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Volumn 20, Issue 3, 1998, Pages 33-49

The math tables project of the work projects administration: The reluctant start of the computing era

(1)  Grier, David Alan a  

a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CALCULATIONS; ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL EFFECTS; MILITARY OPERATIONS; PERSONNEL; SOCIETIES AND INSTITUTIONS;

EID: 0032114995     PISSN: 10586180     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1109/85.707573     Document Type: Article
Times cited : (9)

References (164)
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    • note
    • In this paper, the word "computer," when unmodified by the adjective "electronic" or "mechanical," will refer to a human being who was employed in the task of calculation.
  • 2
    • 11744268527 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • When used without modifiers, the word "project" will refer to the Math Tables Project.
  • 3
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    • note
    • WPA regulations forbade selling the products of its projects. (A.N. Lowan to L. Briggs, 19 October 1939, Briggs Records.) The Math Tables Project circumvented this regulation by giving its manuscripts to the National Bureau of Standards, who in turn published them through Columbia University Press. Columbia University Press priced the volumes to cover its own costs. (L. Briggs to A.N. Lowan, 4 October 1939, Briggs Records.)
  • 5
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    • Mathematical Table Makers, Portraits, Paintings, Busts, Monuments, Bio-Bibliographical Notes
    • R.C. Archibald, "Mathematical Table Makers, Portraits, Paintings, Busts, Monuments, Bio-Bibliographical Notes," Scripta Mathematica Studies, vol. 3, 1948.
    • (1948) Scripta Mathematica Studies , vol.3
    • Archibald, R.C.1
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    • 11744296177 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Employment application, A. Lowan, January 1937, WPA Records
    • Employment application, A. Lowan, January 1937, WPA Records.
  • 8
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    • Gertrude Blanch of the Mathematical Tables Project
    • D.A. Grier, "Gertrude Blanch of the Mathematical Tables Project," Annals of the History of Computing, vol. 19, no. 4, pp. 18-27, 1997.
    • (1997) Annals of the History of Computing , vol.19 , Issue.4 , pp. 18-27
    • Grier, D.A.1
  • 9
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    • note
    • At Cornell, Blanch was a member of Sigma Delta Epsilon, a sorority for women graduate students studying science. Many of the members were research assistants for male professors and did computation and data reduction. See Membership list, 1933-1934 and Annual Report, 1933-1934, Box 2, Sigma Delta Epsilon files, (37/4/835), Rare Book and Manuscript Collection, Carl A. Kroch Library, Cornell University.
  • 11
    • 3342955040 scopus 로고
    • The Internal Temperature Density Distribution of the Sun
    • G. Blanch, A.N. Lowan, R.E. Marshak, and H.A. Bethe, "The Internal Temperature Density Distribution of the Sun," J. Astrophysics, pp. 37-45, 1942. Bethe deeply valued the contribution of the Math Tables Project, stressing to his biographer the group's contributions. See J. Bernstein, "Profiles (Hans Bethe - Part 1)," New Yorker, 3 December 1979, pp. 50-107.
    • (1942) J. Astrophysics , pp. 37-45
    • Blanch, G.1    Lowan, A.N.2    Marshak, R.E.3    Bethe, H.A.4
  • 12
    • 84927987339 scopus 로고
    • Profiles (Hans Bethe - Part 1)
    • 3 December
    • G. Blanch, A.N. Lowan, R.E. Marshak, and H.A. Bethe, "The Internal Temperature Density Distribution of the Sun," J. Astrophysics, pp. 37-45, 1942. Bethe deeply valued the contribution of the Math Tables Project, stressing to his biographer the group's contributions. See J. Bernstein, "Profiles (Hans Bethe - Part 1)," New Yorker, 3 December 1979, pp. 50-107.
    • (1979) New Yorker , pp. 50-107
    • Bernstein, J.1
  • 13
    • 11744367042 scopus 로고
    • Internal Report of the National Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C.
    • The division was originally called the "The National Applied Mathematics Laboratory," but this paper will use the modern name throughout. J. Curtiss, "The National Applied Mathematics Laboratory - a Prospectus," Internal Report of the National Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C., 1947. Republished in Annals of the History of Computing, vol. 11, no. 1, pp. 12-30, 1989.
