Cultural pathology: Roots of Polish literary opposition to communism

Journal of European Studies

Volumn 28, Issue 3, 1998, Pages 267-308

  Tighe, Carl ^a  

^a NONE   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0032162277     PISSN: 00472441     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/004724419802800304     Document Type: Article

References (111)

1. P. Hertz, 'Rozważanie na marginesie lektury', Twórczość (July 1959), 90-5.
2. A. Alvarez, Under Pressure (Harmondsworth, 1965), 20.
3. Dziady (Forefathers' Eve) has a complex history. Parts II and IV were published in Wilno as two short plays in 1823. Part III, complete in itself but labelled 'act one' of a much longer piece, appeared in 1832. A fragment of Part I was discovered and published posthumously. Why Mickiewicz should have numbered the parts of the play in this way is unknown. H.B. Segal (ed.), Polish Romantic Drama (Cornell, 1977).
4. N. Davies, The Heart of Europe (Oxford, 1980), 177-8; M. Gardner, Poland: A Study in National Idealism (London, 1915); G. Gömöri, Polish and Hungarian Poetry 1945-56 (Oxford, 1966); D. Lane and G. Kolankiewicz (eds), Social Groups in Polish Society (Columbia, 1973); P. Anderson, Lineages of the Absolutist State (London, 1984), 282; A. R. Myers, Parliaments and Estates in Europe to 1789 (New York, 1975); O. Halecki, The Limits and Divisions of European History (London, 1950).
5. N. Davies, The Heart of Europe (Oxford, 1980), 177-8; M. Gardner, Poland: A Study in National Idealism (London, 1915); G. Gömöri, Polish and Hungarian Poetry 1945-56 (Oxford, 1966); D. Lane and G. Kolankiewicz (eds), Social Groups in Polish Society (Columbia, 1973); P. Anderson, Lineages of the Absolutist State (London, 1984), 282; A. R. Myers, Parliaments and Estates in Europe to 1789 (New York, 1975); O. Halecki, The Limits and Divisions of European History (London, 1950).
6. N. Davies, The Heart of Europe (Oxford, 1980), 177-8; M. Gardner, Poland: A Study in National Idealism (London, 1915); G. Gömöri, Polish and Hungarian Poetry 1945-56 (Oxford, 1966); D. Lane and G. Kolankiewicz (eds), Social Groups in Polish Society (Columbia, 1973); P. Anderson, Lineages of the Absolutist State (London, 1984), 282; A. R. Myers, Parliaments and Estates in Europe to 1789 (New York, 1975); O. Halecki, The Limits and Divisions of European History (London, 1950).
7. N. Davies, The Heart of Europe (Oxford, 1980), 177-8; M. Gardner, Poland: A Study in National Idealism (London, 1915); G. Gömöri, Polish and Hungarian Poetry 1945-56 (Oxford, 1966); D. Lane and G. Kolankiewicz (eds), Social Groups in Polish Society (Columbia, 1973); P. Anderson, Lineages of the Absolutist State (London, 1984), 282; A. R. Myers, Parliaments and Estates in Europe to 1789 (New York, 1975); O. Halecki, The Limits and Divisions of European History (London, 1950).
8. N. Davies, The Heart of Europe (Oxford, 1980), 177-8; M. Gardner, Poland: A Study in National Idealism (London, 1915); G. Gömöri, Polish and Hungarian Poetry 1945-56 (Oxford, 1966); D. Lane and G. Kolankiewicz (eds), Social Groups in Polish Society (Columbia, 1973); P. Anderson, Lineages of the Absolutist State (London, 1984), 282; A. R. Myers, Parliaments and Estates in Europe to 1789 (New York, 1975); O. Halecki, The Limits and Divisions of European History (London, 1950).
9. N. Davies, The Heart of Europe (Oxford, 1980), 177-8; M. Gardner, Poland: A Study in National Idealism (London, 1915); G. Gömöri, Polish and Hungarian Poetry 1945-56 (Oxford, 1966); D. Lane and G. Kolankiewicz (eds), Social Groups in Polish Society (Columbia, 1973); P. Anderson, Lineages of the Absolutist State (London, 1984), 282; A. R. Myers, Parliaments and Estates in Europe to 1789 (New York, 1975); O. Halecki, The Limits and Divisions of European History (London, 1950).
10. N. Davies, The Heart of Europe (Oxford, 1980), 177-8; M. Gardner, Poland: A Study in National Idealism (London, 1915); G. Gömöri, Polish and Hungarian Poetry 1945-56 (Oxford, 1966); D. Lane and G. Kolankiewicz (eds), Social Groups in Polish Society (Columbia, 1973); P. Anderson, Lineages of the Absolutist State (London, 1984), 282; A. R. Myers, Parliaments and Estates in Europe to 1789 (New York, 1975); O. Halecki, The Limits and Divisions of European History (London, 1950).
11. A. Mickiewicz, Pan Tadeusz (Paris, 1834; London 1966).
12. H. Sienkiewicz, Tales from Sienkiewicz (London, 1946), 208; B. Prus, The Doll (Warsaw 1890: London, 1996); B. Prus, Pharaoh (Warsaw, 1895-6; London, 1991).
13. H. Sienkiewicz, Tales from Sienkiewicz (London, 1946), 208; B. Prus, The Doll (Warsaw 1890: London, 1996); B. Prus, Pharaoh (Warsaw, 1895-6; London, 1991).
14. H. Sienkiewicz, Tales from Sienkiewicz (London, 1946), 208; B. Prus, The Doll (Warsaw 1890: London, 1996); B. Prus, Pharaoh (Warsaw, 1895-6; London, 1991).
15. Tadeusz Bobrowski, Pamiȩtniki I (Lwów, 1900), 362; Z Bożej Laski i Woli Narodu: Konstytucja 3 Maja (Warsaw, 1991 ).
16. Tadeusz Bobrowski, Pamiȩtniki I (Lwów, 1900), 362; Z Bożej Laski i Woli Narodu: Konstytucja 3 Maja (Warsaw, 1991 ).
17. J. Conrad, Heart of Darkness (London, 1969), 92. This conflict, and the theme of work as a solution to political problems, has survived as an undercurrent into recent Polish literature and can be seen in the poetry of the Pope Jan Paweł II, particularly the poem cycle 'Profile Cyrenejczyka'. K. Wojtyła, Poezje i dramaty (Kraków, 1979), 49-57.
18. J. Conrad, Heart of Darkness (London, 1969), 92. This conflict, and the theme of work as a solution to political problems, has survived as an undercurrent into recent Polish literature and can be seen in the poetry of the Pope Jan Paweł II, particularly the poem cycle 'Profile Cyrenejczyka'. K. Wojtyła, Poezje i dramaty (Kraków, 1979), 49-57.
19. K. Brandys, A Question of Reality (London, 1981), 17-18.
20. The revival of interest in Sarmatianism in Poland in the mid 1970s coincided with increased interest in Daco-Roman origin-myths in Romania, Thracian origin-myths in Bulgaria and the Great Moravian Empire in Czechoslovakia. These phenomena are clearly part of a process whereby national feelings, submerged under Stalinism, emerged again as an outlet for frustrated political and economic aspirations. F. Glatz, 'Hungarians in the Carpathian Basin', Hungarian Book Review, 2/3 (1989), 9-10.
21. T. Konwicki, Moonrise, Moonset (London, 1987), 81; A. Wat, My Century, 273; N. Davies, 'Poland's Dreams of Past Glory', History Today (November, 1982), 23-30; N. Davies, God's Playground: A History of Poland I (Oxford, 1981).
22. T. Konwicki, Moonrise, Moonset (London, 1987), 81; A. Wat, My Century, 273; N. Davies, 'Poland's Dreams of Past Glory', History Today (November, 1982), 23-30; N. Davies, God's Playground: A History of Poland I (Oxford, 1981).
23. T. Konwicki, Moonrise, Moonset (London, 1987), 81; A. Wat, My Century, 273; N. Davies, 'Poland's Dreams of Past Glory', History Today (November, 1982), 23-30; N. Davies, God's Playground: A History of Poland I (Oxford, 1981).
