A Crippling Fear: Experiencing Polio in the Era of FDR

Bulletin of the History of Medicine

Volumn 72, Issue 3, 1998, Pages 464-495

  Wilson, Daniel J ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; EPIDEMIC; HISTORY; HUMAN; POLIOMYELITIS; PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT; PUBLIC FIGURE; UNITED STATES; WRITING;

CORRESPONDENCE; DISEASE OUTBREAKS; FAMOUS PERSONS; HISTORY, 20TH CENTURY; HUMANS; POLIOMYELITIS; UNITED STATES;

EID: 0032158645     PISSN: 00075140     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/bhm.1998.0163     Document Type: Article

References (196)

1. Naomi Rogers, Dirt and Disease: Polio before FDR (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1992). See also Stuart Galishoff, "Newark and the Great Polio Epidemic of 1916," New Jersey Hist., 1976, 94: 101-11; Guenter B. Risse, "Revolt against Quarantine: Community Responses to the 1916 Polio Epidemic, Oyster Bay, New York," Trans. Stud. Coll. Physicians Philadelphia, 1992, 14: 23-50.
2. Naomi Rogers, Dirt and Disease: Polio before FDR (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1992). See also Stuart Galishoff, "Newark and the Great Polio Epidemic of 1916," New Jersey Hist., 1976, 94: 101-11; Guenter B. Risse, "Revolt against Quarantine: Community Responses to the 1916 Polio Epidemic, Oyster Bay, New York," Trans. Stud. Coll. Physicians Philadelphia, 1992, 14: 23-50.
3. Naomi Rogers, Dirt and Disease: Polio before FDR (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1992). See also Stuart Galishoff, "Newark and the Great Polio Epidemic of 1916," New Jersey Hist., 1976, 94: 101-11; Guenter B. Risse, "Revolt against Quarantine: Community Responses to the 1916 Polio Epidemic, Oyster Bay, New York," Trans. Stud. Coll. Physicians Philadelphia, 1992, 14: 23-50.
4. Jane S. Smith, Patenting the Sun: Polio and the Salk Vaccine (New York: Morrow, 1990); Tony Gould, A Summer Plague: Polio and Its Survivors (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995); Kalhryn Black, In the Shadow of Polio: A Personal and Social History (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1996). See also Naomi Rogers, "A Disease of Cleanliness: Polio in New York City, 1900-1990," in Hives of Sickness: Public Health and Epidemics in New York City, ed. David Rosner (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press for the Museum of the City of New York, 1995), pp. 115-30.
5. Jane S. Smith, Patenting the Sun: Polio and the Salk Vaccine (New York: Morrow, 1990); Tony Gould, A Summer Plague: Polio and Its Survivors (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995); Kalhryn Black, In the Shadow of Polio: A Personal and Social History (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1996). See also Naomi Rogers, "A Disease of Cleanliness: Polio in New York City, 1900-1990," in Hives of Sickness: Public Health and Epidemics in New York City, ed. David Rosner (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press for the Museum of the City of New York, 1995), pp. 115-30.
6. Jane S. Smith, Patenting the Sun: Polio and the Salk Vaccine (New York: Morrow, 1990); Tony Gould, A Summer Plague: Polio and Its Survivors (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995); Kalhryn Black, In the Shadow of Polio: A Personal and Social History (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1996). See also Naomi Rogers, "A Disease of Cleanliness: Polio in New York City, 1900-1990," in Hives of Sickness: Public Health and Epidemics in New York City, ed. David Rosner (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press for the Museum of the City of New York, 1995), pp. 115-30.
7. Jane S. Smith, Patenting the Sun: Polio and the Salk Vaccine (New York: Morrow, 1990); Tony Gould, A Summer Plague: Polio and Its Survivors (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995); Kalhryn Black, In the Shadow of Polio: A Personal and Social History (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1996). See also Naomi Rogers, "A Disease of Cleanliness: Polio in New York City, 1900-1990," in Hives of Sickness: Public Health and Epidemics in New York City, ed. David Rosner (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press for the Museum of the City of New York, 1995), pp. 115-30.
8. John R. Paul, A History of Poliomyelitis (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1971); Margaret L. Grimshaw, "Scientific Specialization and the Poliovirus Controversy in the Years before World War II," Bull. Hist. Med., 1995, 69: 44-65.
9. John R. Paul, A History of Poliomyelitis (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1971); Margaret L. Grimshaw, "Scientific Specialization and the Poliovirus Controversy in the Years before World War II," Bull. Hist. Med., 1995, 69: 44-65.
10. The letters to Roosevelt cited below are contained in the President's Personal File, Franklin D. Roosevelt Library (hereafter PPF). There are approximately two thousand letters in the files. In most cases, a copy of the reply is attached to the original letter. All of the letters were read, but most of them contain little information about the polio victim or his or her circumstances; the conclusions in this essay are based on a smaller sample of 151 letters that were more informative. For a study of published polio narratives, see Daniel J. Wilson, "Covenants of Work and Grace: Themes of Recovery and Redemption in Polio Narratives," Lit. Med., 1994, 13: 22-41.
11. Kathryn Montgomery Hunter, Doctors' Stories: The Narrative Structure of Medical Knowledge (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991), p. 154. See also pp. 52-53, 123-24.
