The auriferous late Archaean sedimentation systems of South Africa: unique palaeo-environmental conditions?

Sedimentary Geology

Volumn 120, Issue 1-4, 1998, Pages 205-224

  Els, B G ^a  

^a Dept of Plant and Soil Sci P   (South Africa)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ARCHAEAN; GOLD; PALAEOENVIRONEMNT; PLACER DEPOSIT; SEDIMENTATION;

SOUTH AFRICA;

EID: 0032169446     PISSN: 00370738     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S0037-0738(98)00033-5     Document Type: Article

References (92)

1. Ainsworth R.B., Walker R.G. Control of estuarine valley-fill deposition by fluctuations of relative sea level, Cretaceous Bearpaw-Horeshoe Canyon transition, Drumheller, Alberta, Canada. In: Dalrymple, R.W., Boyd, R., Zaitlin, B.A. (Eds.), Incised-Valley Systems: Origin and Sedimentary Sequences. Soc. Econ. Paleontol. Mineral. Spec. Publ. 51:1994;159-174.
2. Allen J.R.L. The classification of cross-stratified units, with notes on their origin. Sedimentology. 2:1963;93-114.
3. Allen, J.R.L., 1977. Physical Processes of Sedimentation. George Allen and Unwin Ltd., London, 248 pp.
4. Antrobus E.S.A. The origin of the auriferous reefs of the Witwatersrand System. Trans. Geol. Soc. S. Afr. 59:1956;1-15.
5. Antrobus, E.S.A., Brink, W.C.J., Brink, M.C., Caulkin, J., Hutchinson, R.I., Thomas, D.E., Van Graan, J.A., Viljoen, J.J., 1986. The Klerksdorp Goldfield. In: Anhaeusser, C.R., Maske, S. (Eds.), Mineral Deposits of Southern Africa, Vol. 1. Geol. Soc. S. Afr., Johannesburg, pp. 549-598.
6. Archer A.W., Lanier W.P., Feldman H.R. Stratigraphy and depositional history within incised paleovalley fills and related facies, Douglas Group (Missourian/Virgilian; Upper Cretaceous) of Kansas, U.S.A. In: Dalrymple, R.W., Boyd, R., Zaitlin, B.A. (Eds.), Incised-Valley Systems: Origin and Sedimentary Sequences. Soc. Econ. Paleontol. Mineral. Spec. Publ. 51:1994;175-190.
7. Austin, M.A., 1986. Topographical control of facies in the Proterozoic Carbon Leader placer. Extended Abstracts, Geocongress '86. Geol. Soc. S. Afr., Johannesburg, pp. 437-440.
8. Bailey A.C., Law J.D.M., Cadle A.B., Phillips G.N. The Zandfontein Quartzite Formation, a marine deposit in the Central Rand Group Witwatersrand Supergroup. S. Afr. J. Geol. 93:1990;135-146.
9. Bain G.W. Discussion on 'The occurrence and origin of gold and radioactive minerals in the Witwatersrand System, the Dominion Reef, the Ventersdorp Contact Reef and the Black Reef' by W.R. Liebenberg. Trans. Geol. Soc. S. Afr. 58:1955;236-240.
10. Bates, R.L., Jackson, J.A. (Eds.), 1987. Glossary of Geology. Am. Geol. Inst., Alexandria, Va, 788 pp.
11. Becker G.F. The Witwatersrand Banket, with notes on other gold-bearing pudding stones. Annu. Rep. U.S. Geol. Surv. 18:1897;153-184.
12. Beukes N.J., Cairncross B. A lithostratigraphic-sedimentological reference profile for the Late Archaean Mozaan Group, Pongola Sequence: application to sequence stratigraphy and correlation with the Witwatersrand Supergroup. S. Afr. J. Geol. 94:1991;44-69.
13. Beukes, N.J., Nelson, J.P., 1995. Sea level fluctuations and basin subsidence controls on the setting of auriferous palaeoplacers in the Archaean Witwatersrand Supergroup: a genetic and sequence stratigraphic approach. Extended Abstracts, Geocongress '95. Geol. Soc. S. Afr., Johannesburg, pp. 860-863.
14. Boothroyd J.C., Ashley G.M. Processes, bar morphology, and sedimentary structures on braided outwash fans, northeastern gulf of Alaska. In: Jopling, A.V., McDonald, B.C. (Eds.), Glaciofluvial and Glaciolacustrine Sedimentation. Soc. Econ. Paleontol. Mineral. Spec. Publ. 23:1975;193-223.