    • (1947) The National Applied Mathematics Laboratory - A Prospectus
    • Curtiss, J.1
  • 14
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    • Republished in
    • The division was originally called the "The National Applied Mathematics Laboratory," but this paper will use the modern name throughout. J. Curtiss, "The National Applied Mathematics Laboratory - a Prospectus," Internal Report of the National Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C., 1947. Republished in Annals of the History of Computing, vol. 11, no. 1, pp. 12-30, 1989.
    • (1989) Annals of the History of Computing , vol.11 , Issue.1 , pp. 12-30
  • 15
    • 3342904728 scopus 로고
    • New York Mathematical Tables Project
    • H. Salzer, "New York Mathematical Tables Project," Annals of the History of Computing, vol. 11, no. 1, pp. 52-53, 1989.
    • (1989) Annals of the History of Computing , vol.11 , Issue.1 , pp. 52-53
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    • Memories of the Bureau of Standards SEAC
    • N. Metropolis et al. eds. London: Academic Press
    • R. Slutz, "Memories of the Bureau of Standards SEAC," N. Metropolis et al. eds. A History of Computing in the Twentieth Century. London: Academic Press, 1980, pp. 471-477.
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    • Slutz, R.1
  • 18
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    • Women's Contributions to Early Computing at the National Bureau of Standards
    • D. Gurer, "Women's Contributions to Early Computing at the National Bureau of Standards," IEEE Annals of the History of Computing, vol. 18, no. 3, pp. 29-35, 1996.
    • (1996) IEEE Annals of the History of Computing , vol.18 , Issue.3 , pp. 29-35
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    • The Computational Laboratory at the National Bureau of Standards
    • A. Lowan, "The Computational Laboratory at the National Bureau of Standards," Scripta Mathematica, vol. 15, pp. 33-63, 1949.
    • (1949) Scripta Mathematica , vol.15 , pp. 33-63
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    • 0004130112 scopus 로고
    • Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press
    • A. Chandler, The Visible Hand. Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press, 1977, pp. 240-243.
    • (1977) The Visible Hand , pp. 240-243
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  • 21
    • 84860454062 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Objectivity or Heroism? On the Invisibility of Women in Science
    • 2nd Series
    • See N. Oreskes, "Objectivity or Heroism? On the Invisibility of Women in Science," Osiris, 2nd Series, vol. 11, pp. 87-113, 1996.
    • (1996) Osiris , vol.11 , pp. 87-113
    • Oreskes, N.1
  • 22
    • 0003571898 scopus 로고
    • Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press
    • Rossiter argues that computation was a job early classified as appropriate for women. See M. Rossiter, Women Scientists in America: Struggles and Strategies to 1940. Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 1982, pp. 51-72. In academic and military settings, male students often filled this role. For example, at the Univ. of Chicago during the 1920s, the Dept. of Physics employed both the wife of a professor and a stream of graduate students. See Box XVI, Records of the Physics Dept., Special Collections, Univ. of Chicago.
    • (1982) Women Scientists in America: Struggles and Strategies to 1940 , pp. 51-72
    • Rossiter, M.1
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    • Roots of the Iowa State University Statistical Center: 1914-1950
    • Aug.
    • T.A. Bancroft, "Roots of the Iowa State University Statistical Center: 1914-1950," Iowa State J. Research, vol. 57, no. 1, pp. 3-10, Aug. 1982.
    • (1982) Iowa State J. Research , vol.57 , Issue.1 , pp. 3-10
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  • 26
    • 11744365057 scopus 로고
    • Bloomington, Ind.: Principia Press
    • H.T. Davis, Tables of the Higher Mathematical Functions, vol. 1. Bloomington, Ind.: Principia Press, 1933. H.T. Davis, Adventures of an Ultra-Crepidarian. San Antonio, Texas: Principia Press of Trinity College, 1962, pp. 270.
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    • H.T. Davis, Tables of the Higher Mathematical Functions, vol. 1. Bloomington, Ind.: Principia Press, 1933. H.T. Davis, Adventures of an Ultra-Crepidarian. San Antonio, Texas: Principia Press of Trinity College, 1962, pp. 270.
