Charity, status and leadership: Charitable image and the Manchester man

Journal of Social History

Volumn 32, Issue 1, 1998, Pages 156-177

  Shapely, Peter ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0032162311     PISSN: 00224529     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/jsh/32.1.157     Document Type: Article

References (128)

1. See Appendix, above. See also, for example R.J. Morris, Class, Sect and Party (Manchester, 1990), A. Russell, "Local Elites and the Working-Class Response in the North-West, 1870-1895: Paternalism and Deference Reconsidered," Northern History 23 (1987): 153-173; R.Trainor, "Urban Elites in Victorian Britain," Urban History Yearbook (1985). J. Garrard, Leadership and Power in Victorian Industrial Towns, 1830-80 (Manchester, 1983), and N. Evans, "Urbanisation, Elite Attitudes and Philanthropy: Cardiff, 1850-1914," International Review of Social History 21 (1982).
2. See Appendix, above. See also, for example R.J. Morris, Class, Sect and Party (Manchester, 1990), A. Russell, "Local Elites and the Working-Class Response in the North-West, 1870-1895: Paternalism and Deference Reconsidered," Northern History 23 (1987): 153-173; R.Trainor, "Urban Elites in Victorian Britain," Urban History Yearbook (1985). J. Garrard, Leadership and Power in Victorian Industrial Towns, 1830-80 (Manchester, 1983), and N. Evans, "Urbanisation, Elite Attitudes and Philanthropy: Cardiff, 1850-1914," International Review of Social History 21 (1982).
3. See Appendix, above. See also, for example R.J. Morris, Class, Sect and Party (Manchester, 1990), A. Russell, "Local Elites and the Working-Class Response in the North-West, 1870-1895: Paternalism and Deference Reconsidered," Northern History 23 (1987): 153-173; R.Trainor, "Urban Elites in Victorian Britain," Urban History Yearbook (1985). J. Garrard, Leadership and Power in Victorian Industrial Towns, 1830-80 (Manchester, 1983), and N. Evans, "Urbanisation, Elite Attitudes and Philanthropy: Cardiff, 1850-1914," International Review of Social History 21 (1982).
4. See Appendix, above. See also, for example R.J. Morris, Class, Sect and Party (Manchester, 1990), A. Russell, "Local Elites and the Working-Class Response in the North-West, 1870-1895: Paternalism and Deference Reconsidered," Northern History 23 (1987): 153-173; R.Trainor, "Urban Elites in Victorian Britain," Urban History Yearbook (1985). J. Garrard, Leadership and Power in Victorian Industrial Towns, 1830-80 (Manchester, 1983), and N. Evans, "Urbanisation, Elite Attitudes and Philanthropy: Cardiff, 1850-1914," International Review of Social History 21 (1982).
5. See Appendix, above. See also, for example R.J. Morris, Class, Sect and Party (Manchester, 1990), A. Russell, "Local Elites and the Working-Class Response in the North-West, 1870-1895: Paternalism and Deference Reconsidered," Northern History 23 (1987): 153-173; R.Trainor, "Urban Elites in Victorian Britain," Urban History Yearbook (1985). J. Garrard, Leadership and Power in Victorian Industrial Towns, 1830-80 (Manchester, 1983), and N. Evans, "Urbanisation, Elite Attitudes and Philanthropy: Cardiff, 1850-1914," International Review of Social History 21 (1982).
6. This is based on the information provided by a series of relational databases detailing serving personnel on Manchester's charities and biographical information on the charity leaders.
7. See also A. J. Kidd, "Philanthropy and the Social History Paradigm," Social History (1996): 191-192.
8. See for example J.M. Lee, Social Leaders and Public Persons (Oxford, 1963), pp. 13, 39, 42. Also, see A. J. Kidd, op. cit., p. 189.
9. See for example J.M. Lee, Social Leaders and Public Persons (Oxford, 1963), pp. 13, 39, 42. Also, see A. J. Kidd, op. cit., p. 189.
10. See R. Harker, C. Mahar, and C. Wilkes, eds., An Introduction to the Work of Pierre Bourdieu (London, 1990), pp. 10-13.