24. T. Konwicki, Moonrise, Moonset (London, 1987), 81; A. Wat, My Century, 273; N. Davies, 'Poland's Dreams of Past Glory', History Today (November, 1982), 23-30; N. Davies, God's Playground: A History of Poland I (Oxford, 1981).
25. O. A. Narkiewicz, The Green Flag: Polish Populist Politics 1867-1970 (London: Croom Helm, 1976).
26. A. Polonsky, Politics In Independent Poland 1921-1939 (Oxford, 1972), 28; N. Davies, God's Playground II, 417-18; J. Topolski, An Outline History of Poland (Warsaw, 1986), 231.
27. A. Polonsky, Politics In Independent Poland 1921-1939 (Oxford, 1972), 28; N. Davies, God's Playground II, 417-18; J. Topolski, An Outline History of Poland (Warsaw, 1986), 231.
28. A. Polonsky, Politics In Independent Poland 1921-1939 (Oxford, 1972), 28; N. Davies, God's Playground II, 417-18; J. Topolski, An Outline History of Poland (Warsaw, 1986), 231.
29. Maria Da̧browska born in Russów near Kalisz, studied natural sciences, sociology and economics in Warsaw, Switzerland, Belgium, France and England. She also studied the peasant and co-operative movements in Finland and returned to Poland to marry a noted social worker. She worked in the Polish cooperative movement for ten years and then began to write fiction. She made her debut with a collection of startlingly realistic stories in 1925. Her major work is Noce i dnie (Nights and Day), published in the years 1932-34, a four volume epic of life in Kalisz from the 1860s up to 1914, portraying the transformation of the gentry into the urban intelligentsia. Frequently nominated for the Nobel prize, she is considered the foremost realist in Polish fiction, a link between contemporary literature and the nineteenth-century positivists. She was the conscience of the intellectual lay-left after 1956, and the recipient of many awards from the post-war regime.
30. W. Doroszewski, Słownik jȩzyka polskiego (Warsaw, 1958-69); W. Here and W. Sadowski, 'The incompatibility of system and culture and the Polish crisis', S. Gomułka and A. Polonsky (eds), Polish Paradoxes (London, 1990), 119-38.
31. W. Doroszewski, Słownik jȩzyka polskiego (Warsaw, 1958-69); W. Here and W. Sadowski, 'The incompatibility of system and culture and the Polish crisis', S. Gomułka and A. Polonsky (eds), Polish Paradoxes (London, 1990), 119-38.
32. G. Konrád and I. Szelényi, Intellectuals on the Road to Class Power (London, 1979), 125.
33. B. Schulz, 'An essay for S. I. Witkiewicz': Jan Kott (ed.), Four Decades of Polish Essays (Evanston, 1990), 109; B. Schulz, The Fictions of Bruno Schulz (London, 1988); J. Ficowski (ed.), The Letters and Drawings of Bruno Schulz (New York, 1990); J. Ficowski (ed.), The Drawings of Bruno Schulz (Evanston, Illinois, 1990).
34. B. Schulz, 'An essay for S. I. Witkiewicz': Jan Kott (ed.), Four Decades of Polish Essays (Evanston, 1990), 109; B. Schulz, The Fictions of Bruno Schulz (London, 1988); J. Ficowski (ed.), The Letters and Drawings of Bruno Schulz (New York, 1990); J. Ficowski (ed.), The Drawings of Bruno Schulz (Evanston, Illinois, 1990).
35. B. Schulz, 'An essay for S. I. Witkiewicz': Jan Kott (ed.), Four Decades of Polish Essays (Evanston, 1990), 109; B. Schulz, The Fictions of Bruno Schulz (London, 1988); J. Ficowski (ed.), The Letters and Drawings of Bruno Schulz (New York, 1990); J. Ficowski (ed.), The Drawings of Bruno Schulz (Evanston, Illinois, 1990).
36. B. Schulz, 'An essay for S. I. Witkiewicz': Jan Kott (ed.), Four Decades of Polish Essays (Evanston, 1990), 109; B. Schulz, The Fictions of Bruno Schulz (London, 1988); J. Ficowski (ed.), The Letters and Drawings of Bruno Schulz (New York, 1990); J. Ficowski (ed.), The Drawings of Bruno Schulz (Evanston, Illinois, 1990).
37. W. Gombrowicz, A Kind of Testament (London, 1973), 53-4; also: D. De Roux (ed.), Rozmowy z Gombrowiczem (Paris, 1969), 89-91.
38. W. Gombrowicz, A Kind of Testament (London, 1973), 53-4; also: D. De Roux (ed.), Rozmowy z Gombrowiczem (Paris, 1969), 89-91.
39. W. Gombrowicz, Ferdydurke (Warsaw, 1938: Harmondsworth, 1986); Possessed: A Gothic Novel (Warsaw, 1973; London 1980); Operetta (Paris, 1967; London 1971); Princess Ivona (Warsaw, 1937; London, 1969); The Marriage (Paris 1953: London 1970); Diaries (Paris, 1957-69; Evanston, 1993); Trans-Atlantyk (Paris 1970: Yale, 1994); Pornografia (Paris, 1960; London 1966); J. Kot, The Theatre of Essence (Evanston, 1984) 83-96.
40. W. Gombrowicz, Ferdydurke (Warsaw, 1938: Harmondsworth, 1986); Possessed: A Gothic Novel (Warsaw, 1973; London 1980); Operetta (Paris, 1967; London 1971); Princess Ivona (Warsaw, 1937; London, 1969); The Marriage (Paris 1953: London 1970); Diaries (Paris, 1957-69; Evanston, 1993); Trans-Atlantyk (Paris 1970: Yale, 1994); Pornografia (Paris, 1960; London 1966); J. Kot, The Theatre of Essence (Evanston, 1984) 83-96.
41. W. Gombrowicz, Ferdydurke (Warsaw, 1938: Harmondsworth, 1986); Possessed: A Gothic Novel (Warsaw, 1973; London 1980); Operetta (Paris, 1967; London 1971); Princess Ivona (Warsaw, 1937; London, 1969); The Marriage (Paris 1953: London 1970); Diaries (Paris, 1957-69; Evanston, 1993); Trans-Atlantyk (Paris 1970: Yale, 1994); Pornografia (Paris, 1960; London 1966); J. Kot, The Theatre of Essence (Evanston, 1984) 83-96.
42. W. Gombrowicz, Ferdydurke (Warsaw, 1938: Harmondsworth, 1986); Possessed: A Gothic Novel (Warsaw, 1973; London 1980); Operetta (Paris, 1967; London 1971); Princess Ivona (Warsaw, 1937; London, 1969); The Marriage (Paris 1953: London 1970); Diaries (Paris, 1957-69; Evanston, 1993); Trans-Atlantyk (Paris 1970: Yale, 1994); Pornografia (Paris, 1960; London 1966); J. Kot, The Theatre of Essence (Evanston, 1984) 83-96.
43. W. Gombrowicz, Ferdydurke (Warsaw, 1938: Harmondsworth, 1986); Possessed: A Gothic Novel (Warsaw, 1973; London 1980); Operetta (Paris, 1967; London 1971); Princess Ivona (Warsaw, 1937; London, 1969); The Marriage (Paris 1953: London 1970); Diaries (Paris, 1957-69; Evanston, 1993); Trans-Atlantyk (Paris 1970: Yale, 1994); Pornografia (Paris, 1960; London 1966); J. Kot, The Theatre of Essence (Evanston, 1984) 83-96.
44. W. Gombrowicz, Ferdydurke (Warsaw, 1938: Harmondsworth, 1986); Possessed: A Gothic Novel (Warsaw, 1973; London 1980); Operetta (Paris, 1967; London 1971); Princess Ivona (Warsaw, 1937; London, 1969); The Marriage (Paris 1953: London 1970); Diaries (Paris, 1957-69; Evanston, 1993); Trans-Atlantyk (Paris 1970: Yale, 1994); Pornografia (Paris, 1960; London 1966); J. Kot, The Theatre of Essence (Evanston, 1984) 83-96.
45. W. Gombrowicz, Ferdydurke (Warsaw, 1938: Harmondsworth, 1986); Possessed: A Gothic Novel (Warsaw, 1973; London 1980); Operetta (Paris, 1967; London 1971); Princess Ivona (Warsaw, 1937; London, 1969); The Marriage (Paris 1953: London 1970); Diaries (Paris, 1957-69; Evanston, 1993); Trans-Atlantyk (Paris 1970: Yale, 1994); Pornografia (Paris, 1960; London 1966); J. Kot, The Theatre of Essence (Evanston, 1984) 83-96.
