Women in the classroom: Mass migration, literacy and the nationalization of Sicilian women at the turn of the century

Journal of Social History

Volumn 32, Issue 1, 1998, Pages 100-124

  Reeder, Linda ^a  

^a Department of History ^*  (United States)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0032162310     PISSN: 00224529     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/jsh/32.1.101     Document Type: Article

References (123)

1. See Victoria de Grazia, "Empowering Women as Citizen Consumers," in The Sex of Things: Gender and Consumption in Historical Perspective, ed. Victoria de Grazia (Berkeley, 1996), pp. 275-86, for an excellent discussion on the impact of consumer culture and nationalization of women.
2. Ministero di Agricoltura, Industria e Commercio (MAIC), Direzione Generale della Statistica (DGS), Censimento della popolazione del regno al 10 febbraio 1901, II (Rome, 1903), pp. 276-319.
3. Archivio Comunale di Sutera (ACS), Memo, "Dott. V. Ingrao al Sig. R. Commissariato," 21 Marzo 1906, cat. IX, cl. 2; Ministero della Pubblica Istruzione, Istruzione primariae e popolare in Italia-con speciale riguardo all'anno scolastico 1907-1908 (Rome, 1910), p. 422.
4. Archivio Comunale di Sutera (ACS), Memo, "Dott. V. Ingrao al Sig. R. Commissariato," 21 Marzo 1906, cat. IX, cl. 2; Ministero della Pubblica Istruzione, Istruzione primariae e popolare in Italia-con speciale riguardo all'anno scolastico 1907-1908 (Rome, 1910), p. 422.
5. According to Ernesto Ragionieri, only 2.5% of Italians spoke Italian in 1866. Ernesto Ragionieri, "La storia politica e sociale," in Storia dell'Italia: Dall 'unita ad oggi, Vol. 4 (Torino, 1976), p. 1714. My ideas of nationalism and the nation-state are strongly influenced by Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (London, 1983); Ernest Gellner, Nations and Nationalism (Ithaca, NY, 1983); and Montserrat Guibernau, Nationalisms: The Nation-State and Nationalism in the Twentieth Century (Cambridge, 1996).
6. According to Ernesto Ragionieri, only 2.5% of Italians spoke Italian in 1866. Ernesto Ragionieri, "La storia politica e sociale," in Storia dell'Italia: Dall 'unita ad oggi, Vol. 4 (Torino, 1976), p. 1714. My ideas of nationalism and the nation-state are strongly influenced by Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (London, 1983); Ernest Gellner, Nations and Nationalism (Ithaca, NY, 1983); and Montserrat Guibernau, Nationalisms: The Nation-State and Nationalism in the Twentieth Century (Cambridge, 1996).
7. According to Ernesto Ragionieri, only 2.5% of Italians spoke Italian in 1866. Ernesto Ragionieri, "La storia politica e sociale," in Storia dell'Italia: Dall 'unita ad oggi, Vol. 4 (Torino, 1976), p. 1714. My ideas of nationalism and the nation-state are strongly influenced by Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (London, 1983); Ernest Gellner, Nations and Nationalism (Ithaca, NY, 1983); and Montserrat Guibernau, Nationalisms: The Nation-State and Nationalism in the Twentieth Century (Cambridge, 1996).
8. According to Ernesto Ragionieri, only 2.5% of Italians spoke Italian in 1866. Ernesto Ragionieri, "La storia politica e sociale," in Storia dell'Italia: Dall 'unita ad oggi, Vol. 4 (Torino, 1976), p. 1714. My ideas of nationalism and the nation-state are strongly influenced by Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (London, 1983); Ernest Gellner, Nations and Nationalism (Ithaca, NY, 1983); and Montserrat Guibernau, Nationalisms: The Nation-State and Nationalism in the Twentieth Century (Cambridge, 1996).
9. Ragionieri, pp. 1685-96; Eric Hobsbawm, Age of Empire (New York, 1989), pp.149-50; Eugen Weber, Peasants into Frenchmen (Stanford, 1976), chapters 17 and 18; Gaetano Bonetta, Istruzione e societ̀ nella Sicilia dell'ottocento (Palermo, 1981), p. 56.
10. Ragionieri, pp. 1685-96; Eric Hobsbawm, Age of Empire (New York, 1989), pp.149-50; Eugen Weber, Peasants into Frenchmen (Stanford, 1976), chapters 17 and 18; Gaetano Bonetta, Istruzione e societ̀ nella Sicilia dell'ottocento (Palermo, 1981), p. 56.
11. Ragionieri, pp. 1685-96; Eric Hobsbawm, Age of Empire (New York, 1989), pp.149-50; Eugen Weber, Peasants into Frenchmen (Stanford, 1976), chapters 17 and 18; Gaetano Bonetta, Istruzione e societ̀ nella Sicilia dell'ottocento (Palermo, 1981), p. 56.