11. See for example P. Shapely, "Voluntary Charities in Nineteenth Century Manchester," unpublished thesis, Manchester Metropolitan University 1995, Chapter One.
12. This general theoretical stance is based on the work of Pierre Bourdieu. See for example P. Bourdieu, Outline of a Theory of Practice (Cambridge, 1977). For a basic introduction see Harker, Mahar, and Wilkes, eds., op. cit.
13. This general theoretical stance is based on the work of Pierre Bourdieu. See for example P. Bourdieu, Outline of a Theory of Practice (Cambridge, 1977). For a basic introduction see Harker, Mahar, and Wilkes, eds., op. cit.
14. See for example B. Harrison, Peaceable Kingdom (Oxford, 1985), Chapter Five.
15. For an outline of the notions of fields, habitus and capital see Harker, Mahar, and Wilkes, op. cit., pp. 8-15.
16. See M. Weber, Economy and Society 3 (New York, 1968), p. 1113.
17. See Harker, Mahar, and Wilkes, op. cit., p. 5.
18. See for example B. Harrison, op. cit., Chapter Five. Also, A. J. Kidd, op. cit., pp. 181-182.
19. See for example B. Harrison, op. cit., Chapter Five. Also, A. J. Kidd, op. cit., pp. 181-182.
20. Shapely, op. cit., Chapter One, p. 40.
21. See F. Scott, Transactions of the Manchester Statistical Society (Manchester, 1884), p. 153.
22. Shapely, op. cit.,p. 15.
23. See for example A. J. Kidd, Manchester (Keele, 1993).
24. Ibid. See also H. B. Rodgers, "The Suburban Growth of Victorian Manchester," Journal of Manchester Geographical Society (1962): 1-12, and K. Chorley, Manchester Made Them (London, 1950), pp. 136-146.
25. Ibid. See also H. B. Rodgers, "The Suburban Growth of Victorian Manchester," Journal of Manchester Geographical Society (1962): 1-12, and K. Chorley, Manchester Made Them (London, 1950), pp. 136-146.
26. Ibid. See also H. B. Rodgers, "The Suburban Growth of Victorian Manchester," Journal of Manchester Geographical Society (1962): 1-12, and K. Chorley, Manchester Made Them (London, 1950), pp. 136-146.
27. The level of involvement which constitutes substantial "charitable leadership" poses a difficult problem. Should, for example, membership of five, six, seven or more charities constitute membership of a group? Deciding where to draw the line presents many difficulties. However, by only including those individuals involved in six or more charities, it is at least possible to focus attention on a manageable group of 100. This remains an arbitrary figure which could exclude others who may have been involved in five charities, and whose power and influence might reasonably have been thought of as suitable for charity leaders. Nevertheless, this does not remove the usefulness of focusing study on such a group in terms of what it can reveal about the relationship among charity, status and power in the community.
28. See for example D. Cannadine, ed Patricians, Power and Politics in Nineteenth Century Towns (Leicester, 1982 ), p. 104.
29. J. Garrard, op. cit., p. 31. R. J. Morris, op. cit., pp. 168, 185. N. Evans, op. cit., p. 306.
30. J. Garrard, op. cit., p. 31. R. J. Morris, op. cit., pp. 168, 185. N. Evans, op. cit., p. 306.
31. J. Garrard, op. cit., p. 31. R. J. Morris, op. cit., pp. 168, 185. N. Evans, op. cit., p. 306.
32. See for example A. Summers, "A Home from Home: Women's Philanthropic Work in the Nineteenth Century," S. Burman, ed., Fit Work for Women (Oxford, 1979), pp. 51, 93. J. Gerard, "Lady Bountiful: Women of the Landed Classes and Rural Philanthropy," Victorian Studies (1987): 183-210.
33. See for example A. Summers, "A Home from Home: Women's Philanthropic Work in the Nineteenth Century," S. Burman, ed., Fit Work for Women (Oxford, 1979), pp. 51, 93. J. Gerard, "Lady Bountiful: Women of the Landed Classes and Rural Philanthropy," Victorian Studies (1987): 183-210.