46. W. Gombrowicz, Ferdydurke (Warsaw, 1938: Harmondsworth, 1986); Possessed: A Gothic Novel (Warsaw, 1973; London 1980); Operetta (Paris, 1967; London 1971); Princess Ivona (Warsaw, 1937; London, 1969); The Marriage (Paris 1953: London 1970); Diaries (Paris, 1957-69; Evanston, 1993); Trans-Atlantyk (Paris 1970: Yale, 1994); Pornografia (Paris, 1960; London 1966); J. Kot, The Theatre of Essence (Evanston, 1984) 83-96.
47. W. Gombrowicz, Ferdydurke (Warsaw, 1938: Harmondsworth, 1986); Possessed: A Gothic Novel (Warsaw, 1973; London 1980); Operetta (Paris, 1967; London 1971); Princess Ivona (Warsaw, 1937; London, 1969); The Marriage (Paris 1953: London 1970); Diaries (Paris, 1957-69; Evanston, 1993); Trans-Atlantyk (Paris 1970: Yale, 1994); Pornografia (Paris, 1960; London 1966); J. Kot, The Theatre of Essence (Evanston, 1984) 83-96.
48. S. I. Witkiewicz, Insatiability (Warsaw 1932: London, 1985); The Madman and the Nun and Other Plays (Washington, 1968); D. Gerould (ed.), The Witkiewicz Reader (London, 1993); B. Schultz, 'An Essay for S. I. Witkiewicz', Jan Kott (ed.), Four Decades of Polish Essays (Evanston, 1990), 109; J. Kot, The Theatre of Essence (Evanston, 1984) 61-82; C. Miłosz, Emperor of the Earth: Modes of Eccentric Vision (Berkeley, 1981), 32-49.
49. S. I. Witkiewicz, Insatiability (Warsaw 1932: London, 1985); The Madman and the Nun and Other Plays (Washington, 1968); D. Gerould (ed.), The Witkiewicz Reader (London, 1993); B. Schultz, 'An Essay for S. I. Witkiewicz', Jan Kott (ed.), Four Decades of Polish Essays (Evanston, 1990), 109; J. Kot, The Theatre of Essence (Evanston, 1984) 61-82; C. Miłosz, Emperor of the Earth: Modes of Eccentric Vision (Berkeley, 1981), 32-49.
50. S. I. Witkiewicz, Insatiability (Warsaw 1932: London, 1985); The Madman and the Nun and Other Plays (Washington, 1968); D. Gerould (ed.), The Witkiewicz Reader (London, 1993); B. Schultz, 'An Essay for S. I. Witkiewicz', Jan Kott (ed.), Four Decades of Polish Essays (Evanston, 1990), 109; J. Kot, The Theatre of Essence (Evanston, 1984) 61-82; C. Miłosz, Emperor of the Earth: Modes of Eccentric Vision (Berkeley, 1981), 32-49.
51. S. I. Witkiewicz, Insatiability (Warsaw 1932: London, 1985); The Madman and the Nun and Other Plays (Washington, 1968); D. Gerould (ed.), The Witkiewicz Reader (London, 1993); B. Schultz, 'An Essay for S. I. Witkiewicz', Jan Kott (ed.), Four Decades of Polish Essays (Evanston, 1990), 109; J. Kot, The Theatre of Essence (Evanston, 1984) 61-82; C. Miłosz, Emperor of the Earth: Modes of Eccentric Vision (Berkeley, 1981), 32-49.
52. S. I. Witkiewicz, Insatiability (Warsaw 1932: London, 1985); The Madman and the Nun and Other Plays (Washington, 1968); D. Gerould (ed.), The Witkiewicz Reader (London, 1993); B. Schultz, 'An Essay for S. I. Witkiewicz', Jan Kott (ed.), Four Decades of Polish Essays (Evanston, 1990), 109; J. Kot, The Theatre of Essence (Evanston, 1984) 61-82; C. Miłosz, Emperor of the Earth: Modes of Eccentric Vision (Berkeley, 1981), 32-49.
53. S. I. Witkiewicz, Insatiability (Warsaw 1932: London, 1985); The Madman and the Nun and Other Plays (Washington, 1968); D. Gerould (ed.), The Witkiewicz Reader (London, 1993); B. Schultz, 'An Essay for S. I. Witkiewicz', Jan Kott (ed.), Four Decades of Polish Essays (Evanston, 1990), 109; J. Kot, The Theatre of Essence (Evanston, 1984) 61-82; C. Miłosz, Emperor of the Earth: Modes of Eccentric Vision (Berkeley, 1981), 32-49.
54. N. Bethell, 'Soviet agent reveals terrible truth of Polish massacres', Observer (6 October 1991), 1-23; C. Moorhead, 'Out of the Darkness', The Independent Magazine (26 January 1991); L. Fitzgibbon, Katyń Massacre (London, 1976); Documents on Polish-Soviet Relations II: 1939-45, General Sikorski Historical Institute (London, 1967); S. Kot, Conversations with the Kremlin and Despatches from Russia (London, 1963).
55. N. Bethell, 'Soviet agent reveals terrible truth of Polish massacres', Observer (6 October 1991), 1-23; C. Moorhead, 'Out of the Darkness', The Independent Magazine (26 January 1991); L. Fitzgibbon, Katyń Massacre (London, 1976); Documents on Polish-Soviet Relations II: 1939-45, General Sikorski Historical Institute (London, 1967); S. Kot, Conversations with the Kremlin and Despatches from Russia (London, 1963).
56. N. Bethell, 'Soviet agent reveals terrible truth of Polish massacres', Observer (6 October 1991), 1-23; C. Moorhead, 'Out of the Darkness', The Independent Magazine (26 January 1991); L. Fitzgibbon, Katyń Massacre (London, 1976); Documents on Polish-Soviet Relations II: 1939-45, General Sikorski Historical Institute (London, 1967); S. Kot, Conversations with the Kremlin and Despatches from Russia (London, 1963).
57. N. Bethell, 'Soviet agent reveals terrible truth of Polish massacres', Observer (6 October 1991), 1-23; C. Moorhead, 'Out of the Darkness', The Independent Magazine (26 January 1991); L. Fitzgibbon, Katyń Massacre (London, 1976); Documents on Polish-Soviet Relations II: 1939-45, General Sikorski Historical Institute (London, 1967); S. Kot, Conversations with the Kremlin and Despatches from Russia (London, 1963).
58. N. Bethell, 'Soviet agent reveals terrible truth of Polish massacres', Observer (6 October 1991), 1-23; C. Moorhead, 'Out of the Darkness', The Independent Magazine (26 January 1991); L. Fitzgibbon, Katyń Massacre (London, 1976); Documents on Polish-Soviet Relations II: 1939-45, General Sikorski Historical Institute (London, 1967); S. Kot, Conversations with the Kremlin and Despatches from Russia (London, 1963).
59. A. Wat, My Century: The Odyssey of a Polish Intellectual (London, 1977; New York, 1990).
60. K. S. Karol, Solik (London, 1986); B. Porajska, From The Steppes to the Savannah (London, 1990); W. Sagajłło, The Man in the Middle: A Story of the Polish Resistance 1940-45 (London, 1984); Z. Zajdlerova, The Dark Side of the Moon (London, 1989); G. Herling, A World Apart (Oxford, 1987).
61. K. S. Karol, Solik (London, 1986); B. Porajska, From The Steppes to the Savannah (London, 1990); W. Sagajłło, The Man in the Middle: A Story of the Polish Resistance 1940-45 (London, 1984); Z. Zajdlerova, The Dark Side of the Moon (London, 1989); G. Herling, A World Apart (Oxford, 1987).
62. K. S. Karol, Solik (London, 1986); B. Porajska, From The Steppes to the Savannah (London, 1990); W. Sagajłło, The Man in the Middle: A Story of the Polish Resistance 1940-45 (London, 1984); Z. Zajdlerova, The Dark Side of the Moon (London, 1989); G. Herling, A World Apart (Oxford, 1987).