12. Anne Hunsaker Hawkins, Reconstructing Illness: Studies in Pathography (West Lafayette, Ind.: Purdue University Press, 1993), p. 14.
13. Ibid., p. 15.
14. Arthur W. Frank, The Wounded Storyteller: Body, Illness, and Ethics (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995), p. 22.
15. On published polio narratives see Wilson, "Covenants of Work and Grace" (n. 4). On the work ethic in the early polio tradition, see Jessica Scheer and Mark L. Luborsky, "The Cultural Context of Polio Biographies," Orthopedics, 1991, 14: 1178.
16. On published polio narratives see Wilson, "Covenants of Work and Grace" (n. 4). On the work ethic in the early polio tradition, see Jessica Scheer and Mark L. Luborsky, "The Cultural Context of Polio Biographies," Orthopedics, 1991, 14: 1178.
17. Frank, Wounded Storyteller (n. 8), pp. 122-23, 128.
18. Ibid., p. 55.
19. The phrase is from Tim Brookes, and is quoted in ibid., p. 62.
20. In contrast to polio, the rate for tuberculosis in these years never dropped below 78 per 100,000 (1940), with a high of 101.5 (1930); scarlet fever and streptococcal sore throat never went below 101.4 per 100,000 (1942), and went as high as 211 (1935); and diphtheria ranged between 10.6 per 100,000 (1944) and 57.1 (1931): Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States: Calonia Times to 1970, Bicentennial Edition, 2 vols. (Washington, D.C.: Government Publishing Office, 1975), 1: 77.
21. Morris Fishbein, "Polio: The Crippling Disease," Pictorial Rev., August 1935, p. 16.
22. Maxine Davis, "Good Housekeeping's Home Chart for Infantile Paralysis," Good Housekeeping, August 1941, p. 41.
23. Philip Lewin, Infantile Paralysis: Anterior Poliomyelitis (Philadelphia: Saunders, 1941), p. 5 (emphasis in original). See also Smith, Patenting the Sun (n. 2). p. 37.
24. Philip Lewin, Infantile Paralysis: Anterior Poliomyelitis (Philadelphia: Saunders, 1941), p. 5 (emphasis in original). See also Smith, Patenting the Sun (n. 2). p. 37.
25. Saul Benison, "Poliomyelitis and the Rockefeller Institute: Social Effects and Institutional Response," J. Hist. Med. All. Sci., 1974, 29: 74-92, quotation on p. 75.
26. Rogers, Dirt and Disease (n. 1), pp. 10-11.
27. Ibid., pp. 6, 31-33; Paul, History (n. 3), pp. 148-60. See also Haven Emerson, A Monograph on the Epidemic of Poliomyelitis (Infantile Paralysis) in New York City in 1916. Based on the Official Reports of the Bureaus of the Department of Health (New York: Department of Health, 1917).
28. Ibid., pp. 6, 31-33; Paul, History (n. 3), pp. 148-60. See also Haven Emerson, A Monograph on the Epidemic of Poliomyelitis (Infantile Paralysis) in New York City in 1916. Based on the Official Reports of the Bureaus of the Department of Health (New York: Department of Health, 1917).
29. Ibid., pp. 6, 31-33; Paul, History (n. 3), pp. 148-60. See also Haven Emerson, A Monograph on the Epidemic of Poliomyelitis (Infantile Paralysis) in New York City in 1916. Based on the Official Reports of the Bureaus of the Department of Health (New York: Department of Health, 1917).
30. Paul, History (n. 3), pp. 158-59. See also Rogers, Dirt and Disease (n. 1), pp. 162-64.
31. Paul, History (n. 3), pp. 158-59. See also Rogers, Dirt and Disease (n. 1), pp. 162-64.
32. Paul, History (n. 3), pp. 190-99; Paul notes that the principle behind the convalescent serum was correct, and with improved techniques it would be used in the development of gamma globulin in the 1940s. For contemporary advocates of the serum, see Lewin, Infantile Paralysis (n. 16), pp. 120-25; George Draper, Infantile Paralysis (New York: Appleton- Century, 1935), pp. 146-56.
33. Paul, History (n. 3), pp. 190-99; Paul notes that the principle behind the convalescent serum was correct, and with improved techniques it would be used in the development of gamma globulin in the 1940s. For contemporary advocates of the serum, see Lewin, Infantile Paralysis (n. 16), pp. 120-25; George Draper, Infantile Paralysis (New York: Appleton- Century, 1935), pp. 146-56.
34. Paul, History (n. 3), pp. 190-99; Paul notes that the principle behind the convalescent serum was correct, and with improved techniques it would be used in the development of gamma globulin in the 1940s. For contemporary advocates of the serum, see Lewin, Infantile Paralysis (n. 16), pp. 120-25; George Draper, Infantile Paralysis (New York: Appleton-Century, 1935), pp. 146-56.
35. Paul, History (n. 3), pp. 207-8.
36. Ibid., pp. 225-32.
37. Ibid., p. 243.
38. Ibid., pp. 248-51. For contemporary skepticism regarding the oral-fecal route, see Lewin, Infantile Paralysis (n. 16), pp. 18-22; Draper, Infantile Paralysis (n. 21), pp. 37-51.
39. Ibid., pp. 248-51. For contemporary skepticism regarding the oral-fecal route, see Lewin, Infantile Paralysis (n. 16), pp. 18-22; Draper, Infantile Paralysis (n. 21), pp. 37-51.