34. See for example A. Summers, "A Home from Home: Women's Philanthropic Work in the Nineteenth Century," S. Burman, ed., Fit Work for Women (Oxford, 1979), pp. 51, 93. J. Gerard, "Lady Bountiful: Women of the Landed Classes and Rural Philanthropy," Victorian Studies (1987): 183-210.
35. This confirms the evidence in J. Lewis, Women in England, 1870-1950 (Brighton, 1984), p. 93: P. Hollis, Ladies Elect: Women in English Local Government (Oxford, 1987), p. 14:
36. This confirms the evidence in J. Lewis, Women in England, 1870-1950 (Brighton, 1984), p. 93: P. Hollis, Ladies Elect: Women in English Local Government (Oxford, 1987), p. 14:
37. M. Vicinus, Independent Women, 1885-1920 (London, 1985), p. 22.
38. B. Harrison, op. cit., p. 233.
39. Again, the incomplete nature of the records means the figures omit an unknown number of women who might have served as officials. Conversely, however, the total figures for those who were made officials may actually be smaller as it is impossible to identify and separate those women who appear with both their maiden names and their later married names. Yet, even when this is considered, the fact is that for the period as a whole women filled only 13 percent of all the positions and constituted only 17 percent of all individuals who served as officials. Moreover, although women actually governed twelve separate charities by themselves, in effect this only made up 11 percent of all those charities with extant records. Perhaps more significant is the fact that most of the women took up active rather than honorary positions. In total 852 of the 889 positions were active and only 37 honorary in nature.
40. See also F. Prochaska, The Voluntary Impulse (London, 1988), p. 23. R. Trainor, op. cit., p. 3.
41. See also F. Prochaska, The Voluntary Impulse (London, 1988), p. 23. R. Trainor, op. cit., p. 3.
42. See also R. J. Morris, op. cit., p. 175.
43. V.A.C. Gatrell, "Incorporation and the Pursuit of Liberal Hegemony in Manchester, 1790-1839," D. Fraser, ed., Municipal Reform (Leicester, 1982), p. 22.
44. J. Seed, "Unitarianism, Political Economy and the Antinomies of Liberal Culture Manchester, 1830-50," Social History 7 (1982): 7.
45. Ibid.
46. The trend towards a public school and Oxbridge education for Manchester's elite was especially marked after 1850. See for example S. Gunn, "The Manchester Middle-Class, 1850-1880," unpublished thesis, Manchester Unversity 1993, pp. 114-122.
47. J. Seed, op. cit., p. 7.
48. The origins of Manchester's elite are outlined in K. Honeyman, Origins of Enterprise: Business Leadership in the Industrial Revolution (Manchester, 1982), pp. 163, 168, 170.
49. For the role of charities in this regard see Morris, op. cit., p. 167.
50. Least favoured were apparently the handicapped and shelter charities. These accounted for only 14 and 15 members respectively. However, the possible limits of the data again need to be considered. Records exist for only five handicapped charities and six shelters as opposed to those for 23 different medical charities and 14 for the children's charities. More complete records might have revealed a greater level of involvement with these charities.
51. See F. Prochaska, op. cit., p. 30.
52. M. Weber, op. cit., p. 1121. Weber claimed: Charisma is self determined and sets its own limits.... If those to whom he feels sent do not recognise him, his claim collapses; if they recognise him, he is their master as long as he proves himself ... Normally the mission is directed to a local ethnic, social, political, vocational or some other group, and that means that it also finds its limits at the edges of these groups.
53. See for example B. Hilton, The Age of Atonement: The Influence of Evangelicalism on Social and Economic Thought (Oxford, 1988), p. 104.
54. Many of them appear to have held genuine convictions. While religiosity is difficult to measure, actual religious conviction is at least reflected in denominational affiliations. Denominational loyalties varied considerably. It has been possible to identify positively the religious affiliation of 80 members of the group. A total of 33 of these were Anglicans, six converted to Anglicanism, and 45 were or had been members of various Nonconformist groups. The figures suggest that the charity leaders were not dominated by any single set of denominational beliefs. There is no firm indication of the underlying middle-class shift from Nonconformity to Anglicanism as indicated for example in H. Mcleod, Class and Religion in the Late Victorian City (London, 1974), pp. 172-174, 179, 248-249.