63. K. S. Karol, Solik (London, 1986); B. Porajska, From The Steppes to the Savannah (London, 1990); W. Sagajłło, The Man in the Middle: A Story of the Polish Resistance 1940-45 (London, 1984); Z. Zajdlerova, The Dark Side of the Moon (London, 1989); G. Herling, A World Apart (Oxford, 1987).
64. K. S. Karol, Solik (London, 1986); B. Porajska, From The Steppes to the Savannah (London, 1990); W. Sagajłło, The Man in the Middle: A Story of the Polish Resistance 1940-45 (London, 1984); Z. Zajdlerova, The Dark Side of the Moon (London, 1989); G. Herling, A World Apart (Oxford, 1987).
65. On Soviet treatment of Polish writers see: K. Sword (ed.), The Soviet Takeover of the Polish Eastern Provinces: 1939-41 (London, 1991).
66. C. Miłosz, The Captive Mind, x.
67. On Nazi attempts to destroy Polish culture: S. Korboński, The Polish Underground State: 1939-45 (New York, 1978); J. Garliński, Poland in the Second World War (London, 1985).
68. On Nazi attempts to destroy Polish culture: S. Korboński, The Polish Underground State: 1939-45 (New York, 1978); J. Garliński, Poland in the Second World War (London, 1985).
69. M. Bernhardt and H. Szlajfer (eds), From the Polish Underground: Selections from Krytyka 1978-93 (Pennsylvania, 1995).
70. M. Pinior, 'Solidarity at the crossroads', International Socialism, 41 (Winter 1988).
71. J. R. Fiszman, Revolution and Tradition in People's Poland (Princeton, 1972), 289-90; A. Michnik, The Church and the Left (Chicago, 1993), 159-63.
72. J. R. Fiszman, Revolution and Tradition in People's Poland (Princeton, 1972), 289-90; A. Michnik, The Church and the Left (Chicago, 1993), 159-63.
73. J. Kowalski, Zarys historii polskiego ruchu robotniczego w latach 1918-39 (Warsaw, 1959); L. Kołakowski, Main Currents of Marxism (London, 1987); T. Deutscher, 'In Memoriam: Proletariat Party, 1882-1886', New Left Review, 143 (Jan-Feb, 1984), 109-19; I. Deutscher, 'The tragedy of the Polish Communist Party': M. Eve and D. Musson (eds), The Socialist Register 1982 (London, 1982), 124-63; G. D. Jackson, Comintern and Peasant in East Europe 1919-30 (New York, 1966); E. H. Carr, The Twighlight of the Comintern 1930-35 (London, 1986); M. K. Dziewanowski, 'The Communist Party of Poland': S. Fischer-Galati (ed.), The Communist Parties of Eastern Europe (New York, 1979), 245-80; M. K. Dziewanowski, The Communist Party of Poland (Cambridge, MA, 1959); N. Davies, White Eagle, Red Star: The Polish-Soviet War 1919-20 (London, 1983); N. Davies, God's Playground: A History of Poland (Oxford, 1991); O. A. Narkiewicz, The Green Flag: Polish Populist Politics 1867-1970 (London, 1976); A. Polonsky, Politics in Independent Poland 1921-39 (Oxford, 1972).
74. J. Kowalski, Zarys historii polskiego ruchu robotniczego w latach 1918-39 (Warsaw, 1959); L. Kołakowski, Main Currents of Marxism (London, 1987); T. Deutscher, 'In Memoriam: Proletariat Party, 1882-1886', New Left Review, 143 (Jan-Feb, 1984), 109-19; I. Deutscher, 'The tragedy of the Polish Communist Party': M. Eve and D. Musson (eds), The Socialist Register 1982 (London, 1982), 124-63; G. D. Jackson, Comintern and Peasant in East Europe 1919-30 (New York, 1966); E. H. Carr, The Twighlight of the Comintern 1930-35 (London, 1986); M. K. Dziewanowski, 'The Communist Party of Poland': S. Fischer-Galati (ed.), The Communist Parties of Eastern Europe (New York, 1979), 245-80; M. K. Dziewanowski, The Communist Party of Poland (Cambridge, MA, 1959); N. Davies, White Eagle, Red Star: The Polish-Soviet War 1919-20 (London, 1983); N. Davies, God's Playground: A History of Poland (Oxford, 1991); O. A. Narkiewicz, The Green Flag: Polish Populist Politics 1867-1970 (London, 1976); A. Polonsky, Politics in Independent Poland 1921-39 (Oxford, 1972).
75. J. Kowalski, Zarys historii polskiego ruchu robotniczego w latach 1918-39 (Warsaw, 1959); L. Kołakowski, Main Currents of Marxism (London, 1987); T. Deutscher, 'In Memoriam: Proletariat Party, 1882-1886', New Left Review, 143 (Jan-Feb, 1984), 109-19; I. Deutscher, 'The tragedy of the Polish Communist Party': M. Eve and D. Musson (eds), The Socialist Register 1982 (London, 1982), 124-63; G. D. Jackson, Comintern and Peasant in East Europe 1919-30 (New York, 1966); E. H. Carr, The Twighlight of the Comintern 1930-35 (London, 1986); M. K. Dziewanowski, 'The Communist Party of Poland': S. Fischer-Galati (ed.), The Communist Parties of Eastern Europe (New York, 1979), 245-80; M. K. Dziewanowski, The Communist Party of Poland (Cambridge, MA, 1959); N. Davies, White Eagle, Red Star: The Polish-Soviet War 1919-20 (London, 1983); N. Davies, God's Playground: A History of Poland (Oxford, 1991); O. A. Narkiewicz, The Green Flag: Polish Populist Politics 1867-1970 (London, 1976); A. Polonsky, Politics in Independent Poland 1921-39 (Oxford, 1972).
76. J. Kowalski, Zarys historii polskiego ruchu robotniczego w latach 1918-39 (Warsaw, 1959); L. Kołakowski, Main Currents of Marxism (London, 1987); T. Deutscher, 'In Memoriam: Proletariat Party, 1882-1886', New Left Review, 143 (Jan-Feb, 1984), 109-19; I. Deutscher, 'The tragedy of the Polish Communist Party': M. Eve and D. Musson (eds), The Socialist Register 1982 (London, 1982), 124-63; G. D. Jackson, Comintern and Peasant in East Europe 1919-30 (New York, 1966); E. H. Carr, The Twighlight of the Comintern 1930-35 (London, 1986); M. K. Dziewanowski, 'The Communist Party of Poland': S. Fischer-Galati (ed.), The Communist Parties of Eastern Europe (New York, 1979), 245-80; M. K. Dziewanowski, The Communist Party of Poland (Cambridge, MA, 1959); N. Davies, White Eagle, Red Star: The Polish-Soviet War 1919-20 (London, 1983); N. Davies, God's Playground: A History of Poland (Oxford, 1991); O. A. Narkiewicz, The Green Flag: Polish Populist Politics 1867-1970 (London, 1976); A. Polonsky, Politics in Independent Poland 1921-39 (Oxford, 1972).
77. J. Kowalski, Zarys historii polskiego ruchu robotniczego w latach 1918-39 (Warsaw, 1959); L. Kołakowski, Main Currents of Marxism (London, 1987); T. Deutscher, 'In Memoriam: Proletariat Party, 1882-1886', New Left Review, 143 (Jan-Feb, 1984), 109-19; I. Deutscher, 'The tragedy of the Polish Communist Party': M. Eve and D. Musson (eds), The Socialist Register 1982 (London, 1982), 124-63; G. D. Jackson, Comintern and Peasant in East Europe 1919-30 (New York, 1966); E. H. Carr, The Twighlight of the Comintern 1930-35 (London, 1986); M. K. Dziewanowski, 'The Communist Party of Poland': S. Fischer-Galati (ed.), The Communist Parties of Eastern Europe (New York, 1979), 245-80; M. K. Dziewanowski, The Communist Party of Poland (Cambridge, MA, 1959); N. Davies, White Eagle, Red Star: The Polish-Soviet War 1919-20 (London, 1983); N. Davies, God's Playground: A History of Poland (Oxford, 1991); O. A. Narkiewicz, The Green Flag: Polish Populist Politics 1867-1970 (London, 1976); A. Polonsky, Politics in Independent Poland 1921-39 (Oxford, 1972).