15. Borchers, R., 1964. Exploration of the Witwatersrand System and its extensions: In: Haughton, S.H. (Ed.), The Geology of Some Ore Deposits in Southern Africa, I. Geol. Soc. S. Afr., Johannesburg, pp. 1-24.
16. Bosch, P.J.A., 1992. Die Geologie van die Wolkberg Groep tussen die Abel Erasmuspas en Graskop, Oos-Transvaal. M.Sc. dissertation, Univ. Pretoria, 290 pp.
17. Boyle, R.W., 1979. The geochemistry of gold and its deposits. Geol. Soc. Can. Bull. 280, 584 pp.
18. Brock, B.B., Pretorius, D.A., 1964. Rand basin sedimentation and tectonics. In: Haughton, S.H. (Ed.), The Geology of Some Ore Deposits in Southern Africa, I. Geol. Soc. S. Afr., Johannesburg, pp. 549-600.
19. Brouwer, J., 1986. Post-Carbon Leader Erosion Channel Complexes on the Far West Rand goldfield. Extended Abstracts, Geocongress '86. Geol. Soc. S. Afr., Johannesburg, pp. 955-958.
20. Buck S.G., Minter W.E.L. Placer formation by fluvial degradation of an alluvial fan sequence: the Proterozoic Carbon Leader placer, Witwatersrand Supergroup South Africa. J. Geol. Soc. London. 42:1985;1-8.
21. Burgers, F. Du P., 1986. Geochemistry and Petrology of some Witwatersrand argillites on West Driefontein Gold Mine. Extended Abstracts, Geocongress '86. Geol. Soc. S. Afr., Johannesburg, pp. 103-105.
22. Burke K., Kidd W.S.F., Kusky T.M. Archean foreland basin tectonics in the Witwatersrand, South Africa. Tectonics. 5:1986;439-456.
23. Cheatle, A., 1997. The sedimentology of the C placer in the Klerksdorp goldfield. M.Sc. Dissertation, Univ. Cape Town (in prep.).
24. Cheney, E.S., 1991. The pre-Damara history of the Kaapvaal Province. Abstr., Conf. Precambrian Sedimentary Basins of Southern Africa, pp. 4-5.
25. Church M., Gilbert R. Proglacial and lacustrine environments. In: Jopling, A.V., McDonald, B.C. (Eds.), Glaciofluvial and Glaciolacustrine Sedimentation. Soc. Econ. Paleontol. Mineral. Spec. Publ. 23:1975;22-100.
26. Clendennin, C.W., Charlesworth, E.G., Maske, S., 1987. Tectonic style and mechanism of early Proterozoic successor basin development, Southern Africa. Economic Geology Research Unit Information Circular, 197, Univ. Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, pp. 1-26.
27. Coleman J.M. Brahmaputra River: channel processes and sedimentation. Sediment. Geol. 3:1969;129-239.
28. Cotter E. Paleoflow characteristics of a late Cretaceous river in Utah from analyses of sedimentary structures in the Ferron sandstone. J. Sediment. Petrol. 41:1971;129-138.
29. De Kock, W.P., 1964. The geology and economic significance of the West Wits Line. In: Haughton, S.H. (Ed.), The Geology of Some Ore Deposits in Southern Africa, I. Geol. Soc. S. Afr., Johannesburg, pp. 323-386.
30. Du Toit, A.L., 1953. Geology of South Africa. Oliver & Boyd, Edinburgh, 611 pp.
31. Elliott, T., 1981. Deltas. In: Reading, H.G. (Ed.), Sedimentary Environments and Facies. Blackwell Sci. Publ., Oxford, pp. 143-177.
32. Els, B.G., 1987. The Auriferous Middelvlei Reef Depositional System, West Wits Line, Witwatersrand Supergroup. Ph.D. Thesis, Rand Afrikaans University, 329 pp.
33. Els, B.G., 1989. Sedimentary characteristics of a bedrock placer: the Ventersdorp Contact Reef at Stilfontein Gold Mine. Extended Abstracts, 'Other Reefs' Symposium. Geol. Soc. S. Afr., Johannesburg, pp. 87-91.
34. Els B.G. Placer formation during progradational fluvial degradation: the Late Archaean Middelvlei gold placer Witwatersrand, South Africa. Econ. Geol. 86:1991;29-45.