55. Crossley was a Committee member for the Salvation Army, the U.K Alliance, the Y.M.C.A, the Fowler Square Ragged School, the D.P.S., the Ragged School Union, the Manchester Girl's Institute and the City Mission, as well as President of the Lancashire and Cheshire Band of Hope Union and Trustee for both the Boy's and Girl's Refuge and the Hospital for Consumption and Diseases of the Throat. Also, he was an active supporter of Josephine Butler as well as an organiser and vociferous speaker for the Society opposed to Armenian Atrocities.
56. K. Crossley, He Heard From God (London, 1959), p. 43.
57. Opened on 4 August 1889, he transformed this former music hall into a Mission Hall, with a Sunday School, Bible classes and a temperance society.
58. J. R. Harris, The Life of F. W. Crossley (London, 1899), pp. v-vi.
59. Manchester Guardian, 27 March 1892.
60. For Weber, such formal organisations were central to the process. See Economy and Society 1: 254.
61. The term is discussed in M. Rose, "Culture, Philanthropy and the Manchester Middle Classes" in A. J. Kidd, and K. Roberts, eds., City, Class and Culture (Manchester, 1985), pp. 103-117, A. J. Kidd, Manchester, op. cit., pp. 72-79.
62. The term is discussed in M. Rose, "Culture, Philanthropy and the Manchester Middle Classes" in A. J. Kidd, and K. Roberts, eds., City, Class and Culture (Manchester, 1985), pp. 103-117, A. J. Kidd, Manchester, op. cit., pp. 72-79.
63. See for example A. Laycock, Warren of Manchester (London, no date), L. The Manchester Man (Manchester, 1896).
64. See for example A. Laycock, Warren of Manchester (London, no date), L. The Manchester Man (Manchester, 1896).
65. J. Seed, "Commerce and the Liberal Arts: The Political Economy of Art in Manchester" in J. Seed, and J. Wolff eds., The Culture of Capital: Art, Power and the Nineteenth Century Middle Class (Manchester, 1988), pp. 45, 67, 68, 73.
66. S. K. Hocking, Social Models (London, 1889), p. 17.
67. For a brief discussion of the public sphere see J. Habermas, The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere (Cambridge, 1991).
68. E. Edwards, Manchester Worthies and their Foundations: or Local History with an Epilogue by way of Moral (Manchester, 1855), p. 22.
69. Manchester Weekly Times, 30 October, 1891.
70. Ibid.
71. East Lancashire Review, 1890-1899, p. 3
72. A. Briggs, Victorian Cities (Harmondsworth, 1968), p. 98.
73. Manchester Faces and Places, Vol. 1 (1889), p. 33.
74. Ibid., p. 36.
75. See also Morris, op. cit., p. 252.
76. See also Evans, op. cit., p. 306.
77. The liberality of Manchester society in the mid-Victorian period is suggested in W. Williams, The Making of Manchester Jewry (Manchester, 1976), p. 165. However, this was subsequently questioned by him in "The Anti-Semitism of Tolerance: Middle-Class Manchester and the Jews" in Kidd and Roberts, eds., City, Class and Culture, pp. 74-102.
78. The liberality of Manchester society in the mid-Victorian period is suggested in W. Williams, The Making of Manchester Jewry (Manchester, 1976), p. 165. However, this was subsequently questioned by him in "The Anti-Semitism of Tolerance: Middle-Class Manchester and the Jews" in Kidd and Roberts, eds., City, Class and Culture, pp. 74-102.
79. J. Seed, "Unitarianism, Political Economy and Liberal Culture in Manchester," op. cit., p. 23, footnote 96.
80. See also M. Cahill and T. Jowitt, "The New Philanthropy: The Emergence of the Bradford Guild of Help," Journal of Social Policy 9 (1980): 367.