40. Ibid., pp. 248-51. For contemporary skepticism regarding the oral-fecal route, see Lewin, Infantile Paralysis (n. 16), pp. 18-22; Draper, Infantile Paralysis (n. 21), pp. 37-51.
41. Paul, History (n. 3), pp. 254-56. Paul was unable to determine what went wrong with the Brodie-Park trials.
42. Ibid., p. 258.
43. Ibid., p. 260.
44. Lewin, Infantile Paralysis (n. 16), p. 79. See also M. Neustaedter, "Diagnosis and Treatment of Anterio-Poliomyelitis in the Pre- and Postparalytic Stage," Internat. Clin., 1914, 4: 87-96, quotation on p. 91; John Ruhräh and Erwin E. Mayer, Poliomyelitis in All Its Aspects (Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger, 1917), pp. 54-55, 144-56; Draper, Infantile Paralysis (n. 21), pp. 114-35.
45. Lewin, Infantile Paralysis (n. 16), p. 79. See also M. Neustaedter, "Diagnosis and Treatment of Anterio-Poliomyelitis in the Pre- and Postparalytic Stage," Internat. Clin., 1914, 4: 87-96, quotation on p. 91; John Ruhräh and Erwin E. Mayer, Poliomyelitis in All Its Aspects (Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger, 1917), pp. 54-55, 144-56; Draper, Infantile Paralysis (n. 21), pp. 114-35.
46. Lewin, Infantile Paralysis (n. 16), p. 79. See also M. Neustaedter, "Diagnosis and Treatment of Anterio-Poliomyelitis in the Pre- and Postparalytic Stage," Internat. Clin., 1914, 4: 87-96, quotation on p. 91; John Ruhräh and Erwin E. Mayer, Poliomyelitis in All Its Aspects (Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger, 1917), pp. 54-55, 144-56; Draper, Infantile Paralysis (n. 21), pp. 114-35.
47. Lewin, Infantile Paralysis (n. 16), p. 79. See also M. Neustaedter, "Diagnosis and Treatment of Anterio-Poliomyelitis in the Pre- and Postparalytic Stage," Internat. Clin., 1914, 4: 87-96, quotation on p. 91; John Ruhräh and Erwin E. Mayer, Poliomyelitis in All Its Aspects (Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger, 1917), pp. 54-55, 144-56; Draper, Infantile Paralysis (n. 21), pp. 114-35.
48. Draper, Infantile Paralysis (n. 21), pp. 114-35.
49. Lewin, Infantile Paralysis (n. 16), pp. 117-19, 136; Draper, Infantile Paralysis (n. 21), pp. 158, 161-62; "Preventing Deformity after Infantile Paralysis," Hygeia, 1932, 10: 1022; Richard Kovacs, "The Treatment of Paralysis," Hygeia, 1940, 18: 685-87, see especially p. 686.
50. Lewin, Infantile Paralysis (n. 16), pp. 117-19, 136; Draper, Infantile Paralysis (n. 21), pp. 158, 161-62; "Preventing Deformity after Infantile Paralysis," Hygeia, 1932, 10: 1022; Richard Kovacs, "The Treatment of Paralysis," Hygeia, 1940, 18: 685-87, see especially p. 686.
51. Lewin, Infantile Paralysis (n. 16), pp. 117-19, 136; Draper, Infantile Paralysis (n. 21), pp. 158, 161-62; "Preventing Deformity after Infantile Paralysis," Hygeia, 1932, 10: 1022; Richard Kovacs, "The Treatment of Paralysis," Hygeia, 1940, 18: 685-87, see especially p. 686.
52. Lewin, Infantile Paralysis (n. 16), pp. 117-19, 136; Draper, Infantile Paralysis (n. 21), pp. 158, 161-62; "Preventing Deformity after Infantile Paralysis," Hygeia, 1932, 10: 1022; Richard Kovacs, "The Treatment of Paralysis," Hygeia, 1940, 18: 685-87, see especially p. 686.
53. Lewin, Infantile Paralysis (n. 16), pp. 129-35; Paul, History (n. 3), pp. 324-34; Philip A. Drinker and Charles F. McKhann III, "Landmark Perspective: The Iron Lung. First Practical Means of Respiratory Suppor," JAMA, 1986, 255: 1476-80, see especially p. 1477.
54. Lewin, Infantile Paralysis (n. 16), pp. 129-35; Paul, History (n. 3), pp. 324-34; Philip A. Drinker and Charles F. McKhann III, "Landmark Perspective: The Iron Lung. First Practical Means of Respiratory Suppor," JAMA, 1986, 255: 1476-80, see especially p. 1477.
55. Lewin, Infantile Paralysis (n. 16), pp. 129-35; Paul, History (n. 3), pp. 324-34; Philip A. Drinker and Charles F. McKhann III, "Landmark Perspective: The Iron Lung. First Practical Means of Respiratory Suppor," JAMA, 1986, 255: 1476-80, see especially p. 1477.
56. Lewin, Infantile Paralysis (n. 16), pp. 156-65. See also Draper, Infantile Paralysis (n. 21), pp. 161-62; "Preventing Deformity" (n. 31), p. 1022; Kovacs, "Treatment of Paralysis" (n. 31), pp. 686-87; Paul C. Colonna, "The Care of Infantile Paralysis," Hygeia, 1936, 14: 680-82, sec especially p. 680-81.