12. Ragionieri, pp. 1685-96; Eric Hobsbawm, Age of Empire (New York, 1989), pp.149-50; Eugen Weber, Peasants into Frenchmen (Stanford, 1976), chapters 17 and 18; Gaetano Bonetta, Istruzione e societ̀ nella Sicilia dell'ottocento (Palermo, 1981), p. 56.
13. Tracy Koon, Believe, Fight and Obey (Chapel Hill, 1985), pp. 35-37.
14. Bonetta Istruzione, p. 58. Article 344 of the Casati law stipulates that the towns are responsible for all educational expenses. According to Article 345, the state would provide an annual stipend in those cases where a town was too poor to fund an elementary school. However, no money was allocated in the national budget for elementary education.
15. Atti della giunta per l'inchiesta agraria e sulle condizioni della classe agricola, XIII, Relazione del commissario Abele Damiani (Rome, 1884), tomo 1, fasc. 1, p. 121 (hereafter, Atti della giunta).
16. Koon, Believe, p. 37.
17. Bonetta, Istruzione, p. 285.
18. Bonetta, Istruzione, pp. 55-59. Also see Edward R. Tannenbaum, "Education," in Modern Italy, eds. Edward R. Tannenbaum and Emiliana P. Noether (New York, 1974), p. 235; Inchiesta parlamentare sulle condizioni dei contadini nelle provincie meridionali e nella Sicilia, VI (Rome, 1910), tomo 1, parte 3, p. 541 (hereafter, Inchiesta.); Atti della giunta, XIII, tomo 1, fasc. 1, p. 121.
19. Bonetta, Istruzione, pp. 55-59. Also see Edward R. Tannenbaum, "Education," in Modern Italy, eds. Edward R. Tannenbaum and Emiliana P. Noether (New York, 1974), p. 235; Inchiesta parlamentare sulle condizioni dei contadini nelle provincie meridionali e nella Sicilia, VI (Rome, 1910), tomo 1, parte 3, p. 541 (hereafter, Inchiesta.); Atti della giunta, XIII, tomo 1, fasc. 1, p. 121.
20. Bonetta, Istruzione, pp. 55-59. Also see Edward R. Tannenbaum, "Education," in Modern Italy, eds. Edward R. Tannenbaum and Emiliana P. Noether (New York, 1974), p. 235; Inchiesta parlamentare sulle condizioni dei contadini nelle provincie meridionali e nella Sicilia, VI (Rome, 1910), tomo 1, parte 3, p. 541 (hereafter, Inchiesta.); Atti della giunta, XIII, tomo 1, fasc. 1, p. 121.
21. Bonetta, Istruzione, pp. 55-59. Also see Edward R. Tannenbaum, "Education," in Modern Italy, eds. Edward R. Tannenbaum and Emiliana P. Noether (New York, 1974), p. 235; Inchiesta parlamentare sulle condizioni dei contadini nelle provincie meridionali e nella Sicilia, VI (Rome, 1910), tomo 1, parte 3, p. 541 (hereafter, Inchiesta.); Atti della giunta, XIII, tomo 1, fasc. 1, p. 121.
22. Ministero della Pubblica Istruzione, Bollettino ufficale del ministero dell'istruzione pubblico, Supplemento al No. 42, anno XXVII, II (Rome, 19 October 1900): XII.
23. By 1900, men who could afford to pay 2,000 lire served one year instead of three. Giorgio Rochat, "L'esercito italiano negli ultimi cento anni," in Storia d'Italia: I documenti, V (Turin, ed. 1973), p. 1875.
24. Sidney Sonnino, Inchiesta in Sicilia (1876: Reprint Florence, 1974), p. 66.
25. Inchiesta, VI, tomo 1, parte 3, p. 520.
26. See John Briggs, An Italian Passage: Immigrants to Three American Cities (New Haven, 1978), pp. 37-64 for a thorough description of the social and economic conditions that influenced schooling in southern Italy at the turn of the century.
27. Inchiesta, VI, tomo 1, parte 3, p. 257.
28. ACS, "Memo da N. Ingrao al Sig. Sindaco: Oggetto scuole seriale e festive per adulti analfabeti 1905-1906, 18 settembre, 1905," cat. IX, cl. 2, fasc. 9.
29. ACS, "Memo: Dal Sindaco al Circolo Agricolo Operaio, 1886," cat. IX, cl. 2, fasc. 9; Lorenzoni, Inchiesta, VI, tomo 1, parte 2, p. 714.
30. ACS, "Memo: Dal Sindaco al Circolo Agricolo Operaio, 1886," cat. IX, cl. 2, fasc. 9; Lorenzoni, Inchiesta, VI, tomo 1, parte 2, p. 714.