81. S. Coates, "Manchester's German Gentlemen: Immigrant Institutions in a Provincial City," Manchester Region History Review 5 (1991-92): 21-30. W. Williams, "The Anti-Semitism of Tolerance: Middle Class Manchester and the Jews" in Kidd and Roberts, eds., City, Class and Culture, pp. 74-102.
82. S. Coates, "Manchester's German Gentlemen: Immigrant Institutions in a Provincial City," Manchester Region History Review 5 (1991-92): 21-30. W. Williams, "The Anti-Semitism of Tolerance: Middle Class Manchester and the Jews" in Kidd and Roberts, eds., City, Class and Culture, pp. 74-102.
83. Momus, 25 September, 1879.
84. L. M. Hayes, Reminiscences of Manchester (Manchester, 1905).
85. City Lantern, 19 September, 1877.
86. City Lantern, 12 May, 1877.
87. See also H. Meller, Leisure and the Changing City, 1870-1914 (London, 1971), pp. 7-11.
88. D. Cannadine, op. cit., p. 106.
89. The introduction of the honour in 1888 was a result of the Honorary Freedom of Boroughs Act of 1885. It was designed to publicly recognise outstanding achievements. One of the first to receive the honour was H.M. Stanley, the explorer.
90. See also N. Evans, op. cit., p. 309. R. Trainor, op. cit., p. 5.
91. See also N. Evans, op. cit., p. 309. R. Trainor, op. cit., p. 5.
92. A level of qualification is needed. The nature of the data may in itself be deceiving. For example, the largest number of available records from which data have been drawn originate from the mid-nineteenth century period onwards, the period at which this generational group would have been most actively involved in their charity work. Yet there may well have been more people just as heavily involved in the earlier part of the century but whose activities are obscured by the lack of complete data. Also, as the cut-off date for the study is 1914 there is no firm indication as to how the pattern developed from this point onwards.
93. Besides Oliver Heywood, the other members of the charity leaders to receive the honour were Abel Heywood (1891), Thomas Ashton (1892), James Jardine (1892), Herbert Philips (1897), R.D. Darbishire (1899), R.C. Christie (1899), Sir W.J. Crossley (1903) and Sir W.H. Houldsworth (1905). Of the others, Enriquetta Rylands also received the honour for charitable works.
94. For the view that the extension of the suffrage was followed by a flood of social legislation see H.M. Lynd, England in the 1880's (London, 1968), p. 407. For the view that changes were much more gradual, particularly amongst working-class institutions such as the trade unions and friendly societies, and that pressure for change centered on better wages and regular work see Pat Thane, "The Working Class and State Welfare," Historical Journal 27 (1984): 877-900. H. Pelling, "The Working Class and the Origins of the Welfare State," in Popular Politics and Society (London, 1968), pp. 1-18. J. Hill, "Manchester and Salford Politics and the Early Development of the Independent Labour Party," International Review of Social History (1981): 181, 193.
95. For the view that the extension of the suffrage was followed by a flood of social legislation see H.M. Lynd, England in the 1880's (London, 1968), p. 407. For the view that changes were much more gradual, particularly amongst working-class institutions such as the trade unions and friendly societies, and that pressure for change centered on better wages and regular work see Pat Thane, "The Working Class and State Welfare," Historical Journal 27 (1984): 877-900. H. Pelling, "The Working Class and the Origins of the Welfare State," in Popular Politics and Society (London, 1968), pp. 1-18. J. Hill, "Manchester and Salford Politics and the Early Development of the Independent Labour Party," International Review of Social History (1981): 181, 193.
96. For the view that the extension of the suffrage was followed by a flood of social legislation see H.M. Lynd, England in the 1880's (London, 1968), p. 407. For the view that changes were much more gradual, particularly amongst working-class institutions such as the trade unions and friendly societies, and that pressure for change centered on better wages and regular work see Pat Thane, "The Working Class and State Welfare," Historical Journal 27 (1984): 877-900. H. Pelling, "The Working Class and the Origins of the Welfare State," in Popular Politics and Society (London, 1968), pp. 1-18. J. Hill, "Manchester and Salford Politics and the Early Development of the Independent Labour Party," International Review of Social History (1981): 181, 193.