57. Lewin, Infantile Paralysis (n. 16), pp. 156-65. See also Draper, Infantile Paralysis (n. 21), pp. 161-62; "Preventing Deformity" (n. 31), p. 1022; Kovacs, "Treatment of Paralysis" (n. 31), pp. 686-87; Paul C. Colonna, "The Care of Infantile Paralysis," Hygeia, 1936, 14: 680-82, sec especially p. 680-81.
58. Lewin, Infantile Paralysis (n. 16), pp. 156-65. See also Draper, Infantile Paralysis (n. 21), pp. 161-62; "Preventing Deformity" (n. 31), p. 1022; Kovacs, "Treatment of Paralysis" (n. 31), pp. 686-87; Paul C. Colonna, "The Care of Infantile Paralysis," Hygeia, 1936, 14: 680-82, sec especially p. 680-81.
59. Lewin, Infantile Paralysis (n. 16), pp. 156-65. See also Draper, Infantile Paralysis (n. 21), pp. 161-62; "Preventing Deformity" (n. 31), p. 1022; Kovacs, "Treatment of Paralysis" (n. 31), pp. 686-87; Paul C. Colonna, "The Care of Infantile Paralysis," Hygeia, 1936, 14: 680-82, sec especially p. 680-81.
60. Lewin, Infantile Paralysis (n. 16), pp. 156-65. See also Draper, Infantile Paralysis (n. 21), pp. 161-62; "Preventing Deformity" (n. 31), p. 1022; Kovacs, "Treatment of Paralysis" (n. 31), pp. 686-87; Paul C. Colonna, "The Care of Infantile Paralysis," Hygeia, 1936, 14: 680-82, sec especially p. 680-81.
61. For a description of common surgical procedures, see Lewin, Infantile Paralysis (n. 16), pp. 209-322.
62. Elizabeth Kenny, The Treatment of Infantile Paralysis in the Acute Stage (Minneapolis: Bruce, 1941), p. 12. See also John F. Pohl in collaboration with Elizabeth Kenny, The Kenny Concept of Infantile Paralysis and Its Treatment (Minneapolis: Bruce, 1943), pp. 83-141.
63. Elizabeth Kenny, The Treatment of Infantile Paralysis in the Acute Stage (Minneapolis: Bruce, 1941), p. 12. See also John F. Pohl in collaboration with Elizabeth Kenny, The Kenny Concept of Infantile Paralysis and Its Treatment (Minneapolis: Bruce, 1943), pp. 83-141.
64. Paul, History (n. 3), pp. 338-40; Roland H. Berg, The Challenge of Polio: The Crusade against Infantile Paralysis (New York: Dial Press, 1946), pp. 160-61, 164.
65. Paul, History (n. 3), pp. 338-40; Roland H. Berg, The Challenge of Polio: The Crusade against Infantile Paralysis (New York: Dial Press, 1946), pp. 160-61, 164.
66. Berg, Challenge (n. 36), pp. 160, 164, 168-70.
67. Lewin, Infantile Paralysis (n. 16), p. 118; Florence Brookins Newman, "Home Care after Infantile Paralysis," Hygeia, 1932, 10: 1008-10, see especially p. 1008.
68. Lewin, Infantile Paralysis (n. 16), p. 118; Florence Brookins Newman, "Home Care after Infantile Paralysis," Hygeia, 1932, 10: 1008-10, see especially p. 1008.
69. Frederick Bradman, "Salvage: Reclaiming the 'Polio' Victim," Hygeia, 1933, 11: 896-97; "Preventing Deformity" (n. 31), p. 1022; Lewin, Infantile Paralysis (n. 16), p. 117.
70. Frederick Bradman, "Salvage: Reclaiming the 'Polio' Victim," Hygeia, 1933, 11: 896- 97; "Preventing Deformity" (n. 31), p. 1022; Lewin, Infantile Paralysis (n. 16), p. 117.
71. Frederick Bradman, "Salvage: Reclaiming the 'Polio' Victim," Hygeia, 1933, 11: 896- 97; "Preventing Deformity" (n. 31), p. 1022; Lewin, Infantile Paralysis (n. 16), p. 117.
72. Henry H. Kessler, The Crippled and the Disabled: Rehabilitation of the Physically Handicapped in the United States (New York: Columbia University Press, 1935), p. 256.
73. Ibid., p. 57.
74. Colonna, "Care of Infantile Paralysis" (n. 33), p. 682.
75. Gould, Summer Plague (n. 2). pp. 77-84.
76. Kessler, Crippled (n. 40), pp. 42-43.
77. Ibid., pp. 40-41; Kessler suspected that the available figures undercounted the actual numbers because "cripples are often concealed" (pp. 52-03).
78. Lewin, Infantile Paralysis (n. 16), pp. 327-28.
79. Kovacs, "Treatment of Paralysis" (n. 31), p. 687.
80. Bradman, "Salvage" (n. 39), p. 897.
81. Paul de Kruif, "Forward from Polio," Ladies Home Journal, February 1934, pp. 110, 111, quotation on p. 110. On de Kruif's ties to the President's Infantile Paralysis Commission, see Paul de Kruif, The Sweeping Wind: A Memoir (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1962), pp. 177-84; Elmer Bendiner, "DeKruif: From Practitioner to Chronicler of Science," Hosp. Pract., 1979, 14: 31-57, see especially p. 57.