31. ACS, "Obbligati alla scuola: 1901-02, gennaio 1902," cat. IX, cl. 1, fasc. 1.
32. ACS, "Dalla maestro della borgata al sindaco di Sutera: Oggetto prestabilemento degli esami finali, 11/6/1889," cat. IX, cl. 2a, fasc. 2a; Professor Ingrao from Sutera also wrote to the provincial authorities. ACS, "Maestro N. Ingrao: Oggetto provvedimenti per gli esami finali, luglio 1889," cat. IX, cl. 2a fasc. 2a.
33. Atti della giunta, XIII, tomo 1, fasc. 1, p. 127
34. ACS, "Memo dalla Provveditore R. prefettura della provincia di Caltannissetta al Sindaco di Sutera, 22 november, 1897," cat. IX, cl. 2, fasc 1.
35. Elvira Mancuso, Sulle condizione della donna borghese in Sicilia: appunti e riflessione (Caltanissetta, 1907), p. 5. Mancuso suggests that the background of these teachers is one of the reasons for the inadequate quality of middle-class female education: "no matter how well run a normal school, in the education of its teachers, it cannot replace the civil and moral basis provided by a well-to-do family."
36. ACS, "Istruzione di scuole rurale e festivi per adulti analfebeti, 16 luglio 1905," cat. IX, cl. 2, fasc. 9; Atti della giunta, XIII, tomo 1. fasc. 1, p. 121.
37. ACS, "Istruzione di scuole rurale e festivi per adulti analfebeti, 16 luglio 1905," cat. IX, cl. 2, fasc. 9; Atti della giunta, XIII, tomo 1. fasc. 1, p. 121.
38. ACS, "Scuola Seriale 1895," cat. IX, cl. 2, fasc. 9; As late as 1905, Rava commented that the weekend schools failed to meet the needs of rural residents. Agricultural workers did not want to spend their one full day at home in the classroom, and rural women were too busy on Sundays to attend. V. Rava, "Le scuole serali e festive nell'anno scolastico 1904-05," Bollettino Ufficialae del Ministero dell'Istruzione Pubblica 34 (23 August, 1906): 2400
39. ACS, "Scuola Seriale 1895," cat. IX, cl. 2, fasc. 9; As late as 1905, Rava commented that the weekend schools failed to meet the needs of rural residents. Agricultural workers did not want to spend their one full day at home in the classroom, and rural women were too busy on Sundays to attend. V. Rava, "Le scuole serali e festive nell'anno scolastico 1904-05," Bollettino Ufficialae del Ministero dell'Istruzione Pubblica 34 (23 August, 1906): 2400
40. Weber, Peasants, p. 327. Throughout this chapter on education, Weber clearly illustrates how rural residents in France began to attend school when classroom lessons proved useful in meeting the needs and demands of a changing world.
41. Inchiesta, VI, tomo 1, parte 3, pp. 850-51.
42. Inchiesta VI, tomo 1, parte 2, p. 531. The two exceptions to this pattern appear to be Palermo and Catania. Palermo had experienced a longer history of migration and enrollments had been increasing since the end of the nineteenth century. As a result although Palermo experienced intense emigration between 1900-1906, classroom enrollments did not rise as sharply as in Caltanissetta or Girgenti. On the other hand, Catania which had reported low rates of emigration saw enrollments rise by 24 percent, largely due to consequences of industrialization and urbanization.
43. Inchiesta, VI, tomo 1, parte 2, p. 531. Also see Francesco Colletti, Dell'Emigrazione Italiana (Milan, 1912), pp. 257-61; and Dott. Giovan Battista Raja, Il fenomeno emigratorio sicliano (Palermo, 1908), pp. 71-2.
44. Inchiesta, VI, tomo 1, parte 2, p. 531. Also see Francesco Colletti, Dell'Emigrazione Italiana (Milan, 1912), pp. 257-61; and Dott. Giovan Battista Raja, Il fenomeno emigratorio sicliano (Palermo, 1908), pp. 71-2.
45. Inchiesta, VI, tomo 1, parte 2, p. 531. Also see Francesco Colletti, Dell'Emigrazione Italiana (Milan, 1912), pp. 257-61; and Dott. Giovan Battista Raja, Il fenomeno emigratorio sicliano (Palermo, 1908), pp. 71-2.
46. For further discussion of conservative estimates of emigration see Samuel Baily, "Chain Migration, of Italians to Argentina: Case Studies of the Agnonesi and Sirolesi," Studi Emigrazione 19 (1982): p. 77; according to the passport registers in the municipal archive of Sutera only six families requested permission to emigrate overseas between 1880 and 1899.