97. For the view that the extension of the suffrage was followed by a flood of social legislation see H.M. Lynd, England in the 1880's (London, 1968), p. 407. For the view that changes were much more gradual, particularly amongst working-class institutions such as the trade unions and friendly societies, and that pressure for change centered on better wages and regular work see Pat Thane, "The Working Class and State Welfare," Historical Journal 27 (1984): 877-900. H. Pelling, "The Working Class and the Origins of the Welfare State," in Popular Politics and Society (London, 1968), pp. 1-18. J. Hill, "Manchester and Salford Politics and the Early Development of the Independent Labour Party," International Review of Social History (1981): 181, 193.
98. See for example Harrison, Peaceable Kingdom, pp. 254-256; J. A. Hobson, in The Crisis of Liberalism, P. F. Clarke, ed. (Brighton, 1974), p. 197.
99. See for example Harrison, Peaceable Kingdom, pp. 254-256; J. A. Hobson, in The Crisis of Liberalism, P. F. Clarke, ed. (Brighton, 1974), p. 197.
100. See A. J. Kidd, "Philanthropy," op. cit., p. 191.
101. See ibid, p. 185.
102. J. M. Lee, Social Leaders and Public Persons (Oxford, 1963), p. 39.
103. For an exploration of Victorian values and parallel with the 1980's see G. Himmelfarb, Victorian Values and Twentieth Century Condescension (London, 1987), p. 115.
104. See also D. Green, and L. Cromwell, Mutual Aid or Welfare State: Australia's Friendly Societies (Sydney, 1984).
105. See for example L. Feenhan, "Charitable Effort, Statutory Authorities and the Poor in Liverpool, 1850-1914," Ph.D., unpublished thesis, Liverpool, 1988, and M. Whittle, "Philanthropy in Preston: The Changing Face of Charity in a Nineteenth Century Provincial Town," Ph.D., unpublished thesis, Lancaster 1990.
106. See for example L. Feenhan, "Charitable Effort, Statutory Authorities and the Poor in Liverpool, 1850-1914," Ph.D., unpublished thesis, Liverpool, 1988, and M. Whittle, "Philanthropy in Preston: The Changing Face of Charity in a Nineteenth Century Provincial Town," Ph.D., unpublished thesis, Lancaster 1990.
107. See also E. Yeo "Social Motherhood and the Sexual Communion of Labour in Britain Social Science, 1850-1950," in Women's History Review (1992).
108. J. Lewis, Women in England 1870-1950 (Brighton, 1984), p. 93.
109. See for example E. Lascelles, "Charity," in G.M. Young, Early Victorian England, 1830-1865, Vol. 2, (Oxford, 1934): F. Prochaska, The Voluntary Impulse: Philanthropy in Modern Britain (London, 1988) and "Philanthropy" in F.M.L. Thompson, Cambridge Social History, Vol. 3; B. Best, Mid-Victorian Britain (London, 1971); B. Harrison, Peaceable Kingdom (Oxford, 1989), Chapter 5; N. Evans, "Urbanisation, Elite Attitudes and Philanthropy: Cardiff, 1850-1914," International Review of Social History (1982): 290-322. Also, for the eighteenth century see D.T. Andrew, Philanthropy and the Police: London Charity in the Eighteenth Century (Oxford, 1989).
110. See for example E. Lascelles, "Charity," in G.M. Young, Early Victorian England, 1830-1865, Vol. 2, (Oxford, 1934): F. Prochaska, The Voluntary Impulse: Philanthropy in Modern Britain (London, 1988) and "Philanthropy" in F.M.L. Thompson, Cambridge Social History, Vol. 3; B. Best, Mid-Victorian Britain (London, 1971); B. Harrison, Peaceable Kingdom (Oxford, 1989), Chapter 5; N. Evans, "Urbanisation, Elite Attitudes and Philanthropy: Cardiff, 1850-1914," International Review of Social History (1982): 290-322. Also, for the eighteenth century see D.T. Andrew, Philanthropy and the Police: London Charity in the Eighteenth Century (Oxford, 1989).