    • (1962) Adventures of An Ultra-Crepidarian , pp. 270
    • Davis, H.T.1
  • 31
    • 11744315096 scopus 로고
    • undated typescript, Aberdeen File, Oswald Veblen Papers, Library of Congress. P. Schwartz to O. Veblen, 4 March Correspondence, Oswald Veblen Papers, Library of Congress
    • P. Schwartz, "History of the Proving Ground," undated typescript, Aberdeen File, Oswald Veblen Papers, Library of Congress. P. Schwartz to O. Veblen, 4 March 1924, Correspondence, Oswald Veblen Papers, Library of Congress.
    • (1924) History of the Proving Ground
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  • 32
    • 0003885645 scopus 로고
    • New York: Da Capo Press, (c 1943)
    • D.S. Howard, The WPA and Federal Relief Policy. New York: Da Capo Press, 1973 (c 1943). See also J.D. Millett, The Work Projects Administration in New York City, Public Administration Service, 1938.
    • (1973) The WPA and Federal Relief Policy
    • Howard, D.S.1
  • 34
    • 11744354075 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • The different accounts are somewhat contradictory on this point. The range is between 100 and 150.
  • 41
    • 11744385067 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See note 35 plus Interview with Gertrude Blanch by H. Tropp and A.N. Lowan to L.J. Comrie, 7 April 1939, Lyman Briggs Correspondence, 1939, N.B.S.-EC Records.
  • 42
    • 11744375840 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • A. Lowan to L. Briggs, 22 Dec. 1939, War Department Correspondence, Math Tables Project files, N.B.S.-EC Records
    • A. Lowan to L. Briggs, 22 Dec. 1939, War Department Correspondence, Math Tables Project files, N.B.S.-EC Records..
  • 43
    • 11744308207 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • F. Culled of the Army Corps of Engineers (Intelligence Branch) to General I. Huie, Administrator of the WPA, 1 July 1942, WPA (765) Records
    • F. Culled of the Army Corps of Engineers (Intelligence Branch) to General I. Huie, Administrator of the WPA, 1 July 1942, WPA (765) Records.
  • 44
    • 11744258886 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Culled of Army Engineers to General Huie, 1 July 1942, cited above
    • Culled of Army Engineers to General Huie, 1 July 1942, cited above.
  • 45
    • 11744296174 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See W. Weaver of the Applied Mathematics Panel to M.A. Chanderly of Consolidated Edison, 10 Feb. 1943 and W. Weaver to A. Lowan, 27 Sept. 1943, Correspondence of the Applied Mathematics Panel, 1942-1943, Box 15, AMP Records.
  • 46
    • 11744333772 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • A. Lowan to R.W. Smith at N.B.S., 21 Dec. 1945, Briggs Records
    • A. Lowan to R.W. Smith at N.B.S., 21 Dec. 1945, Briggs Records.
  • 50
    • 11744371480 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Lowan often had to prod the managers at the WPA to approve his computing plans so that the human computers would not run out of work. See Night Letter (special discount rate overnight telegram) from A. Lowan to L. Briggs, Aug. 1940, Briggs Records.
  • 51
    • 11744323471 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • G.S. Bryan, Rear Admiral of U.S. Navy (Ret.) hydrographer of Hydrographic Office to Major I.V.A. Huie, administrator of NYC Work Projects Administration, 6 Jan. 1943, WPA (765) Records
    • G.S. Bryan, Rear Admiral of U.S. Navy (Ret.) hydrographer of Hydrographic Office to Major I.V.A. Huie, administrator of NYC Work Projects Administration, 6 Jan. 1943, WPA (765) Records.
  • 52
    • 11744303823 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Admiral G.S. Bryan to A. Lowan, 6 Jan. 1943, 28 Feb. 1942, WPA (765) Records. W. Weaver to D. Moreland, National Defense Research Council, 15 Feb. 1943, Applied Mathematics Panel Correspondence, 1942-1943, Box 16, AMP Records.
  • 54
    • 11744260344 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • M. Eastman to Admiral J. Furer, 2 July 1942, ONR General Records
    • Ibid., p. 404. M. Eastman to Admiral J. Furer, 2 July 1942, ONR General Records.