47. ACS, "Registro detle domande di Nulla Osta per ottenere passaporto per l'estero 1901-1904," cat. XII, cl. 3, fasc. 2.
48. Gero Difrancesco, Sutera: I primi anni dell '900 (Caltanissetta, 1989), pp. 29-52.
49. ACS, "Memo Dal Sindaco di Sutera al Ispettore Scolastico dal Circondario, 2 Giugno, 1908," cat. IX. cl. 2. fasc. 1.
50. The description of the typical migrant from Sutera is based on family reconstructions (taken from birth and marriage records) and passport records. This sample of over 600 migrants shows that 86 percent of all emigrants were male, the average age was twenty-nine years old and more than half of them were married before they left. Nearly 90 percent were agricultural workers, and 10 percent were artisans.
51. The financial position of women in the family is well documented in Sicilian ethnoraphy and government reports. See Inchiesta, VI, tomo 1, parte 3, p. 26; Giuseppe Pitré, La famiglia, la casa, la vita del popolo Siciliano (Palermo, 1913), pp. 33-4; Charlotte Chapman-Gower, Milocca: A Sicilian Village (Cambridge, 1971), p. 38. The participation of Sicilian women in organizing migrant groups is based on family reconstructions drawn from the birth, marriage and migration records between 1880 and 1930 in the Archivio Comunale di Sutera.
52. The financial position of women in the family is well documented in Sicilian ethnoraphy and government reports. See Inchiesta, VI, tomo 1, parte 3, p. 26; Giuseppe Pitré, La famiglia, la casa, la vita del popolo Siciliano (Palermo, 1913), pp. 33-4; Charlotte Chapman-Gower, Milocca: A Sicilian Village (Cambridge, 1971), p. 38. The participation of Sicilian women in organizing migrant groups is based on family reconstructions drawn from the birth, marriage and migration records between 1880 and 1930 in the Archivio Comunale di Sutera.
53. The financial position of women in the family is well documented in Sicilian ethnoraphy and government reports. See Inchiesta, VI, tomo 1, parte 3, p. 26; Giuseppe Pitré, La famiglia, la casa, la vita del popolo Siciliano (Palermo, 1913), pp. 33-4; Charlotte Chapman-Gower, Milocca: A Sicilian Village (Cambridge, 1971), p. 38. The participation of Sicilian women in organizing migrant groups is based on family reconstructions drawn from the birth, marriage and migration records between 1880 and 1930 in the Archivio Comunale di Sutera.
54. Migrants who permanently settled overseas also believed in the importance of education. See Briggs, An Italian Passage, pp. 191-244.
55. ACS, "Memos: Scuole seriale e festivi, 1904, 1906, 1907," cat. IX. cl. 1-8.
56. MAIC, DGS, Censimento della popolazione del regno al 31 dicembre 1901, II (Rome, 1903) p 277; MAIC, DGS, Censimento della popolazione del regno d'Italia al giugno 1911, II (Rome, 1914), p. 568.
57. MAIC, DGS, Censimento della popolazione del regno al 31 dicembre 1901, II (Rome, 1903) p 277; MAIC, DGS, Censimento della popolazione del regno d'Italia al giugno 1911, II (Rome, 1914), p. 568.
58. Antonio Mangano, "The Effect of Emigration Upon Italy: 'Ci manca la mano d'opera', 'We Lack the Working Hand,'" Charities and Commons 20 (4 April 1908): 17.
59. Archivio dello Stato-Caltanissetta (ASC), Catasti dei terreni, 1880-1930 and Catasti dei fabricatti. 1880-1930. The literacy requirement for special permits and licences was stipulated in the Orlando Law of 1904.
60. MAIC, DGS, Censimento della popolazione del regno al 31 dicembre 1901, III (Rome, 1903), pp. 272-320; MAIC, DGS, Censimento della popolazione del regno d'Italia al giugno 1911, III (Rome, 1914), pp. 331-32; MAIC, DGS, Censimento della popolazione del regno al 31 dicembre 1921, XIII (Rome, 1927), pp. 508-525. Census information shows that the percentage of women workers in Caltanissetta engaged in commercial activities rose from 8.42 percent in 1901, to 10.26 percent in 1911, to 24.67 percent in 1921. Anecdotal evidence for Sutera is taken from interviews I conducted in the spring and summer of 1991.
61. MAIC, DGS, Censimento della popolazione del regno al 31 dicembre 1901, III (Rome, 1903), pp. 272-320; MAIC, DGS, Censimento della popolazione del regno d'Italia al giugno 1911, III (Rome, 1914), pp. 331-32; MAIC, DGS, Censimento della popolazione del regno al 31 dicembre 1921, XIII (Rome, 1927), pp. 508-525. Census information shows that the percentage of women workers in Caltanissetta engaged in commercial activities rose from 8.42 percent in 1901, to 10.26 percent in 1911, to 24.67 percent in 1921. Anecdotal evidence for Sutera is taken from interviews I conducted in the spring and summer of 1991.