111. See for example E. Lascelles, "Charity," in G.M. Young, Early Victorian England, 1830-1865, Vol. 2, (Oxford, 1934): F. Prochaska, The Voluntary Impulse: Philanthropy in Modern Britain (London, 1988) and "Philanthropy" in F.M.L. Thompson, Cambridge Social History, Vol. 3; B. Best, Mid-Victorian Britain (London, 1971); B. Harrison, Peaceable Kingdom (Oxford, 1989), Chapter 5; N. Evans, "Urbanisation, Elite Attitudes and Philanthropy: Cardiff, 1850-1914," International Review of Social History (1982): 290-322. Also, for the eighteenth century see D.T. Andrew, Philanthropy and the Police: London Charity in the Eighteenth Century (Oxford, 1989).
112. See for example E. Lascelles, "Charity," in G.M. Young, Early Victorian England, 1830-1865, Vol. 2, (Oxford, 1934): F. Prochaska, The Voluntary Impulse: Philanthropy in Modern Britain (London, 1988) and "Philanthropy" in F.M.L. Thompson, Cambridge Social History, Vol. 3; B. Best, Mid-Victorian Britain (London, 1971); B. Harrison, Peaceable Kingdom (Oxford, 1989), Chapter 5; N. Evans, "Urbanisation, Elite Attitudes and Philanthropy: Cardiff, 1850-1914," International Review of Social History (1982): 290-322. Also, for the eighteenth century see D.T. Andrew, Philanthropy and the Police: London Charity in the Eighteenth Century (Oxford, 1989).
113. See for example E. Lascelles, "Charity," in G.M. Young, Early Victorian England, 1830-1865, Vol. 2, (Oxford, 1934): F. Prochaska, The Voluntary Impulse: Philanthropy in Modern Britain (London, 1988) and "Philanthropy" in F.M.L. Thompson, Cambridge Social History, Vol. 3; B. Best, Mid-Victorian Britain (London, 1971); B. Harrison, Peaceable Kingdom (Oxford, 1989), Chapter 5; N. Evans, "Urbanisation, Elite Attitudes and Philanthropy: Cardiff, 1850-1914," International Review of Social History (1982): 290-322. Also, for the eighteenth century see D.T. Andrew, Philanthropy and the Police: London Charity in the Eighteenth Century (Oxford, 1989).
114. See for example E. Lascelles, "Charity," in G.M. Young, Early Victorian England, 1830-1865, Vol. 2, (Oxford, 1934): F. Prochaska, The Voluntary Impulse: Philanthropy in Modern Britain (London, 1988) and "Philanthropy" in F.M.L. Thompson, Cambridge Social History, Vol. 3; B. Best, Mid-Victorian Britain (London, 1971); B. Harrison, Peaceable Kingdom (Oxford, 1989), Chapter 5; N. Evans, "Urbanisation, Elite Attitudes and Philanthropy: Cardiff, 1850-1914," International Review of Social History (1982): 290-322. Also, for the eighteenth century see D.T. Andrew, Philanthropy and the Police: London Charity in the Eighteenth Century (Oxford, 1989).
115. See for example E. Lascelles, "Charity," in G.M. Young, Early Victorian England, 1830-1865, Vol. 2, (Oxford, 1934): F. Prochaska, The Voluntary Impulse: Philanthropy in Modern Britain (London, 1988) and "Philanthropy" in F.M.L. Thompson, Cambridge Social History, Vol. 3; B. Best, Mid-Victorian Britain (London, 1971); B. Harrison, Peaceable Kingdom (Oxford, 1989), Chapter 5; N. Evans, "Urbanisation, Elite Attitudes and Philanthropy: Cardiff, 1850-1914," International Review of Social History (1982): 290-322. Also, for the eighteenth century see D.T. Andrew, Philanthropy and the Police: London Charity in the Eighteenth Century (Oxford, 1989).
116. G.S. Jones, Outcast London (London, 1971), pp. 241-336, and Languages of Class (London, 1983), pp. 76-89; P. Bailey, Leisure and Class in Victorian England (London, 1987), pp. 8-10; R.J. Morris, Class, Sect and Party (Manchester, 1990), Chapter 10-13. For an outline of the social control model and its relation to social history see A.P. Donajgrodski, Social Control in Nineteenth Century Britain (London, 1977), pp. 9-15. For a futher brief discussion see K. Williams, From Pauperism to Poverty (London, 1981), pp. 136-139.