    • Loran, Long Range Navigation , pp. 404
  • 55
    • 11744304682 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • R. Schlatcher, Officer in Charge of New York Hydrographic Institute to Hydrographer, 9 Oct. 1944, Hydrographic Records
    • R. Schlatcher, Officer in Charge of New York Hydrographic Institute to Hydrographer, 9 Oct. 1944, Hydrographic Records.
  • 56
    • 11744249963 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Officer in Charge of New York Hydrographic Institute to Hydrographer of the Navy, 9 Oct. 1944, Hydrographic Records
    • Officer in Charge of New York Hydrographic Institute to Hydrographer of the Navy, 9 Oct. 1944, Hydrographic Records.
  • 58
    • 0004158290 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • New York: Springer Verlag
    • C. Reid, Neyman: From Life. New York: Springer Verlag, 1982, pp. 190. On 23 Nov. 1943, the Navy assigned Neyman to a special project for the Destruction of Obstacles to Landing Operations Committee.
    • (1982) Neyman: From Life , pp. 190
    • Reid, C.1
  • 60
    • 11744363204 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Blanch interview with Thatcher
    • Blanch interview with Thatcher.
  • 61
    • 11744369936 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • W. Weaver to A. Lowan, 10 Dec. 1943, correspondence of the Applied Mathematics Panel, 1942-1943, Box 15, AMP Records
    • W. Weaver to A. Lowan, 10 Dec. 1943, correspondence of the Applied Mathematics Panel, 1942-1943, Box 15, AMP Records.
  • 63
    • 11744333770 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Letter from M. Rees to A. Lowan, 21 June 1945, "On the Evaluation of a Certain Integral," General Correspondence of the Applied Mathematics Panel, Box 4, AMP Records
    • Letter from M. Rees to A. Lowan, 21 June 1945, "On the Evaluation of a Certain Integral," General Correspondence of the Applied Mathematics Panel, Box 4, AMP Records.
  • 64
    • 11744372871 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • W. Weaver to V. Bush, 17 Aug. 1945, General Correspondence of the Applied Mathematics Panel, AMP Records
    • W. Weaver to V. Bush, 17 Aug. 1945, General Correspondence of the Applied Mathematics Panel, AMP Records.
  • 65
    • 11744337396 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See A. Lowan to W. Weaver, 30 Sept. 1943; W. Weaver to G. Stibbitz, 20 June 1944; and M. Rees to O. Veblen, member of the Applied Mathematics Panel, 9 June 1945, Correspondence of the Applied Mathematics Panel concerning the Math Tables Project, File 3, Box 4, AMP Records.
  • 68
    • 11744332761 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Memo from A. Lowan to Math Tables Project Staff, 16 Oct. 1946, Monte Carlo Computations File (back used as scratch paper), AMP Records
    • Memo from A. Lowan to Math Tables Project Staff, 16 Oct. 1946, Monte Carlo Computations File (back used as scratch paper), AMP Records.
  • 71
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    • Reminiscences about the Origins of Linear Programming
    • Apr.
    • G. Dantzig, "Reminiscences About the Origins of Linear Programming," Operations Research Letters, vol. 1, no. 2, pp. 43-48, Apr. 1982; G. Dantzig, "Origins of the Simplex Method," S.G. Nash, ed. A Histoty of Scientific Computing. New York: ACM Press, 1990. Linear programming is an optimization technique. In this test, it attempted to determine the cheapest diet, selected from 77 different foods, that would meet the nutritional requirements of the Air Force. It probably remains the largest linear programming problem ever done by hand.
    • (1982) Operations Research Letters , vol.1 , Issue.2 , pp. 43-48
    • Dantzig, G.1
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    • Origins of the Simplex Method
    • S.G. Nash, ed. New York: ACM Press
    • G. Dantzig, "Reminiscences About the Origins of Linear Programming," Operations Research Letters, vol. 1, no. 2, pp. 43-48, Apr. 1982; G. Dantzig, "Origins of the Simplex Method," S.G. Nash, ed. A Histoty of Scientific Computing. New York: ACM Press, 1990. Linear programming is an optimization technique. In this test, it attempted to determine the cheapest diet, selected from 77 different foods, that would meet the nutritional requirements of the Air Force. It probably remains the largest linear programming problem ever done by hand.