62. MAIC, DGS, Censimento della popolazione del regno al 31 dicembre 1901, III (Rome, 1903), pp. 272-320; MAIC, DGS, Censimento della popolazione del regno d'Italia al giugno 1911, III (Rome, 1914), pp. 331-32; MAIC, DGS, Censimento della popolazione del regno al 31 dicembre 1921, XIII (Rome, 1927), pp. 508-525. Census information shows that the percentage of women workers in Caltanissetta engaged in commercial activities rose from 8.42 percent in 1901, to 10.26 percent in 1911, to 24.67 percent in 1921. Anecdotal evidence for Sutera is taken from interviews I conducted in the spring and summer of 1991.
63. Interview, spring 1991.
64. Chapman-Gower, Milocca, p. 20.
65. Robert Foerster, The Italian Emigration of Emigration of Our Times (1919 Reprint: New York, 1969), p. 460.
66. ACS, "Iscritti nelle scuole maschile, classe 1, 1899-1990" cat. IX. cl. 2. fasc. 9; ACS, "Iscritti nelle scuole maschile, classe 1, 1909-1910," cat. IX, cl. 2, fasc. 9.
67. ACS, "Iscritti nelle scuole maschile, classe 1, 1899-1990" cat. IX. cl. 2. fasc. 9; ACS, "Iscritti nelle scuole maschile, classe 1, 1909-1910," cat. IX, cl. 2, fasc. 9.
68. Archivio della Scuola Elementare a Sutera (ASES), "Elenchi degli iscritti, abbandoni e promossi dal 1900-1914."
69. ACS, "Iscritte nelle scuole femminile 1904-1905," cat. IX. cl. 1, fasc. 9; ACS, "Iscritte nelle scuole femminile 1906-1907," cat. IX. cl. 1, fasc. 9.
70. ACS, "Iscritte nelle scuole femminile 1904-1905," cat. IX. cl. 1, fasc. 9; ACS, "Iscritte nelle scuole femminile 1906-1907," cat. IX. cl. 1, fasc. 9.
71. ACS, "Memo dal Prefettura: Provveditorato agli studi scuola Rabato, 12 novembre 1909," cat. IX, cl. 11, fasc. 1. ACS, "Iscritte nelle scuole femminile, 1906-1907; 1909-1910," cat IX 1.1. fasc. 9.
72. ACS, "Memo dal Prefettura: Provveditorato agli studi scuola Rabato, 12 novembre 1909," cat. IX, cl. 11, fasc. 1. ACS, "Iscritte nelle scuole femminile, 1906-1907; 1909-1910," cat IX 1.1. fasc. 9.
73. ACS, "Iscritte nelle scuole femminile 1901-1902," cat. IX, cl. 1, fasc. 9; ACS, "Iscritte nelle scuole femminile 1906-1907," cat. IX, cl. 1, fasc. 9.
74. ACS, "Iscritte nelle scuole femminile 1901-1902," cat. IX, cl. 1, fasc. 9; ACS, "Iscritte nelle scuole femminile 1906-1907," cat. IX, cl. 1, fasc. 9.
75. Charles Tilly, "Transplanted Networks," in Immigration Reconsidered: History, Sociology, and Politics, ed. Virginia Yans-McLaughlin (New York, 1990), p. 84; Ewa Morowska, "The Sociology and Historiography of Immigration," in Immigration Reconsidered, p. 192; Kerby Miller, "Irish-American Ethnicity," in Immigration Reconsidered, p. 98.
76. Charles Tilly, "Transplanted Networks," in Immigration Reconsidered: History, Sociology, and Politics, ed. Virginia Yans-McLaughlin (New York, 1990), p. 84; Ewa Morowska, "The Sociology and Historiography of Immigration," in Immigration Reconsidered, p. 192; Kerby Miller, "Irish-American Ethnicity," in Immigration Reconsidered, p. 98.
77. Charles Tilly, "Transplanted Networks," in Immigration Reconsidered: History, Sociology, and Politics, ed. Virginia Yans-McLaughlin (New York, 1990), p. 84; Ewa Morowska, "The Sociology and Historiography of Immigration," in Immigration Reconsidered, p. 192; Kerby Miller, "Irish-American Ethnicity," in Immigration Reconsidered, p. 98.
78. Interviews with Suteresi today reflect the depth of their pride in their town. Local histories of the turn of the century constantly glorify Sutera's in the great events of Christianity and Italian history.