78. J. Kowalski, Zarys historii polskiego ruchu robotniczego w latach 1918-39 (Warsaw, 1959); L. Kołakowski, Main Currents of Marxism (London, 1987); T. Deutscher, 'In Memoriam: Proletariat Party, 1882-1886', New Left Review, 143 (Jan-Feb, 1984), 109-19; I. Deutscher, 'The tragedy of the Polish Communist Party': M. Eve and D. Musson (eds), The Socialist Register 1982 (London, 1982), 124-63; G. D. Jackson, Comintern and Peasant in East Europe 1919-30 (New York, 1966); E. H. Carr, The Twighlight of the Comintern 1930-35 (London, 1986); M. K. Dziewanowski, 'The Communist Party of Poland': S. Fischer-Galati (ed.), The Communist Parties of Eastern Europe (New York, 1979), 245-80; M. K. Dziewanowski, The Communist Party of Poland (Cambridge, MA, 1959); N. Davies, White Eagle, Red Star: The Polish-Soviet War 1919-20 (London, 1983); N. Davies, God's Playground: A History of Poland (Oxford, 1991); O. A. Narkiewicz, The Green Flag: Polish Populist Politics 1867-1970 (London, 1976); A. Polonsky, Politics in Independent Poland 1921-39 (Oxford, 1972).
79. J. Kowalski, Zarys historii polskiego ruchu robotniczego w latach 1918-39 (Warsaw, 1959); L. Kołakowski, Main Currents of Marxism (London, 1987); T. Deutscher, 'In Memoriam: Proletariat Party, 1882-1886', New Left Review, 143 (Jan-Feb, 1984), 109-19; I. Deutscher, 'The tragedy of the Polish Communist Party': M. Eve and D. Musson (eds), The Socialist Register 1982 (London, 1982), 124-63; G. D. Jackson, Comintern and Peasant in East Europe 1919-30 (New York, 1966); E. H. Carr, The Twighlight of the Comintern 1930-35 (London, 1986); M. K. Dziewanowski, 'The Communist Party of Poland': S. Fischer-Galati (ed.), The Communist Parties of Eastern Europe (New York, 1979), 245-80; M. K. Dziewanowski, The Communist Party of Poland (Cambridge, MA, 1959); N. Davies, White Eagle, Red Star: The Polish-Soviet War 1919-20 (London, 1983); N. Davies, God's Playground: A History of Poland (Oxford, 1991); O. A. Narkiewicz, The Green Flag: Polish Populist Politics 1867-1970 (London, 1976); A. Polonsky, Politics in Independent Poland 1921-39 (Oxford, 1972).
80. J. Kowalski, Zarys historii polskiego ruchu robotniczego w latach 1918-39 (Warsaw, 1959); L. Kołakowski, Main Currents of Marxism (London, 1987); T. Deutscher, 'In Memoriam: Proletariat Party, 1882-1886', New Left Review, 143 (Jan-Feb, 1984), 109-19; I. Deutscher, 'The tragedy of the Polish Communist Party': M. Eve and D. Musson (eds), The Socialist Register 1982 (London, 1982), 124-63; G. D. Jackson, Comintern and Peasant in East Europe 1919-30 (New York, 1966); E. H. Carr, The Twighlight of the Comintern 1930-35 (London, 1986); M. K. Dziewanowski, 'The Communist Party of Poland': S. Fischer-Galati (ed.), The Communist Parties of Eastern Europe (New York, 1979), 245-80; M. K. Dziewanowski, The Communist Party of Poland (Cambridge, MA, 1959); N. Davies, White Eagle, Red Star: The Polish-Soviet War 1919-20 (London, 1983); N. Davies, God's Playground: A History of Poland (Oxford, 1991); O. A. Narkiewicz, The Green Flag: Polish Populist Politics 1867-1970 (London, 1976); A. Polonsky, Politics in Independent Poland 1921-39 (Oxford, 1972).
81. J. Kowalski, Zarys historii polskiego ruchu robotniczego w latach 1918-39 (Warsaw, 1959); L. Kołakowski, Main Currents of Marxism (London, 1987); T. Deutscher, 'In Memoriam: Proletariat Party, 1882-1886', New Left Review, 143 (Jan-Feb, 1984), 109-19; I. Deutscher, 'The tragedy of the Polish Communist Party': M. Eve and D. Musson (eds), The Socialist Register 1982 (London, 1982), 124-63; G. D. Jackson, Comintern and Peasant in East Europe 1919-30 (New York, 1966); E. H. Carr, The Twighlight of the Comintern 1930-35 (London, 1986); M. K. Dziewanowski, 'The Communist Party of Poland': S. Fischer-Galati (ed.), The Communist Parties of Eastern Europe (New York, 1979), 245-80; M. K. Dziewanowski, The Communist Party of Poland (Cambridge, MA, 1959); N. Davies, White Eagle, Red Star: The Polish-Soviet War 1919-20 (London, 1983); N. Davies, God's Playground: A History of Poland (Oxford, 1991); O. A. Narkiewicz, The Green Flag: Polish Populist Politics 1867-1970 (London, 1976); A. Polonsky, Politics in Independent Poland 1921-39 (Oxford, 1972).
82. J. Kowalski, Zarys historii polskiego ruchu robotniczego w latach 1918-39 (Warsaw, 1959); L. Kołakowski, Main Currents of Marxism (London, 1987); T. Deutscher, 'In Memoriam: Proletariat Party, 1882-1886', New Left Review, 143 (Jan-Feb, 1984), 109-19; I. Deutscher, 'The tragedy of the Polish Communist Party': M. Eve and D. Musson (eds), The Socialist Register 1982 (London, 1982), 124-63; G. D. Jackson, Comintern and Peasant in East Europe 1919-30 (New York, 1966); E. H. Carr, The Twighlight of the Comintern 1930-35 (London, 1986); M. K. Dziewanowski, 'The Communist Party of Poland': S. Fischer-Galati (ed.), The Communist Parties of Eastern Europe (New York, 1979), 245-80; M. K. Dziewanowski, The Communist Party of Poland (Cambridge, MA, 1959); N. Davies, White Eagle, Red Star: The Polish-Soviet War 1919-20 (London, 1983); N. Davies, God's Playground: A History of Poland (Oxford, 1991); O. A. Narkiewicz, The Green Flag: Polish Populist Politics 1867-1970 (London, 1976); A. Polonsky, Politics in Independent Poland 1921-39 (Oxford, 1972).
83. J. Kowalski, Zarys historii polskiego ruchu robotniczego w latach 1918-39 (Warsaw, 1959); L. Kołakowski, Main Currents of Marxism (London, 1987); T. Deutscher, 'In Memoriam: Proletariat Party, 1882-1886', New Left Review, 143 (Jan-Feb, 1984), 109-19; I. Deutscher, 'The tragedy of the Polish Communist Party': M. Eve and D. Musson (eds), The Socialist Register 1982 (London, 1982), 124-63; G. D. Jackson, Comintern and Peasant in East Europe 1919-30 (New York, 1966); E. H. Carr, The Twighlight of the Comintern 1930-35 (London, 1986); M. K. Dziewanowski, 'The Communist Party of Poland': S. Fischer-Galati (ed.), The Communist Parties of Eastern Europe (New York, 1979), 245-80; M. K. Dziewanowski, The Communist Party of Poland (Cambridge, MA, 1959); N. Davies, White Eagle, Red Star: The Polish-Soviet War 1919-20 (London, 1983); N. Davies, God's Playground: A History of Poland (Oxford, 1991); O. A. Narkiewicz, The Green Flag: Polish Populist Politics 1867-1970 (London, 1976); A. Polonsky, Politics in Independent Poland 1921-39 (Oxford, 1972).