    • (1990) A Histoty of Scientific Computing
    • Dantzig, G.1
  • 73
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    • G. Dantzig to J. von Neumann, 28 Apr. 1948, Correspondence "D," J. von Neumann Papers, Library of Congress, von Neumann's scribblings are incomplete
    • G. Dantzig to J. von Neumann, 28 Apr. 1948, Correspondence "D," J. von Neumann Papers, Library of Congress, von Neumann's scribblings are incomplete.
  • 74
    • 11744304680 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See A. Lowan to W. Weaver, 22 Sept. 1945, General Correspondence of the Math Tables Project, AMP Records. A. Lowan to E. Condo, 14 Jan. 1946, N.B.S. Director's Records.
  • 77
    • 11744274570 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • T. Fry to FX. Richtmyer, 3 Apr. 1933, M.T.A.C. Records
    • T. Fry to FX. Richtmyer, 3 Apr. 1933, M.T.A.C. Records.
  • 78
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    • Washington, D.C.; Government Printing Office, See also "Blue Folder Files," Civil Works Administration Projects folder #680, Boxes 46-47, Briggs Records
    • R. Cochrane, Measures for Progress. Washington, D.C.; Government Printing Office, 1966, p. 331. See also "Blue Folder Files," Civil Works Administration Projects folder #680, Boxes 46-47, Briggs Records.
    • (1966) Measures for Progress , pp. 331
    • Cochrane, R.1
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  • 80
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    • Letter from P. Brockett to F. Lillie, 21 Oct. 1937, SAB Records
    • Letter from P. Brockett to F. Lillie, 21 Oct. 1937, SAB Records.
  • 81
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    • New York: Simon and Schuster
    • H. Ickes, Secret Diary of Harold Ickes, vol. 2. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1954, p. 243.
    • (1954) Secret Diary of Harold Ickes , vol.2 , pp. 243
    • Ickes, H.1
  • 83
    • 11744319378 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • P. Brockett to F. Lillie, 18 Oct. 1937, SAB Records
    • P. Brockett to F. Lillie, 18 Oct. 1937, SAB Records.
  • 84
    • 11744344127 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Testimony of S. Katz before the House Committee on Un-American Activities, Feb. 1956, p. 3,400
    • Testimony of S. Katz before the House Committee on Un-American Activities, Feb. 1956, p. 3,400.
  • 86
    • 11744379720 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Office memorandum no. 433, 21 Oct. 1937, SAB Records
    • Office memorandum no. 433, 21 Oct. 1937, SAB Records.
  • 87
    • 11744341733 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • A. Barrows to F. Lillie, 18 Oct. 1937, SAB Records
    • A. Barrows to F. Lillie, 18 Oct. 1937, SAB Records.
  • 88
    • 11744326305 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • P. Brockett to F. Lillie, 1 Nov. 1937, SAB Records
    • P. Brockett to F. Lillie, 1 Nov. 1937, SAB Records.
  • 89
    • 11744272074 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Proposal for a Project to Recompute Mathematical Tables, WPA (395) Records
    • Proposal for a Project to Recompute Mathematical Tables, WPA (395) Records.
  • 90
    • 11744361119 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Herb Salzar and Ida Rhodes give two slightly contradictory stories about how Lowan was recruited. Both claim that Dr. van Ostrand of the U.S. Geologic Survey brought Lowan to Briggs's attention. Salzar claims that the connection happened either through mathematicians at Columbia University or Brooklyn College (interview, Feb. 1996). Rhodes claims that von Ostrand read an article about Lowan in the "Sunday paper" (letter to Merzbach, files stored with Smithsonian Collections). Neither has first-hand knowledge of this event. Rhodes joined the project in 1940, while Salzar joined in 1941.
  • 91
    • 11744357185 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Letter from A. Barrows to F. Lillie, 27 Jan. 1938, SAB Records
    • Letter from A. Barrows to F. Lillie, 27 Jan. 1938, SAB Records.
  • 93
    • 11744276081 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Ida Rhodes, a mathematician who joined the Planning Committee in 1940, claims in an interview that the WPA provided no supplies and that the Planning Committee had to purchase pencils and paper for the computers. (Letter to Merzbach, files stored with Smithsonian Collections.) This is almost surely not true, as the records indicate.