79. In the local archive in Sutera there are numerous letters and memos testifying t the fact that women turned to local officials to send messages to their husbands and to utilize the resources of the Italian consulate networks to search for their missing men.
80. Inchiesta, VI, tomo 1, parte 3, p. 850.
81. Miller, "Irish-American Ethnicity," p. 98.
82. ACS, "Memo dal sindaco alla questura di Napoli, 1907," cat. XV, cl. 8a.
83. Guibernau, Nationalisms, pp. 46-8.
84. Bonetta, IStruzione, pp. 285, 290-1; Francesco Bettini, I programmi di studio per le scuole elementari dal 1860 al 1945 (Brescia, 1953), p. 40. For a general discussion of linguistic unity and national identity see Weber, Peasants, pp 303-38; and Susan Cotts Watkins, From Provinces into Nations: Demographic Integration in Western Europe, 1870-1960 (Princeton, 1991), pp. 114-21.
85. Bonetta, IStruzione, pp. 285, 290-1; Francesco Bettini, I programmi di studio per le scuole elementari dal 1860 al 1945 (Brescia, 1953), p. 40. For a general discussion of linguistic unity and national identity see Weber, Peasants, pp 303-38; and Susan Cotts Watkins, From Provinces into Nations: Demographic Integration in Western Europe, 1870-1960 (Princeton, 1991), pp. 114-21.
86. Bonetta, IStruzione, pp. 285, 290-1; Francesco Bettini, I programmi di studio per le scuole elementari dal 1860 al 1945 (Brescia, 1953), p. 40. For a general discussion of linguistic unity and national identity see Weber, Peasants, pp 303-38; and Susan Cotts Watkins, From Provinces into Nations: Demographic Integration in Western Europe, 1870-1960 (Princeton, 1991), pp. 114-21.
87. Bonetta, IStruzione, pp. 285, 290-1; Francesco Bettini, I programmi di studio per le scuole elementari dal 1860 al 1945 (Brescia, 1953), p. 40. For a general discussion of linguistic unity and national identity see Weber, Peasants, pp 303-38; and Susan Cotts Watkins, From Provinces into Nations: Demographic Integration in Western Europe, 1870-1960 (Princeton, 1991), pp. 114-21.
88. Bettini, I programmi, p. 34.
89. Giovanni Scavia, L'uomo e l'universo (Torino, 1861), p. 61; The first Italian textbooks appeared in the beginning of the nineteenth century. In 1836 a draft of L.A. Parravicini's book,Giannetto, won first prize in a contest offered by La Societ̀ Fiorentina, and was published in 1838. Over fifty editions of Giannetto were eventually published, and this work became the model for textbooks well into the twentieth century. The chapters were divided into L'uomo I suoi bisogni e I suoi doveri, Nozioni di Geografia, Esempi domestici sui doveri and Esempi di morale domestica. The readings explored the central ideas of civic duty, science, literature and arithmetic through stories that traced the familial and school life of Giannetto, a young boy growing up in the north. In the 1880s and 1890s the number of textbooks published expanded rapidly, but most were still based on Parravicini's model. Until the end of the nineteenth century, teachers were permitted to select their own texts. By 1905 teachers were required to submit suggestions to a provincial committee for approval. The committee approved books on a three year basis. See L.A. Parravicini, Giannetto ((Bologna, 1838); For more information on the distribution of textbooks see Ministero della Pubblica Istruzione, "La scelta dei libri di testo," I diritti della scuola, 21 (Rome, 5 March 1905): 163.
90. Giovanni Scavia, L'uomo e l'universo (Torino, 1861), p. 61; The first Italian textbooks appeared in the beginning of the nineteenth century. In 1836 a draft of L.A. Parravicini's book,Giannetto, won first prize in a contest offered by La Societ̀ Fiorentina, and was published in 1838. Over fifty editions of Giannetto were eventually published, and this work became the model for textbooks well into the twentieth century. The chapters were divided into L'uomo I suoi bisogni e I suoi doveri, Nozioni di Geografia, Esempi domestici sui doveri and Esempi di morale domestica. The readings explored the central ideas of civic duty, science, literature and arithmetic through stories that traced the familial and school life of Giannetto, a young boy growing up in the north. In the 1880s and 1890s the number of textbooks published expanded rapidly, but most were still based on Parravicini's model. Until the end of the nineteenth century, teachers were permitted to select their own texts. By 1905 teachers were required to submit suggestions to a provincial committee for approval. The committee approved books on a three year basis. See L.A. Parravicini, Giannetto ((Bologna, 1838); For more information on the distribution of textbooks see Ministero della Pubblica Istruzione, "La scelta dei libri di testo," I diritti della scuola, 21 (Rome, 5 March 1905): 163.