82. Paul de Kruif, "Forward from Polio," Ladies Home Journal, February 1934, pp. 110, 111, quotation on p. 110. On de Kruif's ties to the President's Infantile Paralysis Commission, see Paul de Kruif, The Sweeping Wind: A Memoir (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1962), pp. 177-84; Elmer Bendiner, "DeKruif: From Practitioner to Chronicler of Science," Hosp. Pract., 1979, 14: 31-57, see especially p. 57.
83. Paul de Kruif, "Forward from Polio," Ladies Home Journal, February 1934, pp. 110, 111, quotation on p. 110. On de Kruif's ties to the President's Infantile Paralysis Commission, see Paul de Kruif, The Sweeping Wind: A Memoir (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1962), pp. 177-84; Elmer Bendiner, "DeKruif: From Practitioner to Chronicler of Science," Hosp. Pract., 1979, 14: 31-57, see especially p. 57.
84. Davis, "Home Chart" (n. 15), p. 41.
85. J. Brooks Emory, Jr., "I Had Infantile Paralysis," Good Housekeeping, March 1936, p. 129.
86. Ibid., p. 136.
87. Ibid., p. 133.
88. "My Son - Handicapped?" Saturday Evening Post, 19 September 1936, pp. 8, 98, quotation on p. 98.
89. De Kruit, "Forward from Polio" (n. 49), p. 111.
90. "I Am Physically Handicapped," Parents Mag., March 1939, pp. 30, 100.
91. The most complete accounts of Roosevelt's polio and its effect on him personally and politically are Geoffrey C. Ward, A First-Class Temperament: The Emergence of Franklin Roosevelt (New York: Harper & Row, 1989); Hugh Gregory Gallagher, FDR's Splendid Deception, rev. ed. (Arlington, Va.: Vandamere Press, 1994); Richard Thayer Goldberg, The Making of Franklin D. Roosevelt: Triumph Over Disability (Cambridge, Mass.: Abt Books, 1981). Other sources on Roosevelt and Warm Springs include Theo Lippmann, Jr., The Squire of Warm Springs: FDR in Georgia, 1924-1945 (Chicago: Playboy Press, 1978); Turnley Walker, Roosevelt and the Warm Springs Story (New York: Wyn, 1953); and Could, Summer Plague (n. 2), pp. 29-84, 112-19.
92. The most complete accounts of Roosevelt's polio and its effect on him personally and politically are Geoffrey C. Ward, A First-Class Temperament: The Emergence of Franklin Roosevelt (New York: Harper & Row, 1989); Hugh Gregory Gallagher, FDR's Splendid Deception, rev. ed. (Arlington, Va.: Vandamere Press, 1994); Richard Thayer Goldberg, The Making of Franklin D. Roosevelt: Triumph Over Disability (Cambridge, Mass.: Abt Books, 1981). Other sources on Roosevelt and Warm Springs include Theo Lippmann, Jr., The Squire of Warm Springs: FDR in Georgia, 1924-1945 (Chicago: Playboy Press, 1978); Turnley Walker, Roosevelt and the Warm Springs Story (New York: Wyn, 1953); and Could, Summer Plague (n. 2), pp. 29-84, 112-19.
93. The most complete accounts of Roosevelt's polio and its effect on him personally and politically are Geoffrey C. Ward, A First-Class Temperament: The Emergence of Franklin Roosevelt (New York: Harper & Row, 1989); Hugh Gregory Gallagher, FDR's Splendid Deception, rev. ed. (Arlington, Va.: Vandamere Press, 1994); Richard Thayer Goldberg, The Making of Franklin D. Roosevelt: Triumph Over Disability (Cambridge, Mass.: Abt Books, 1981). Other sources on Roosevelt and Warm Springs include Theo Lippmann, Jr., The Squire of Warm Springs: FDR in Georgia, 1924-1945 (Chicago: Playboy Press, 1978); Turnley Walker, Roosevelt and the Warm Springs Story (New York: Wyn, 1953); and Could, Summer Plague (n. 2), pp. 29-84, 112-19.
94. The most complete accounts of Roosevelt's polio and its effect on him personally and politically are Geoffrey C. Ward, A First-Class Temperament: The Emergence of Franklin Roosevelt (New York: Harper & Row, 1989); Hugh Gregory Gallagher, FDR's Splendid Deception, rev. ed. (Arlington, Va.: Vandamere Press, 1994); Richard Thayer Goldberg, The Making of Franklin D. Roosevelt: Triumph Over Disability (Cambridge, Mass.: Abt Books, 1981). Other sources on Roosevelt and Warm Springs include Theo Lippmann, Jr., The Squire of Warm Springs: FDR in Georgia, 1924-1945 (Chicago: Playboy Press, 1978); Turnley Walker, Roosevelt and the Warm Springs Story (New York: Wyn, 1953); and Could, Summer Plague (n. 2), pp. 29-84, 112-19.