84. J. Kowalski, Zarys historii polskiego ruchu robotniczego w latach 1918-39 (Warsaw, 1959); L. Kołakowski, Main Currents of Marxism (London, 1987); T. Deutscher, 'In Memoriam: Proletariat Party, 1882-1886', New Left Review, 143 (Jan-Feb, 1984), 109-19; I. Deutscher, 'The tragedy of the Polish Communist Party': M. Eve and D. Musson (eds), The Socialist Register 1982 (London, 1982), 124-63; G. D. Jackson, Comintern and Peasant in East Europe 1919-30 (New York, 1966); E. H. Carr, The Twighlight of the Comintern 1930-35 (London, 1986); M. K. Dziewanowski, 'The Communist Party of Poland': S. Fischer-Galati (ed.), The Communist Parties of Eastern Europe (New York, 1979), 245-80; M. K. Dziewanowski, The Communist Party of Poland (Cambridge, MA, 1959); N. Davies, White Eagle, Red Star: The Polish-Soviet War 1919-20 (London, 1983); N. Davies, God's Playground: A History of Poland (Oxford, 1991); O. A. Narkiewicz, The Green Flag: Polish Populist Politics 1867-1970 (London, 1976); A. Polonsky, Politics in Independent Poland 1921-39 (Oxford, 1972).
85. R. Luxemburg, The National Question: Selected Writings (New York, 1976); H. Arendt, Men in Dark Times (Harmondsworth, 1968); P. Frölich, Rosa Luxemburg: Her Life and Work (New York, 1972); E. Ettinger, Rosa Luxemburg: A Life (Boston, 1986). N. Geras, The Legacy of Rosa Luxemburg (London, 1985).
86. R. Luxemburg, The National Question: Selected Writings (New York, 1976); H. Arendt, Men in Dark Times (Harmondsworth, 1968); P. Frölich, Rosa Luxemburg: Her Life and Work (New York, 1972); E. Ettinger, Rosa Luxemburg: A Life (Boston, 1986). N. Geras, The Legacy of Rosa Luxemburg (London, 1985).
87. R. Luxemburg, The National Question: Selected Writings (New York, 1976); H. Arendt, Men in Dark Times (Harmondsworth, 1968); P. Frölich, Rosa Luxemburg: Her Life and Work (New York, 1972); E. Ettinger, Rosa Luxemburg: A Life (Boston, 1986). N. Geras, The Legacy of Rosa Luxemburg (London, 1985).
88. R. Luxemburg, The National Question: Selected Writings (New York, 1976); H. Arendt, Men in Dark Times (Harmondsworth, 1968); P. Frölich, Rosa Luxemburg: Her Life and Work (New York, 1972); E. Ettinger, Rosa Luxemburg: A Life (Boston, 1986). N. Geras, The Legacy of Rosa Luxemburg (London, 1985).
89. R. Luxemburg, The National Question: Selected Writings (New York, 1976); H. Arendt, Men in Dark Times (Harmondsworth, 1968); P. Frölich, Rosa Luxemburg: Her Life and Work (New York, 1972); E. Ettinger, Rosa Luxemburg: A Life (Boston, 1986). N. Geras, The Legacy of Rosa Luxemburg (London, 1985).
90. N. Davies, White Eagle, Red Star (London, 1983).
91. M. Hirszowicz, 'The Polish Intelligentsia': S. Gomułka and A. Polonsky (eds), Polish Paradoxes (London, 1990), 156; PPR: Rezolucje, odezwy, instrukcje i okólniki komitetu centralnego - 1946-47 (Warsaw, 1961), 212; J. Wiatr, 'The hegemonic party system in Poland': J. Wiatr (ed.), Studies in Polish Political System (Wrocław, 1967), 115; J. Szczepański, 'Osobowość ludzka w procesie powstania społeczeństwa socjalistycznego', Kultura i Społeczenstwo VIII/4 (1964), 3-25; G. D. Jackson, Comintern and Peasant in East Europe: 1919-30 (New York), 1966; J. Topolski, An Outline History of Poland (Warsaw, 1986), 260-76; A. Polonsky and B. Drukier, The Beginnings of Communist Rule in Poland (London, 1980), 97; J. Coutouvidis and J. Reynolds, Poland: 1939-47 (Leicester, 1986), 181, 236 and 284; K. Kersten, The Establishment of Communist Rule in Poland, 1943-48 (Berkeley, 1992), 466. B. Bierut, 'Sprawozdanie KC na II zjazd PZPR', Trybuna Ludu (12 March 1954); M. K. Dziewanowski, The Communist Party of Poland (New York, 1959); G. Sanford, Military Rule in Poland: 1931-83 (London, 1986), 189; N. Bethell, Gomułka: His Poland and His Communism (Harmondsworth, 1972), 93.
92. M. Hirszowicz, 'The Polish Intelligentsia': S. Gomułka and A. Polonsky (eds), Polish Paradoxes (London, 1990), 156; PPR: Rezolucje, odezwy, instrukcje i okólniki komitetu centralnego - 1946-47 (Warsaw, 1961), 212; J. Wiatr, 'The hegemonic party system in Poland': J. Wiatr (ed.), Studies in Polish Political System (Wrocław, 1967), 115; J. Szczepański, 'Osobowość ludzka w procesie powstania społeczeństwa socjalistycznego', Kultura i Społeczenstwo VIII/4 (1964), 3-25; G. D. Jackson, Comintern and Peasant in East Europe: 1919-30 (New York), 1966; J. Topolski, An Outline History of Poland (Warsaw, 1986), 260-76; A. Polonsky and B. Drukier, The Beginnings of Communist Rule in Poland (London, 1980), 97; J. Coutouvidis and J. Reynolds, Poland: 1939-47 (Leicester, 1986), 181, 236 and 284; K. Kersten, The Establishment of Communist Rule in Poland, 1943-48 (Berkeley, 1992), 466. B. Bierut, 'Sprawozdanie KC na II zjazd PZPR', Trybuna Ludu (12 March 1954); M. K. Dziewanowski, The Communist Party of Poland (New York, 1959); G. Sanford, Military Rule in Poland: 1931-83 (London, 1986), 189; N. Bethell, Gomułka: His Poland and His Communism (Harmondsworth, 1972), 93.
93. M. Hirszowicz, 'The Polish Intelligentsia': S. Gomułka and A. Polonsky (eds), Polish Paradoxes (London, 1990), 156; PPR: Rezolucje, odezwy, instrukcje i okólniki komitetu centralnego - 1946-47 (Warsaw, 1961), 212; J. Wiatr, 'The hegemonic party system in Poland': J. Wiatr (ed.), Studies in Polish Political System (Wrocław, 1967), 115; J. Szczepański, 'Osobowość ludzka w procesie powstania społeczeństwa socjalistycznego', Kultura i Społeczenstwo VIII/4 (1964), 3-25; G. D. Jackson, Comintern and Peasant in East Europe: 1919-30 (New York), 1966; J. Topolski, An Outline History of Poland (Warsaw, 1986), 260-76; A. Polonsky and B. Drukier, The Beginnings of Communist Rule in Poland (London, 1980), 97; J. Coutouvidis and J. Reynolds, Poland: 1939-47 (Leicester, 1986), 181, 236 and 284; K. Kersten, The Establishment of Communist Rule in Poland, 1943-48 (Berkeley, 1992), 466. B. Bierut, 'Sprawozdanie KC na II zjazd PZPR', Trybuna Ludu (12 March 1954); M. K. Dziewanowski, The Communist Party of Poland (New York, 1959); G. Sanford, Military Rule in Poland: 1931-83 (London, 1986), 189; N. Bethell, Gomułka: His Poland and His Communism (Harmondsworth, 1972), 93.
94. M. Hirszowicz, 'The Polish Intelligentsia': S. Gomułka and A. Polonsky (eds), Polish Paradoxes (London, 1990), 156; PPR: Rezolucje, odezwy, instrukcje i okólniki komitetu centralnego - 1946-47 (Warsaw, 1961), 212; J. Wiatr, 'The hegemonic party system in Poland': J. Wiatr (ed.), Studies in Polish Political System (Wrocław, 1967), 115; J. Szczepański, 'Osobowość ludzka w procesie powstania społeczeństwa socjalistycznego', Kultura i Społeczenstwo VIII/4 (1964), 3-25; G. D. Jackson, Comintern and Peasant in East Europe: 1919-30 (New York), 1966; J. Topolski, An Outline History of Poland (Warsaw, 1986), 260-76; A. Polonsky and B. Drukier, The Beginnings of Communist Rule in Poland (London, 1980), 97; J. Coutouvidis and J. Reynolds, Poland: 1939-47 (Leicester, 1986), 181, 236 and 284; K. Kersten, The Establishment of Communist Rule in Poland, 1943-48 (Berkeley, 1992), 466. B. Bierut, 'Sprawozdanie KC na II zjazd PZPR', Trybuna Ludu (12 March 1954); M. K. Dziewanowski, The Communist Party of Poland (New York, 1959); G. Sanford, Military Rule in Poland: 1931-83 (London, 1986), 189; N. Bethell, Gomułka: His Poland and His Communism (Harmondsworth, 1972), 93.