91. Giovanni Scavia, L'uomo e l'universo (Torino, 1861), p. 61; The first Italian textbooks appeared in the beginning of the nineteenth century. In 1836 a draft of L.A. Parravicini's book,Giannetto, won first prize in a contest offered by La Societ̀ Fiorentina, and was published in 1838. Over fifty editions of Giannetto were eventually published, and this work became the model for textbooks well into the twentieth century. The chapters were divided into L'uomo I suoi bisogni e I suoi doveri, Nozioni di Geografia, Esempi domestici sui doveri and Esempi di morale domestica. The readings explored the central ideas of civic duty, science, literature and arithmetic through stories that traced the familial and school life of Giannetto, a young boy growing up in the north. In the 1880s and 1890s the number of textbooks published expanded rapidly, but most were still based on Parravicini's model. Until the end of the nineteenth century, teachers were permitted to select their own texts. By 1905 teachers were required to submit suggestions to a provincial committee for approval. The committee approved books on a three year basis. See L.A. Parravicini, Giannetto ((Bologna, 1838); For more information on the distribution of textbooks see Ministero della Pubblica Istruzione, "La scelta dei libri di testo," I diritti della scuola, 21 (Rome, 5 March 1905): 163.
92. Ministero della Pubblica Istruzione, "Indice della materie-programmi e istruzione per le scuole elementari," Bollettino Ufficiale del Ministero dell'Istruzione pubblica, Supplemento al N. 9, I (Rome 2 March 1904): 481; Ministero della Pubblica Istruzione, Bollettino Ufficale del Ministero dell'istruzione pubblica, Supplemento al No. 42, II (Roma: 19 ottobre 1900), p. XII. The utilization of public schools to spread specific values and beliefs is obviously not unique to Italy. The French school system was particularly adept at instilling the same values through classroom texts and curriculum development. Linda L. Clark, Schooling the Daughters of Marianne: Textbooks and the Socialization of Girls in Modern French Primary Schools (Albany, NY, 1984), pp. 26-59.
93. Ministero della Pubblica Istruzione, "Indice della materie-programmi e istruzione per le scuole elementari," Bollettino Ufficiale del Ministero dell'Istruzione pubblica, Supplemento al N. 9, I (Rome 2 March 1904): 481; Ministero della Pubblica Istruzione, Bollettino Ufficale del Ministero dell'istruzione pubblica, Supplemento al No. 42, II (Roma: 19 ottobre 1900), p. XII. The utilization of public schools to spread specific values and beliefs is obviously not unique to Italy. The French school system was particularly adept at instilling the same values through classroom texts and curriculum development. Linda L. Clark, Schooling the Daughters of Marianne: Textbooks and the Socialization of Girls in Modern French Primary Schools (Albany, NY, 1984), pp. 26-59.
94. Ministero della Pubblica Istruzione, "Indice della materie-programmi e istruzione per le scuole elementari," Bollettino Ufficiale del Ministero dell'Istruzione pubblica, Supplemento al N. 9, I (Rome 2 March 1904): 481; Ministero della Pubblica Istruzione, Bollettino Ufficale del Ministero dell'istruzione pubblica, Supplemento al No. 42, II (Roma: 19 ottobre 1900), p. XII. The utilization of public schools to spread specific values and beliefs is obviously not unique to Italy. The French school system was particularly adept at instilling the same values through classroom texts and curriculum development. Linda L. Clark, Schooling the Daughters of Marianne: Textbooks and the Socialization of Girls in Modern French Primary Schools (Albany, NY, 1984), pp. 26-59.
95. Ministero della Pubblica Istruzione, "Indice della materie-programmi e istruzione per le scuole elementari," Bollettino Ufficiale del Ministero dell'Istruzione pubblica, Supplemento al N. 9, I (Rome: 2 March 1904): 543.
96. Scavia, L'Uomo, pp. 89-90. This conception of the state was often associated with Giuseppe Mazzini and the Italian Unification. A number of textbooks and pedagogical works reminded their readers that Mazzini, the father of the Italian state, had first equated the nation with the family.
97. See Benedict Anderson, Nations, for a discussion on the creation of the state as an imagined community.
98. Ildebrando Bencivenni, Il libro completo per gli alunni e le alunne della 3 cl. elementare (Turin, 1880), p. 18.
99. An excellent example of the gendered construction of citizenship can be found in Luigi Natoli's In Cammino ... letture educative per le scuole elementare urbane maschile e femminili (Palermo, 1905), pp. 155-61.
100. Guido Fabiani, Casa mia! Patria mia! Libro di lettura per la 3a classe elementare femminile (Milan, 1903), p. 147.
101. Geltrude Malagoli, Un vezzo di perle: alle giovinette della scuola popolare (Rocca San Casciano, ed., 1913), p. 14.
102. Ermilinda Formari, Le fanciulle per bene: Galateo per le fanciulle ad uso delle scuole elementari femminile (Palermo, ed., 1880), p. 125.