95. The most complete accounts of Roosevelt's polio and its effect on him personally and politically are Geoffrey C. Ward, A First-Class Temperament: The Emergence of Franklin Roosevelt (New York: Harper & Row, 1989); Hugh Gregory Gallagher, FDR's Splendid Deception, rev. ed. (Arlington, Va.: Vandamere Press, 1994); Richard Thayer Goldberg, The Making of Franklin D. Roosevelt: Triumph Over Disability (Cambridge, Mass.: Abt Books, 1981). Other sources on Roosevelt and Warm Springs include Theo Lippmann, Jr., The Squire of Warm Springs: FDR in Georgia, 1924-1945 (Chicago: Playboy Press, 1978); Turnley Walker, Roosevelt and the Warm Springs Story (New York: Wyn, 1953); and Could, Summer Plague (n. 2), pp. 29-84, 112-19.
96. The most complete accounts of Roosevelt's polio and its effect on him personally and politically are Geoffrey C. Ward, A First-Class Temperament: The Emergence of Franklin Roosevelt (New York: Harper & Row, 1989); Hugh Gregory Gallagher, FDR's Splendid Deception, rev. ed. (Arlington, Va.: Vandamere Press, 1994); Richard Thayer Goldberg, The Making of Franklin D. Roosevelt: Triumph Over Disability (Cambridge, Mass.: Abt Books, 1981). Other sources on Roosevelt and Warm Springs include Theo Lippmann, Jr., The Squire of Warm Springs: FDR in Georgia, 1924-1945 (Chicago: Playboy Press, 1978); Turnley Walker, Roosevelt and the Warm Springs Story (New York: Wyn, 1953); and Could, Summer Plague (n. 2), pp. 29-84, 112-19.
97. See, for example, Ward, First-Class Temperament (n. 57), pp. 723-24, 729; Gallagher, Splendid Deception (n. 57), pp. 53-56, 145, 151-52; Goldberg, Making (n. 57), pp. 67-68, 165; Smith, Patenting the Sun (n. 2), pp. 46, 52.
98. See, for example, Ward, First-Class Temperament (n. 57), pp. 723-24, 729; Gallagher, Splendid Deception (n. 57), pp. 53-56, 145, 151-52; Goldberg, Making (n. 57), pp. 67-68, 165; Smith, Patenting the Sun (n. 2), pp. 46, 52.
99. See, for example, Ward, First-Class Temperament (n. 57), pp. 723-24, 729; Gallagher, Splendid Deception (n. 57), pp. 53-56, 145, 151-52; Goldberg, Making (n. 57), pp. 67-68, 165; Smith, Patenting the Sun (n. 2), pp. 46, 52.
100. See, for example, Ward, First-Class Temperament (n. 57), pp. 723-24, 729; Gallagher, Splendid Deception (n. 57), pp. 53-56, 145, 151-52; Goldberg, Making (n. 57), pp. 67-68, 165; Smith, Patenting the Sun (n. 2), pp. 46, 52.
101. John Duffy, "Franklin Roosevelt: Ambiguous Symbol for Disabled Americans," Midwest Quart., 1987, 29: 113. Naomi Rogers argues that Roosevelt "did not significantly alter the popular image of the disabled," although she credits him with helping "to loosen the earlier link between polio, dirt, and the immigrant poor" (Rogers, Dirt and Disease [n. 1], p. 169).
102. John Duffy, "Franklin Roosevelt: Ambiguous Symbol for Disabled Americans," Midwest Quart., 1987, 29: 113. Naomi Rogers argues that Roosevelt "did not significantly alter the popular image of the disabled," although she credits him with helping "to loosen the earlier link between polio, dirt, and the immigrant poor" (Rogers, Dirt and Disease [n. 1], p. 169).
103. Duffy, "Franklin Roosevelt" (n. 59), p. 113.
104. Ibid., p. 134.
105. Edmund J. Sass, with George Gottfried and Anthony Sorem, Polio's Legacy: An Oral History (Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, 1996).
106. Buddy Worley to FDR, 25 November 1940, PPF 50; Mr. and Mrs. Homer Jones to FDR, 6 September 1934, PPF 50.
107. Millie Teders in Sass, Polio's Legacy (n. 62), pp. 193-94.
108. Elaine Lodermeier in ibid., pp. 196-97.
109. Leota Brow, "Memories of My Polio Experience," APPA News: Newsletter of the Atlanta Post Polio Association, January-March 1996, unpaginated [http://www.eskimo.com/ ~dempt/appa11_1.htm].
110. Charles Stone in Sass, Polio's Legacy (n. 62), p. 176.
111. Richard Owen in ibid, p. 30.
112. Teders in ibid., p. 194.
113. A.J. Schmidt to FDR, 12 January 1937, PPF 50.
114. Brow, "Memories" (n. 66).
115. Mrs. W. S. Carrick to FDR, 31 December 1943, PPF 50.
116. Teders in Sass, Polio's Legacy (n. 62), pp. 194.
117. Philip Lewin warned against transporting polio patients unnecessarily because of ihe pain it caused: Infantile Paralysis (n. 16), pp. 117-18.
118. Charles E. Bird to FDR, 26 October 1944, PPF 50, A. J. Schmidt to FDR, 12 January 1937, PPF 50; Owen in Sass, Polio's Legacy (n. 62), p. 30.