95. M. Hirszowicz, 'The Polish Intelligentsia': S. Gomułka and A. Polonsky (eds), Polish Paradoxes (London, 1990), 156; PPR: Rezolucje, odezwy, instrukcje i okólniki komitetu centralnego - 1946-47 (Warsaw, 1961), 212; J. Wiatr, 'The hegemonic party system in Poland': J. Wiatr (ed.), Studies in Polish Political System (Wrocław, 1967), 115; J. Szczepański, 'Osobowość ludzka w procesie powstania społeczeństwa socjalistycznego', Kultura i Społeczenstwo VIII/4 (1964), 3-25; G. D. Jackson, Comintern and Peasant in East Europe: 1919-30 (New York), 1966; J. Topolski, An Outline History of Poland (Warsaw, 1986), 260-76; A. Polonsky and B. Drukier, The Beginnings of Communist Rule in Poland (London, 1980), 97; J. Coutouvidis and J. Reynolds, Poland: 1939-47 (Leicester, 1986), 181, 236 and 284; K. Kersten, The Establishment of Communist Rule in Poland, 1943-48 (Berkeley, 1992), 466. B. Bierut, 'Sprawozdanie KC na II zjazd PZPR', Trybuna Ludu (12 March 1954); M. K. Dziewanowski, The Communist Party of Poland (New York, 1959); G. Sanford, Military Rule in Poland: 1931-83 (London, 1986), 189; N. Bethell, Gomułka: His Poland and His Communism (Harmondsworth, 1972), 93.
96. M. Hirszowicz, 'The Polish Intelligentsia': S. Gomułka and A. Polonsky (eds), Polish Paradoxes (London, 1990), 156; PPR: Rezolucje, odezwy, instrukcje i okólniki komitetu centralnego - 1946-47 (Warsaw, 1961), 212; J. Wiatr, 'The hegemonic party system in Poland': J. Wiatr (ed.), Studies in Polish Political System (Wrocław, 1967), 115; J. Szczepański, 'Osobowość ludzka w procesie powstania społeczeństwa socjalistycznego', Kultura i Społeczenstwo VIII/4 (1964), 3-25; G. D. Jackson, Comintern and Peasant in East Europe: 1919-30 (New York), 1966; J. Topolski, An Outline History of Poland (Warsaw, 1986), 260-76; A. Polonsky and B. Drukier, The Beginnings of Communist Rule in Poland (London, 1980), 97; J. Coutouvidis and J. Reynolds, Poland: 1939-47 (Leicester, 1986), 181, 236 and 284; K. Kersten, The Establishment of Communist Rule in Poland, 1943-48 (Berkeley, 1992), 466. B. Bierut, 'Sprawozdanie KC na II zjazd PZPR', Trybuna Ludu (12 March 1954); M. K. Dziewanowski, The Communist Party of Poland (New York, 1959); G. Sanford, Military Rule in Poland: 1931-83 (London, 1986), 189; N. Bethell, Gomułka: His Poland and His Communism (Harmondsworth, 1972), 93.
97. M. Hirszowicz, 'The Polish Intelligentsia': S. Gomułka and A. Polonsky (eds), Polish Paradoxes (London, 1990), 156; PPR: Rezolucje, odezwy, instrukcje i okólniki komitetu centralnego - 1946-47 (Warsaw, 1961), 212; J. Wiatr, 'The hegemonic party system in Poland': J. Wiatr (ed.), Studies in Polish Political System (Wrocław, 1967), 115; J. Szczepański, 'Osobowość ludzka w procesie powstania społeczeństwa socjalistycznego', Kultura i Społeczenstwo VIII/4 (1964), 3-25; G. D. Jackson, Comintern and Peasant in East Europe: 1919-30 (New York), 1966; J. Topolski, An Outline History of Poland (Warsaw, 1986), 260-76; A. Polonsky and B. Drukier, The Beginnings of Communist Rule in Poland (London, 1980), 97; J. Coutouvidis and J. Reynolds, Poland: 1939-47 (Leicester, 1986), 181, 236 and 284; K. Kersten, The Establishment of Communist Rule in Poland, 1943-48 (Berkeley, 1992), 466. B. Bierut, 'Sprawozdanie KC na II zjazd PZPR', Trybuna Ludu (12 March 1954); M. K. Dziewanowski, The Communist Party of Poland (New York, 1959); G. Sanford, Military Rule in Poland: 1931-83 (London, 1986), 189; N. Bethell, Gomułka: His Poland and His Communism (Harmondsworth, 1972), 93.
98. M. Hirszowicz, 'The Polish Intelligentsia': S. Gomułka and A. Polonsky (eds), Polish Paradoxes (London, 1990), 156; PPR: Rezolucje, odezwy, instrukcje i okólniki komitetu centralnego - 1946-47 (Warsaw, 1961), 212; J. Wiatr, 'The hegemonic party system in Poland': J. Wiatr (ed.), Studies in Polish Political System (Wrocław, 1967), 115; J. Szczepański, 'Osobowość ludzka w procesie powstania społeczeństwa socjalistycznego', Kultura i Społeczenstwo VIII/4 (1964), 3-25; G. D. Jackson, Comintern and Peasant in East Europe: 1919-30 (New York), 1966; J. Topolski, An Outline History of Poland (Warsaw, 1986), 260-76; A. Polonsky and B. Drukier, The Beginnings of Communist Rule in Poland (London, 1980), 97; J. Coutouvidis and J. Reynolds, Poland: 1939-47 (Leicester, 1986), 181, 236 and 284; K. Kersten, The Establishment of Communist Rule in Poland, 1943-48 (Berkeley, 1992), 466. B. Bierut, 'Sprawozdanie KC na II zjazd PZPR', Trybuna Ludu (12 March 1954); M. K. Dziewanowski, The Communist Party of Poland (New York, 1959); G. Sanford, Military Rule in Poland: 1931-83 (London, 1986), 189; N. Bethell, Gomułka: His Poland and His Communism (Harmondsworth, 1972), 93.
99. M. Hirszowicz, 'The Polish Intelligentsia': S. Gomułka and A. Polonsky (eds), Polish Paradoxes (London, 1990), 156; PPR: Rezolucje, odezwy, instrukcje i okólniki komitetu centralnego - 1946-47 (Warsaw, 1961), 212; J. Wiatr, 'The hegemonic party system in Poland': J. Wiatr (ed.), Studies in Polish Political System (Wrocław, 1967), 115; J. Szczepański, 'Osobowość ludzka w procesie powstania społeczeństwa socjalistycznego', Kultura i Społeczenstwo VIII/4 (1964), 3-25; G. D. Jackson, Comintern and Peasant in East Europe: 1919-30 (New York), 1966; J. Topolski, An Outline History of Poland (Warsaw, 1986), 260-76; A. Polonsky and B. Drukier, The Beginnings of Communist Rule in Poland (London, 1980), 97; J. Coutouvidis and J. Reynolds, Poland: 1939-47 (Leicester, 1986), 181, 236 and 284; K. Kersten, The Establishment of Communist Rule in Poland, 1943-48 (Berkeley, 1992), 466. B. Bierut, 'Sprawozdanie KC na II zjazd PZPR', Trybuna Ludu (12 March 1954); M. K. Dziewanowski, The Communist Party of Poland (New York, 1959); G. Sanford, Military Rule in Poland: 1931-83 (London, 1986), 189; N. Bethell, Gomułka: His Poland and His Communism (Harmondsworth, 1972), 93.
