance E. D., Brookes P. C. and Jenkinson D. S. (1987) An extraction method for measuring soil microbial biomass carbon. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 19, 703-707.
208. Walker, D. (1989) Diversity and stability. In Ecological Concepts, ed. J. M. Cherrett, pp. 115-145. Blackwell, Oxford.
209. 2) as a bioindicator of disturbance and ecosystem development. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 27, 1601-1610.
210. Wardle D. A. and Giller K. E. (1996) The quest for a contemporary ecological dimension to soil biology. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 28, 1549-1554.
211. Welp, G. (1987) Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Christian-Albrechts Universität, Kiel.
212. Welp G. and Brümmer G. (1985) Der Fe(III)-reduktionstest: ein einfaches Verfahren zur Abschätzung der Wirkung von Umweltchemikalien auf die mikrobielle Aktivität in Böden. Zeitschrift für Pflanzenernährung und Bodenkunde 148, 10-23.
213. Welp G., Brümmer G. W. and Rave G. (1991) Dosis Wirkungs Beziehungen zur Erfassung von Chemikalien wirkungen auf die mikrobielle Aktivität von Böden I. Kurven-verläufe und Auswertungsmöglichkeiten. Zeitschrift für Pflanzenernährung und Bodenkunde 154, 159-168.
214. Witter, E. (1992) Heavy Metal Concentrations in Agricultural Soils Critical to Microorganisms. Report No. 4079. Swedish Environmental Protection Agency, Solna.
215. Witter E. (1996a) Towards zero accumulation of heavy metals in soils: an imperative or a fad? Fertilizer Research 43, 225-233.
216. Witter E. (1996b) Soil C balance in a long-term field experiment in relation to the size of the microbial biomass. Biology and Fertility of Soils 23, 33-37.
217. 13C]-labelled glucose in soils of contrasting pH and metal status. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 27, 1507-1516.
218. Witter E. and Kanal A. (1998) Characteristics of the soil microbial biomass in soils from a long-term field experiment with different levels of C input. Applied Soil Ecology. In press.
219. Witter E., Mårtensson A. M. and Garcia F. V. (1993) Size of the soil microbial biomass in a long-term field experiment as affected by different N-fertilizers and organic manures. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 25, 659-669.
220. Witter E., Giller K. E. and McGrath S. P. (1994a) Long-term effects of metal contamination on soil microorganisms. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 26, 421-422.
221. Witter E., Giller K. E. and McGrath S. P. (1994b) Letter to the Editor: response. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 26, 1100.
222. Wolt, J. (1994) Soil Solution Chemistry. John Wiley, New York.
223. Wolters V. and Joergensen R. G. (1991) Microbial carbon turnover in beech forest soils at different stages of acidification. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 23, 897-902.
224. Wu J., Brookes P. C. and Jenkinson D. S. (1993) Formation and destruction of microbial biomass during the decomposition of glucose and ryegrass in soil. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 25, 1435-1441.
225. Yeates G. W., Orchard V. A., Speir T. W., Hunt J. L. and Hermans M. C. C. (1994) Impact of pasture contamination by copper, chromium, arsenic and timber preservative on soil biological activity. Biology and Fertility of Soils 18, 200-208.
226. Young, J. P. W. (1994) Sex and the single cell: The population ecology and genetics of microbes. In Beyond the Biomass. Compositional and Functional Analysis of Soil Microbial Communities, eds. K. Ritz, J. Dighton and K. E. Giller, pp. 101-107. John Wiley, Chichester.
227. 2 in various soils. Toxicological and Environmental Chemistry 30, 177-181.
228. Zelles L., Bai Q. Y., Ma R. X., Rackwitz R., Winter K. and Beese F. (1994) Microbial biomass, metabolic activity and nutritional status determined from fatty acid patterns and poly-hydroxybutyrate in agriculturally-managed soils. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 26, 439-446.