35. Els, B.G., 1997. The question of alluvial fans in the auriferous Archaean and Proterozoic successions of South Africa. S. Afr. J. Geol. (in press).
36. Els B.G., Mayer J.J. Transgressive and progradational beach and nearshore facies in the Late Archaean Turffontein Subgroup of the Witwatersrand Supergroup, Vredefort Area South Africa. S. Afr. J. Geol. 95:1992;60-73.
37. Els, B.G., Mayer, J.J., 1997. Coarse clastic tidal and fluvial sedimentation during a large sea-level rise: the Turffontein Subgroup in the Vredefort Structure, South Africa. Soc. Econ. Paleontol. Mineral. Spec. Publ. (in prep.).
38. Engelbrecht, C.J., Baumbach, G.W.S., Matthysen, J.L., Fletcher, P., 1986. The West Wits Line. In: Anhaeusser, C.R., Maske, S. (Eds.), Mineral Deposits of Southern Africa, Vol. 1. Geol. Soc. S. Afr., Johannesburg, pp. 599-648.
39. Friedman, G.M., Sanders, J.E., Kopaska-Merkel, D.C., 1992. Principles of Sedimentary Deposits. Macmillan Publishing Co., New York, 717 pp.
40. Fuller A.O. A contribution to the conceptual modelling of pre-Devonian fluvial systems. Trans. Geol. Soc. S. Afr. 88:1985;189-194.
41. Graf, W.H., 1984. Hydraulics of sediment transport. Water Resources Publ., Littleton, Colo., 513 pp.
42. Graton L.C. Hydrothermal origin of the Rand gold deposits. Econ. Geol. Supl. 25:1930;182-185.
43. Gregory, J.W., 1908. The origin of the gold in the Rand banket. Trans. Inst. Min. Metall. London, pp. 2-41.
44. Hall R.C.B., Els B.G., Mayer J.J. The Ventersdorp Contact Reef: Part of the Witwatersrand? the Ventersdorp? or independent Formation? S. Afr. J. Geol. 100:1997;213-222.
45. Harms, J.C., Southard, J.B., Spearing, D.R., Walker, R.G., 1975. Depositional Environments as Interpreted From Primary Sedimentary Structures and Stratification Sequences. Soc. Econ. Paleontol. Mineral. Short Course 2, 161 pp.
46. Hartnady, C.J.H., Stowe, C.W., 1991. The Archaean-Proterozoic transition: a review of the Randian Erathem in southern Africa with reference to the accretionary tectonic evolution of the Kaapvaal and Zimbabwe provinces. Precambrian Research Unit Information Circular, Univ. Cape Town, pp. 1-18.
47. Henderson, F.M., 1966. Open Channel Flow. MacMillan, New York, 522 pp.
48. Jolly, M.K., 1984. The Sedimentology and Economic Potential of the Auriferous Middelvlei Reef on Driefontein Consolidated Limited. M.Sc.dissertation, Rand Afrikaans University, Johannesburg, 112 pp.
49. Karpeta, W.P., Gendall, I.R., King, J.A., 1991. Evidence for marine marginal and submarine canyon sedimentation in the Central Rand Group: implications for the geometry of the Witwatersrand basin. Abstr., Conf. Precambrian Sedimentary Basins of Southern Africa, pp. 16-17.
50. Kingsley C.S. Dagbreek fandelta: an alluvial placer to prodelta sequence in the Proterozoic Welkom goldfield, Witwatersrand South Africa. In: Koster, E.H., Steel, R.J. (Eds.), Sedimentology of Gravels and Conglomerates. Can. Soc. Pet. Geol. Mem. 10:1984;321-330.
51. Krapez B. The Ventersdorp Contact Placer: a gold-pyrite placer of stream and debris-flow origins from the Archaean Witwatersrand Basin of South Africa. Sedimentology. 32:1985;223-234.
52. Kvale E.P., Barnhill M.L. Evolution of Lower Pennsylvanian estuarine facies within two adjacent paleovalleys, Illinois Basin, Indiana. In: Dalrymple, R.W., Boyd, R., Zaitlin, B.A. (Eds.), Incised-Valley Systems: Origin and Sedimentary Sequences. Soc. Econ. Paleontol. Mineral. Spec. Publ. 51:1994;191-208.
53. Linton, P.L., McCarthy, T.S., Brown, C.A., 1993. The sequential eruption and tectonic history of the Klipriviersberg Group as illustrated by the distribution of geochemical units. Economic Geology Research Unit Information Circular, 271, Univ. Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, pp. 1-18.