100. M. Hirszowicz, 'The Polish Intelligentsia': S. Gomułka and A. Polonsky (eds), Polish Paradoxes (London, 1990), 156; PPR: Rezolucje, odezwy, instrukcje i okólniki komitetu centralnego - 1946-47 (Warsaw, 1961), 212; J. Wiatr, 'The hegemonic party system in Poland': J. Wiatr (ed.), Studies in Polish Political System (Wrocław, 1967), 115; J. Szczepański, 'Osobowość ludzka w procesie powstania społeczeństwa socjalistycznego', Kultura i Społeczenstwo VIII/4 (1964), 3-25; G. D. Jackson, Comintern and Peasant in East Europe: 1919-30 (New York), 1966; J. Topolski, An Outline History of Poland (Warsaw, 1986), 260-76; A. Polonsky and B. Drukier, The Beginnings of Communist Rule in Poland (London, 1980), 97; J. Coutouvidis and J. Reynolds, Poland: 1939-47 (Leicester, 1986), 181, 236 and 284; K. Kersten, The Establishment of Communist Rule in Poland, 1943-48 (Berkeley, 1992), 466. B. Bierut, 'Sprawozdanie KC na II zjazd PZPR', Trybuna Ludu (12 March 1954); M. K. Dziewanowski, The Communist Party of Poland (New York, 1959); G. Sanford, Military Rule in Poland: 1931-83 (London, 1986), 189; N. Bethell, Gomułka: His Poland and His Communism (Harmondsworth, 1972), 93.
101. M. Hirszowicz, 'The Polish Intelligentsia': S. Gomułka and A. Polonsky (eds), Polish Paradoxes (London, 1990), 156; PPR: Rezolucje, odezwy, instrukcje i okólniki komitetu centralnego - 1946-47 (Warsaw, 1961), 212; J. Wiatr, 'The hegemonic party system in Poland': J. Wiatr (ed.), Studies in Polish Political System (Wrocław, 1967), 115; J. Szczepański, 'Osobowość ludzka w procesie powstania społeczeństwa socjalistycznego', Kultura i Społeczenstwo VIII/4 (1964), 3-25; G. D. Jackson, Comintern and Peasant in East Europe: 1919-30 (New York), 1966; J. Topolski, An Outline History of Poland (Warsaw, 1986), 260-76; A. Polonsky and B. Drukier, The Beginnings of Communist Rule in Poland (London, 1980), 97; J. Coutouvidis and J. Reynolds, Poland: 1939-47 (Leicester, 1986), 181, 236 and 284; K. Kersten, The Establishment of Communist Rule in Poland, 1943-48 (Berkeley, 1992), 466. B. Bierut, 'Sprawozdanie KC na II zjazd PZPR', Trybuna Ludu (12 March 1954); M. K. Dziewanowski, The Communist Party of Poland (New York, 1959); G. Sanford, Military Rule in Poland: 1931-83 (London, 1986), 189; N. Bethell, Gomułka: His Poland and His Communism (Harmondsworth, 1972), 93.
102. M. Hirszowicz, 'The Polish Intelligentsia': S. Gomułka and A. Polonsky (eds), Polish Paradoxes (London, 1990), 156; PPR: Rezolucje, odezwy, instrukcje i okólniki komitetu centralnego - 1946-47 (Warsaw, 1961), 212; J. Wiatr, 'The hegemonic party system in Poland': J. Wiatr (ed.), Studies in Polish Political System (Wrocław, 1967), 115; J. Szczepański, 'Osobowość ludzka w procesie powstania społeczeństwa socjalistycznego', Kultura i Społeczenstwo VIII/4 (1964), 3-25; G. D. Jackson, Comintern and Peasant in East Europe: 1919-30 (New York), 1966; J. Topolski, An Outline History of Poland (Warsaw, 1986), 260-76; A. Polonsky and B. Drukier, The Beginnings of Communist Rule in Poland (London, 1980), 97; J. Coutouvidis and J. Reynolds, Poland: 1939-47 (Leicester, 1986), 181, 236 and 284; K. Kersten, The Establishment of Communist Rule in Poland, 1943-48 (Berkeley, 1992), 466. B. Bierut, 'Sprawozdanie KC na II zjazd PZPR', Trybuna Ludu (12 March 1954); M. K. Dziewanowski, The Communist Party of Poland (New York, 1959); G. Sanford, Military Rule in Poland: 1931-83 (London, 1986), 189; N. Bethell, Gomułka: His Poland and His Communism (Harmondsworth, 1972), 93.
103. M. Hirszowicz, 'The Polish Intelligentsia': S. Gomułka and A. Polonsky (eds), Polish Paradoxes (London, 1990), 156; PPR: Rezolucje, odezwy, instrukcje i okólniki komitetu centralnego - 1946-47 (Warsaw, 1961), 212; J. Wiatr, 'The hegemonic party system in Poland': J. Wiatr (ed.), Studies in Polish Political System (Wrocław, 1967), 115; J. Szczepański, 'Osobowość ludzka w procesie powstania społeczeństwa socjalistycznego', Kultura i Społeczenstwo VIII/4 (1964), 3-25; G. D. Jackson, Comintern and Peasant in East Europe: 1919-30 (New York), 1966; J. Topolski, An Outline History of Poland (Warsaw, 1986), 260-76; A. Polonsky and B. Drukier, The Beginnings of Communist Rule in Poland (London, 1980), 97; J. Coutouvidis and J. Reynolds, Poland: 1939-47 (Leicester, 1986), 181, 236 and 284; K. Kersten, The Establishment of Communist Rule in Poland, 1943-48 (Berkeley, 1992), 466. B. Bierut, 'Sprawozdanie KC na II zjazd PZPR', Trybuna Ludu (12 March 1954); M. K. Dziewanowski, The Communist Party of Poland (New York, 1959); G. Sanford, Military Rule in Poland: 1931-83 (London, 1986), 189; N. Bethell, Gomułka: His Poland and His Communism (Harmondsworth, 1972), 93.
104. L. Kołakowski, 'The intelligentsia': A. Brumberg (ed.), Poland: Genesis of a Revolution (New York, 1983), 54; W. Wesołowski, 'Changes in Class Structure in Poland', Tables 12 and 13: J. Wiatr (ed.), Studies in Polish Political System (Warsaw, 1967), 65 and 78-9; A. Polonsky, Politics in Independent Poland 1921-1939 (Oxford, 1972), 28; J. Topolski, An Outline History of Poland (1986), 274-5.
105. L. Kołakowski, 'The intelligentsia': A. Brumberg (ed.), Poland: Genesis of a Revolution (New York, 1983), 54; W. Wesołowski, 'Changes in Class Structure in Poland', Tables 12 and 13: J. Wiatr (ed.), Studies in Polish Political System (Warsaw, 1967), 65 and 78-9; A. Polonsky, Politics in Independent Poland 1921-1939 (Oxford, 1972), 28; J. Topolski, An Outline History of Poland (1986), 274-5.
106. L. Kołakowski, 'The intelligentsia': A. Brumberg (ed.), Poland: Genesis of a Revolution (New York, 1983), 54; W. Wesołowski, 'Changes in Class Structure in Poland', Tables 12 and 13: J. Wiatr (ed.), Studies in Polish Political System (Warsaw, 1967), 65 and 78-9; A. Polonsky, Politics in Independent Poland 1921-1939 (Oxford, 1972), 28; J. Topolski, An Outline History of Poland (1986), 274-5.
107. L. Kołakowski, 'The intelligentsia': A. Brumberg (ed.), Poland: Genesis of a Revolution (New York, 1983), 54; W. Wesołowski, 'Changes in Class Structure in Poland', Tables 12 and 13: J. Wiatr (ed.), Studies in Polish Political System (Warsaw, 1967), 65 and 78-9; A. Polonsky, Politics in Independent Poland 1921-1939 (Oxford, 1972), 28; J. Topolski, An Outline History of Poland (1986), 274-5.
108. M. Hirszowicz, The Bureaucratic Leviathan (Oxford, 1980), 193.
109. L. Kolakowski, Marxism and Beyond (London, 1969), 178-9.
110. L. Kolakowski, Modernity on Endless Trial (Chicago, 1990), 207-8. Kołakowski's assumptions are challenged in: E. P. Thompson, The Poverty of Theory & Other Essays (London, 1980).
111. L. Kolakowski, Modernity on Endless Trial (Chicago, 1990), 207-8. Kołakowski's assumptions are challenged in: E. P. Thompson, The Poverty of Theory & Other Essays (London, 1980).