117. G.S. Jones, Outcast London (London, 1971), pp. 241-336, and Languages of Class (London, 1983), pp. 76-89; P. Bailey, Leisure and Class in Victorian England (London, 1987), pp. 8-10; R.J. Morris, Class, Sect and Party (Manchester, 1990), Chapter 10-13. For an outline of the social control model and its relation to social history see A.P. Donajgrodski, Social Control in Nineteenth Century Britain (London, 1977), pp. 9-15. For a futher brief discussion see K. Williams, From Pauperism to Poverty (London, 1981), pp. 136-139.
118. G.S. Jones, Outcast London (London, 1971), pp. 241-336, and Languages of Class (London, 1983), pp. 76-89; P. Bailey, Leisure and Class in Victorian England (London, 1987), pp. 8-10; R.J. Morris, Class, Sect and Party (Manchester, 1990), Chapter 10-13. For an outline of the social control model and its relation to social history see A.P. Donajgrodski, Social Control in Nineteenth Century Britain (London, 1977), pp. 9-15. For a futher brief discussion see K. Williams, From Pauperism to Poverty (London, 1981), pp. 136-139.
119. G.S. Jones, Outcast London (London, 1971), pp. 241-336, and Languages of Class (London, 1983), pp. 76-89; P. Bailey, Leisure and Class in Victorian England (London, 1987), pp. 8-10; R.J. Morris, Class, Sect and Party (Manchester, 1990), Chapter 10-13. For an outline of the social control model and its relation to social history see A.P. Donajgrodski, Social Control in Nineteenth Century Britain (London, 1977), pp. 9-15. For a futher brief discussion see K. Williams, From Pauperism to Poverty (London, 1981), pp. 136-139.
120. G.S. Jones, Outcast London (London, 1971), pp. 241-336, and Languages of Class (London, 1983), pp. 76-89; P. Bailey, Leisure and Class in Victorian England (London, 1987), pp. 8-10; R.J. Morris, Class, Sect and Party (Manchester, 1990), Chapter 10-13. For an outline of the social control model and its relation to social history see A.P. Donajgrodski, Social Control in Nineteenth Century Britain (London, 1977), pp. 9-15. For a futher brief discussion see K. Williams, From Pauperism to Poverty (London, 1981), pp. 136-139.
121. G.S. Jones, Outcast London (London, 1971), pp. 241-336, and Languages of Class (London, 1983), pp. 76-89; P. Bailey, Leisure and Class in Victorian England (London, 1987), pp. 8-10; R.J. Morris, Class, Sect and Party (Manchester, 1990), Chapter 10-13. For an outline of the social control model and its relation to social history see A.P. Donajgrodski, Social Control in Nineteenth Century Britain (London, 1977), pp. 9-15. For a futher brief discussion see K. Williams, From Pauperism to Poverty (London, 1981), pp. 136-139.
122. Prochaska, "Philanthropy," p. 359; Prochaska, The Voluntary Impulse, p. 51-52; F.M.L. Thompson, "Social Control in Victorian Britain," Economic History Review (1981): 189-208.
123. Prochaska, "Philanthropy," p. 359; Prochaska, The Voluntary Impulse, p. 51-52; F.M.L. Thompson, "Social Control in Victorian Britain," Economic History Review (1981): 189-208.
124. Prochaska, "Philanthropy," p. 359; Prochaska, The Voluntary Impulse, p. 51-52; F.M.L. Thompson, "Social Control in Victorian Britain," Economic History Review (1981): 189-208.
125. Prochaska, "Philanthopy," pp. 360-362.
126. Harrison, Peaceable Kingdom, pp. 225; Prochaska, "Philanthropy," p. 362.
127. Harrison, Peaceable Kingdom, pp. 225; Prochaska, "Philanthropy," p. 362.
128. Harrison, Peaceable Kingdom, p. 225.