103. Malagoli, Un Vezzo, pp. 89-90.
104. Scavia, L'Uomo, pp. 10-32;
105. Ministero della Pubblica Istruzione, Istruzioni e programmi per l'insegnamento delle primi nozioni di agricoltura, del lavoro manuale educativo, dei lavori donneschi, dell'igiene e dell'economia domestica nelle scuole elementari approvati con R. Decreto 10 aprile, 1899 (Rome, 1899), pp. cxcvi, 38.
106. Angelo Mosso, "Il passato e l'avvenire della educazione fisica," Nuova Antologia, LXII, series 4 (1986): 156.
107. Clark, Schooling, chapter 3 and 5. Linda Clark suggests that some students and teachers opposed the glorification of domestic work and ridiculed the moral messages of thrift, hard work, modesty and obedience that permeated classroom lessons. By World War I, these messages blatantly contradicted the reality of women's experience. Married women often didi not have the luxury staying home and caring for their children. While examinations and notebooks suggest that most students accepted the basic principles underlying elementary school curriculum, it does not appear that they necessarily changed obvious in rural Sicily at the beginning of the twentieth century.
108. Emma Alaimo, Proverbi Siciliani (Florence, 1974), pp. 63-78.
109. Francesco Paulo Menniti, "Per le scuole rurali-e per le scuole serali e festivi: Note ed appunti," La Scuola Azione, 14 (15 January, 1905): 175.
110. Antonio Gramsci, Letteratura e vita nazionale (Turin, 1954), p. 104.
111. Clarice Tartufari, "Vaghe Stelle dell'Orsa," Giornale di Sicilia (15-16 March, 1913): 3 Carola Prosperi, "Una Lezione d'Umilitá," Giornale di Sicilia (24-25 February, 1913): 2.
112. Clarice Tartufari, "Vaghe Stelle dell'Orsa," Giornale di Sicilia (15-16 March, 1913): 3 Carola Prosperi, "Una Lezione d'Umilitá," Giornale di Sicilia (24-25 February, 1913): 2.
113. "Da Calabria Giolosa Ionica" Giornale di Sicilia (13-14 December, 1909): 4.
114. Donna Gabaccia, "In the Shadows of the Periphery: Italian Women in the Nineteenth Century," in Connecting Spheres, eds. Marilyn J. Boxer and Jean H. Quataert (New York, 1987), pp. 166-76; Jole Calapso, "La donna ni Sicilia e in Italia: La realt́ e falsa coscienza nella statistica dal 1871 ad oggi," Quaderni Sicilia, 2 (MArch-April, 1973): 13-20.
115. Donna Gabaccia, "In the Shadows of the Periphery: Italian Women in the Nineteenth Century," in Connecting Spheres, eds. Marilyn J. Boxer and Jean H. Quataert (New York, 1987), pp. 166-76; Jole Calapso, "La donna ni Sicilia e in Italia: La realt́ e falsa coscienza nella statistica dal 1871 ad oggi," Quaderni Sicilia, 2 (MArch-April, 1973): 13-20.
116. Inchiesta, VI, to mo 1, parte 3, pp. 813-18.
117. See advertisements in Giornalle di Sicilia, (1-29 March 1911, 1-29 March 1911, 1-29 March 1913, 1-29 March 1925); for a discussion of how migrants spent their money see Inchiesta, VI, tomo, 1, parte 3, pp. 832-33; for information on the cultural worth of material possessions see Chapman-Gower, Milocca, pp. 131.
118. See advertisements in Giornalle di Sicilia, (1-29 March 1911, 1-29 March 1911, 1-29 March 1913, 1-29 March 1925); for a discussion of how migrants spent their money see Inchiesta, VI, tomo, 1, parte 3, pp. 832-33; for information on the cultural worth of material possessions see Chapman-Gower, Milocca, pp. 131.
119. See advertisements in Giornalle di Sicilia, (1-29 March 1911, 1-29 March 1911, 1-29 March 1913, 1-29 March 1925); for a discussion of how migrants spent their money see Inchiesta, VI, tomo, 1, parte 3, pp. 832-33; for information on the cultural worth of material possessions see Chapman-Gower, Milocca, pp. 131.
120. Advertisement, Giornale di Sicilia (13-14 December, 1909) 6.
121. Inchiesta, VI, tomo 1, parte 3, p. 53.
122. Shampoos, lotions, and medicines wwere advertised in Giornale di Sicilia continually from 1909-1925. Aspirin was advertised in Giornale di Sicilia, (1-2 March 1925), p. 6.
123. de Grazia, "Empowering Women," pp. 275-77.