54. Martinsen O.J. Evolution of an incised-valley fill, the Pine Ridge Sandstone of Wyoming, USA: systematic sedimentary response to relative sea-level change. In: Dalrymple, R.W., Boyd, R., Zaitlin, B.A. (Eds.), Incised-Valley Systems: Origin and Sedimentary Sequences. Soc. Econ. Paleontol. Mineral. Spec. Publ. 51:1994;109-128.
55. McCarthy, T.S., 1994. A review of the regional structural controls on the occurrence and character of the Ventersdorp Contact Reef. Economic Geology Research Unit Information Circular, 276, Univ. Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, pp. 1-21.
56. McKinney, J.S., 1964. Geology of the Anglo American Group Mines in the Welkom area, Orange Free State goldfield. In: Haughton, S.H. (Ed.), The Geology of Some Ore Deposits in Southern Africa, I. Geol. Soc. S. Afr., Johannesburg, pp. 451-506.
57. McPherson, J.G., Shanmugam, G., Moiola, R.J., 1988. Fan deltas and braid deltas: conceptual problems. In: Nemec, W., Steel, R.J. (Eds.), Fan Deltas: Sedimentology and Tectonic Settings. Blackie and Son, London, pp. 14-22.
58. Mellor E.T. The conglomerates of the Witwatersrand. Trans. Inst. Min. Metall. London. 25:1916;226-348.
59. Mertes L.A.K., Dunne T., Martinelli L.A. Channel-floodplain geomorphology along the Solimoes-Amazon River Brazil. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 108:1996;1089-1107.
60. Miall A.D. Palaeocurrent and palaeohydrologic analysis of some vertical profiles through a Cretaceous braided stream deposit Banks Island, Arctic Canada. Sedimentology. 23:1976;459-483.
61. Miall A.D. A review of the braided-river depositional environment. Earth Sci. Rev. 13:1977;1-62.
62. Minter, W.E.L., 1972, Sedimentology of the Vaal Reef in the Klerksdorp Area. Ph.D. Thesis, Univ. Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 170 pp.
63. Minter W.E.L. Detrital gold, uranium and pyrite concentrations related to sedimentology in the Precambrian Vaal Reef placer Witwatersrand, S. Africa. Econ. Geol. 71:1976;157-176.
64. Minter W.E.L. A sedimentological synthesis of placer gold, uranium and pyrite concentrations in Proterozoic Witwatersrand placers. In: Miall, A.D. (Ed.), Fluvial Sedimentology. Mem. Can. Soc. Pet. Geol. Mem. 5:1978;801-829.
65. Minter, W.E.L., Hill, W.C.N., Kidger, R.J., Kingsley, C.S., Snowden, P.A., 1986. The Welkom Goldfield. In: Anhaeusser, C.R., Maske, S. (Eds.), Mineral Deposits of Southern Africa, Vol. 1. Geol. Soc. S. Afr., Johannesburg, pp. 497-540.
66. Nemec W. Deltas - remarks on terminology and classification. In: Colella, A., Prior, D.B. (Eds.), Coarse-Grained Deltas. Int. Assoc. Sedimentol. Spec. Publ. 10:1990;3-12.
67. Press, F., Siever, R., 1986. Earth. W.H. Freeman and Co., New York, 1656 pp.
68. Pretorius, D.A., 1981. Gold and uranium in quartz-pebble conglomerates. Economic Geology Research Unit Information Circular, 151, Univ. Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, pp. 1-18.
69. Pretorius, D.A., 1986a. The Witwatersrand Basin: surface and subsurface geology and structure. Geol. Soc. S. Afr., Johannesburg, Single sheet map (1 : 500,000).
70. Pretorius, D.A., 1986b. The goldfields of the Witwatersrand basin. In: Anhaeusser, C.R., Maske, S. (Eds.), Mineral Deposits of Southern Africa, Vol. 1. Geol. Soc. S. Afr., Johannesburg, pp. 489-494.
71. Pretorius, D.A., 1987. The depositional environment of the Witwatersrand goldfields: a chronological review of the speculations and observations. In: Boyle, R.W. (Ed.), Gold, History and Genesis of Deposits. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, pp. 409-438.