119. Teders in Sass, Polio's legacy (n. 62), p. 194.
120. Owen in ibid., p. 32; Brow, "Memories" (n. 66).
121. Owen in ibid., p. 32; Brow, "Memories" (n. 66).
122. Robert Gurney in Sass, Polio's Legacy (n. 62), pp. 23-25; quotation on p. 24.
123. Teders in ibid., p. 195. See also Gurney in ibid., p. 25.
124. Teders in ibid., p. 195. See also Gurney in ibid., p. 25.
125. Gurney in ibid., pp. 23-25.
126. Larry Nixon to FDR, 23 January 1944, PPF 50.
127. Laurence W. Roof to FDR, January 1944, PPF 50. See also Nancy Jane Buser to FDR, 7 July 1944, PPF 50; Herbert Chapman to FDR, 20 January 1944, PPF 50.
128. Stone [1930] in Sass, Polio's Legacy (n. 62), pp. 176-77; Bill Van Cleve [1935] in ibid., pp. 184-85; Dorrie Getchell in ibid., pp. 205, 206; and Jack Dominik in ibid., p. 172.
129. Stone [1930] in Sass, Polio's Legacy (n. 62), pp. 176-77; Bill Van Cleve [1935] in ibid., pp. 184-85; Dorrie Getchell in ibid., pp. 205, 206; and Jack Dominik in ibid., p. 172.
130. Stone [1930] in Sass, Polio's Legacy (n. 62), pp. 176-77; Bill Van Cleve [1935] in ibid., pp. 184-85; Dorrie Getchell in ibid., pp. 205, 206; and Jack Dominik in ibid., p. 172.
131. Stone [1930] in Sass, Polio's Legacy (n. 62), pp. 176-77; Bill Van Cleve [1935] in ibid., pp. 184-85; Dorrie Getchell in ibid., pp. 205, 206; and Jack Dominik in ibid., p. 172.
132. Ruth Ruppelt to FDR, 29 January 1940, PPF 50; Dr. Wallace J. Smith [chiropractor] to FDR, 27 January 1934, PPF 334.
133. Mary Phraner Warren and Don Kirkendall, Bottom High to the Crowd (New York: Walker, 1973), p. 50.
134. Ibid., p. 44. Kirkendall was also treated by orthodox physicians.
135. Dominik in Sass, Polio's Legacy (n. 62), p. 172. Dominik also had two operations performed by regular physicians.
136. Kessler, Crippled (n. 40), p. 43.
137. Davis, "Home Chart" (n. 15), p. 41; "My Son - Handicapped?" (n. 54), p. 96; Berg, Challenge (n. 36), pp. 155-56.
138. Davis, "Home Chart" (n. 15), p. 41; "My Son - Handicapped?" (n. 54), p. 96; Berg, Challenge (n. 36), pp. 155-56.
139. Davis, "Home Chart" (n. 15), p. 41; "My Son - Handicapped?" (n. 54), p. 96; Berg, Challenge (n. 36), pp. 155-56.
140. Census Bureau, Historical Statistics (n. 13), 1: 82.
141. Bureau of the Census, Sixteenth Census of the United States: Population: The Labor Farce (Sample Statistics): Wage or Salary Income in 1939 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1943), p. 5.