72. Reinecke L. Origin of the Witwatersrand System. Trans. Geol. Soc. S. Afr. 33:1930;111-133.
73. Robb L.J., Davis D.W., Kamo S.L. Chronological framework for the Witwatersrand Basin and environs: towards a time-constrained model. S. Afr. J. Geol. 94:1991;86-95.
74. SACS (The South African Committee for Stratigraphy), 1980. Stratigraphy of South Africa, Part 1 (Compiler L.E. Kent). Lithostratigraphy of the Republic of South Africa, South West Africa/Namibia, and the Transkei and Venda. Handb. 8, Geol. Surv. S. Afr., Pretoria, 690 pp.
75. Schumm S.A. Speculations concerning paleohydrologic controls of terrestrial sedimentation. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 79:1968;1573-1588.
76. Schumm S.A. River response to baselevel change: implications for sequence stratigraphy. J. Geol. 101:1993;279-294.
77. Schumm S.A., Ethridge F.G. Origin, evolution and morphology of fluvial valleys. In: Dalrymple, R.W., Boyd, R., Zaitlin, B.A. (Eds.), Incised-Valley Systems: Origin and Sedimentary Sequences. Soc. Econ. Paleontol. Mineral. Spec. Publ. 51:1994;11-27.
78. Shepard, F.P., 1963. Submarine Geology. Harper and Row, New York, 557 pp.
79. Smith N.D. The braided stream depositional environment: comparison of the Platte River with some Silurian clastic rocks, north-central Appalachians. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 18:1970;2993-3014.
80. Smith N.D., Minter W.E.L. Sedimentological controls of gold and uranium in two Witwatersrand palaeoplacers. Econ. Geol. 75:1980;1-14.
81. Thomas, D.E., 1977. A Sedimentological Study and Evaluation of the Ventersdorp Contact Reef at Vaal Reefs Exploration and Mining Company, Limited, Klerksdorp, South Africa. M.Sc. Dissertation, Univ. London, London, 96 pp.
82. Tucker, R.F., 1980. The Sedimentology and Mineralogy of the Composite Reef on Cooke Section, Randfontein Estates Gold Mine, Witwatersrand, South Africa. M.Sc. Dissertation, Univ. Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 335 pp.
83. Tucker, R.F., Viljoen, R.P., 1986. The geology of the West Rand goldfield In: Anhaeusser, C.R., Maske, S. (Eds.), Mineral Deposits of Southern Africa, Vol. 1. Geol. Soc. S. Afr., Johannesburg, pp. 649-688.
84. Tweedie, E.B., 1986, The Evander Goldfield. In: Anhaeusser, C.R., Maske, S. (Eds.), Mineral Deposits of Southern Africa, Vol. 1. Geol. Soc. S. Afr., Johannesburg, pp. 705-730.
85. Van der Westhuizen W.A., De Bruiyn H., Meintjes P.G. The Ventersdorp Supergroup: an overview. J. Afr. Earth Sci. 13:1991;83-105.
86. Watchorn M.B., O'Brien M.F. The significance of marine modification in some Witwatersrand placers - an example from the Lower Witwatersrand West Rand Group. S. Afr. J. Geol. 94:1991;333-339.
87. Wiebols J.H. A suggested glacial origin for the Witwatersrand conglomerates. Trans. Geol. Soc. S. Afr. 58:1955;367-382.
88. Winter, H. de la R., 1987. A cratonic foreland model for Witwatersrand Basin development in a continental back-arc, plate-tectonic setting. S. Afr. J. Geol. 90, 409-427.
89. Winter, H. de la R., 1993. The Ventersdorp Contact Reef in relation to the Witwatersrand Basin and overlying volcanic rocks. Abstr. V.C.R. Mini-Symp. The V.C.R. Revisited, Geol. Soc. S. Afr., pp. 87-90.
90. Winter, H. de la R., 1994. The Ventersdorp Contact Reef in relation to the Witwatersrand Basin and overlying Ventersdorp volcanic rocks. S. Afr. J. Geol. 97, 260-278.
91. Young, R.B., 1917. The Banket of the South African Goldfields. Gurney and Jackson, London, 125 pp.
92. Zaitlin B.A., Dalrymple R.W., Boyd R. The stratigraphic organization of incised-valley systems associated with relative sea-level changes. In: Dalrymple, R.W., Boyd, R., Zaitlin, B.A. (Eds.), Incised-Valley Systems: Origin and Sedimentary Sequences. Soc. Econ. Paleontol. Mineral. Spec. Publ. 51:1994;45-60.