142. Kessler, Crippled (n. 40), p. 256.
143. Richard Carter, The Gentle Legions (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1961), p. 95.
144. Lewis Stratton to FDR, 22 January 1934, PPF 50.
145. Laurence W. Roof to FDR January 1944, PPF 50. See also Irene B. Gilbert to FDR, 23 October 1943, PPF 50.
146. Teders in Sass, Polio's Legacy (n. 62), pp. 195-96.
147. Mrs. A. Englehardt to FDR, 20 November 1933, PPF 50.
148. T. E. McDonnell to Mrs. Roosevelt, 23 December 1934, PPF 50. See also James Eaton to FDR, 3 February 1938, PPF 50.
149. William J. Cleary to FDR, 22 July 1933, PPF 334.
150. Constance Ella Cohen to FDR, 27 December 1933, PPF 50.
151. Luella Probber to FDR, 14 December 1934, PPF 50.
152. Jerry Ide and Mrs. Wilbert Ide to FDR, 25 January 1935, PPF 50.
153. Van Cleve in Sass, Polio's Legacy (n. 62), pp. 187-88.
154. Mr. and Mrs. Glenn C. Pfeifle to FDR, 15 September 1941, PPF 50.
155. Sadie Louise Reed to FDR, 25 February 1944, PPF 50.
156. Vera Jean Grossman to FDR, 23 January 1945, PPF 50.
157. Kessler, Crippled (n. 40), p. 13.
158. Ibid., p. 22.
159. Geraldine Ballou to FDR, 24 November 1939, PPF 50.
160. Lillian Leggett to FDR, 30 January 1933, PPF 50.
161. Mrs. A. A. M. to FDR, 14 November 1942, PPF 50.
162. Harry F. McKnight to FDR, 30 January 1945, PPF 50.
163. Mrs. Harold C. Thomas to FDR, [February 1944], PPF 50.
164. Ibid.
165. Edna J. Gnaizda to FDR, 12 April 1934, PPF 50.
166. Buelah Rucker to FDR, 10 October 1934, PPF 50.
167. Edna J. Gnaizda to FDR, 12 April 1934, PPF 50.
168. Hulda Nierman to FDR, 8 June 1933, PPF 50.
169. F. Carey Rossett to FDR, January 1934, PPF 50.
170. Mildred Taylor to FDR, 3 July 1940, PPF 50.
171. Ethel Wilson Currier to FDR, 2 June 1943, PPF 50.
172. David Glushak to FDR, 29 September 1944, PPF 50.
173. Nora Kelly to FDR, 30 October 1935, PPF 50.
174. Buelah Rucker to FDR, 10 October 1934, PPF 50.
175. Marian Goldfarb to FDR, 6 March 1935, PPF 50.
176. Bertha C. Huse to FDR, 2 November 1933, PPF 50.
177. Mrs. J. Hermann to FDR, 29 September 1935, PPF 50.
178. Ivy O. James to FDR, 9 March 1934, PPF 50.
179. Danail Berg to FDR, [December 1933], PPF 50.
180. Kenneth Brahler to FDR, 7 March 1936, PPF 50.
181. Mrs. Louise Curtis to Eleanor Roosevelt, [January 1939], PPF 50.
182. Ethel Wilson Currier to FDR, 2 June 1943, PPF 50.
183. Ibid.
184. Ernest Seymour to FDR, 28 December 1933, PPF 50.
185. FDR to Burton Lasker Harris, 28 November 1933, PPF 50.
186. FDR to Robert Hirn, 5 February 1934, PPF 50.
187. FDR to Arthur Hermann, 2 November 1935, PPF 50.
188. Edna Meyers Fulton to FDR, 4 July 1933; FDR to Mrs. Ernest J. Fulton, 13 July 1933, PPF 50.
189. Geraldine M. Ballou to FDR, 24 November 1939, PPF 50; M. A. Le Hand to Geraldine M. Ballou, 30 November 1939, PPF 50.
190. David A. Glushak to FDR, 29 September 1944, PPF 50; Grace Tully to Butch Glushak, 3 October 1944, PPF 50.
191. Grace Tully discussed the way in which Roosevelt handled his mail in F.D.R.: My Boss (New York: Scribner, 1949), pp. 79-83. She noted that "in some cases he merely asked me to write an appropriate reply for his signature" (p. 81). Three contemporary descriptions of White House mail suggest that in the thirties the White House received more than six thousand pieces of mail each day, and between two hundred and five hundred letters made it to the president's desk every day; 90 percent of these were answered by one of the secretaries. See Louis McHenry Howe, "The President's Mail Bag!" Amer. Mag., June 1934, pp. 22-23, 118-20; "F.D.R.'s Day," Lit. Digest, 6 February 1937, pp. 6-7; "Hotel Delivery," ibid., 6 March 1937, pp. 6-7.
192. Grace Tully discussed the way in which Roosevelt handled his mail in F.D.R.: My Boss (New York: Scribner, 1949), pp. 79-83. She noted that "in some cases he merely asked me to write an appropriate reply for his signature" (p. 81). Three contemporary descriptions of White House mail suggest that in the thirties the White House received more than six thousand pieces of mail each day, and between two hundred and five hundred letters made it to the president's desk every day; 90 percent of these were answered by one of the secretaries. See Louis McHenry Howe, "The President's Mail Bag!" Amer. Mag., June 1934, pp. 22-23, 118-20; "F.D.R.'s Day," Lit. Digest, 6 February 1937, pp. 6-7; "Hotel Delivery," ibid., 6 March 1937, pp. 6-7.
193. Grace Tully discussed the way in which Roosevelt handled his mail in F.D.R.: My Boss (New York: Scribner, 1949), pp. 79-83. She noted that "in some cases he merely asked me to write an appropriate reply for his signature" (p. 81). Three contemporary descriptions of White House mail suggest that in the thirties the White House received more than six thousand pieces of mail each day, and between two hundred and five hundred letters made it to the president's desk every day; 90 percent of these were answered by one of the secretaries. See Louis McHenry Howe, "The President's Mail Bag!" Amer. Mag., June 1934, pp. 22-23, 118-20; "F.D.R.'s Day," Lit. Digest, 6 February 1937, pp. 6-7; "Hotel Delivery," ibid., 6 March 1937, pp. 6-7.
194. Grace Tully discussed the way in which Roosevelt handled his mail in F.D.R.: My Boss (New York: Scribner, 1949), pp. 79-83. She noted that "in some cases he merely asked me to write an appropriate reply for his signature" (p. 81). Three contemporary descriptions of White House mail suggest that in the thirties the White House received more than six thousand pieces of mail each day, and between two hundred and five hundred letters made it to the president's desk every day; 90 percent of these were answered by one of the secretaries. See Louis McHenry Howe, "The President's Mail Bag!" Amer. Mag., June 1934, pp. 22-23, 118-20; "F.D.R.'s Day," Lit. Digest, 6 February 1937, pp. 6-7; "Hotel Delivery," ibid., 6 March 1937, pp. 6-7.
195. Grace G. Tully to William D. Hassett, 18 October 1944, PPF 50. See also R. B. to Mr. McIntyre, 15 June 1937, PPF 50; M. H. McIntyre to Jim Townsend, 16 January 1937, PPF 50.
196. Stephen Early to Dr. H. E. Zaiser, 26 December 1935, PPF 334. See also H. E. Zaiser to FDR, 17 December 1935, PPF 334; FDR to H. E. Zaiser, 26 December 1935, PPF 334.