  • 94
    • 11744329123 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See Rhodes, Letter to Merzbach, op. cit. G. Blanch, interview with H. Thatcher. In this interview, Blanch gives an especially telling account of her search for an office job in 1936. She recollects that out of 50 applicants, she was the only one who submitted a letter without grammatical errors.
  • 97
    • 11744298937 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Detailed descriptions of the computing plans are given in each of the major published volumes of the Math Tables Project.
  • 99
    • 11744369355 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • G. Blanch interview with H. Thatcher, 17 Mar. 1989, Stern Family Collection
    • G. Blanch interview with H. Thatcher, 17 Mar. 1989, Stern Family Collection.
  • 101
    • 11744337394 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Office Memorandum no. 433, 21 Oct. 1937, SAB Records
    • Office Memorandum no. 433, 21 Oct. 1937, SAB Records.
  • 102
    • 11744286810 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Lowan to Briggs, 13 Apr. 1938, Briggs Records
    • Lowan to Briggs, 13 Apr. 1938, Briggs Records.
  • 103
    • 11744292487 scopus 로고
    • Mathematical Tables Project, Report of Official Project 765-97-3-10, New York, Federal Works Agency for the City of New York
    • Mathematical Tables Project, Tables of the Exponential Function, Report of Official Project 765-97-3-10, New York, Federal Works Agency for the City of New York, 1939.
    • (1939) Tables of the Exponential Function
  • 104
    • 11744361539 scopus 로고
    • Mathematical Tables Project, Report of Official Project 765-97-3-10, New York, Federal Works Agency for the City of New York
    • Mathematical Tables Project, Tables of the First 10 Powers of the Integers From 1 to 1,000, Report of Official Project 765-97-3-10, New York, Federal Works Agency for the City of New York, 1938.
    • (1938) Tables of the First 10 Powers of the Integers from 1 to 1,000
  • 105
    • 11744284478 scopus 로고
    • Review of Powers of Integers and the Exponential Function
    • Jan.
    • J.H. Curtiss, "Review of Powers of Integers and the Exponential Function" Amer. Mathematical Monthly, vol. 48, no. 1, Jan. 1941.
    • (1941) Amer. Mathematical Monthly , vol.48 , Issue.1
    • Curtiss, J.H.1
  • 106
    • 11744349390 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Lowan correspondence, N.B.S.-EC Records
    • See Lowan correspondence, N.B.S.-EC Records.
  • 107
    • 11744358753 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • J. von Neumann to Lowan, 19 Sept. 1940, Box 15, AMP Records
    • J. von Neumann to Lowan, 19 Sept. 1940, Box 15, AMP Records.
  • 108
    • 11744316220 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • L. Briggs to A. Lowan, 22 Nov. 1939, and reply from Lowan, 24 Nov. 1939, Briggs Records
    • L. Briggs to A. Lowan, 22 Nov. 1939, and reply from Lowan, 24 Nov. 1939, Briggs Records.
  • 109
    • 11744254750 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • A. Lowan to L. Briggs, 28 June 1939, Briggs Records
    • A. Lowan to L. Briggs, 28 June 1939, Briggs Records.
  • 110
    • 11744385066 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • L. Briggs to A. Lowan, 27 July 1939, Briggs Records
    • L. Briggs to A. Lowan, 27 July 1939, Briggs Records.
  • 111
    • 11744313609 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Major H. Loper, Army Corps of Engineers, Intelligence Division, to A. Lowan, 1 July 1941, WPA (765) Records
    • Major H. Loper, Army Corps of Engineers, Intelligence Division, to A. Lowan, 1 July 1941, WPA (765) Records.
  • 115
    • 11744333771 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • A. Lowan to H. Bethe, 28 Nov. 1938, Bethe File, AMP Records
    • A. Lowan to H. Bethe, 28 Nov. 1938, Bethe File, AMP Records.
  • 116
    • 0003986103 scopus 로고
    • Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press
    • P. Morse, In at the Beginning. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1977, p. 139.
    • (1977) In at the Beginning , pp. 139
    • Morse, P.1
  • 117
    • 11744388295 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • K. Compton to Lowan, 20 Nov. 1940 and Weekly Reports, 20 Oct. 1941, WPA (795) Records
    • K. Compton to Lowan, 20 Nov. 1940 and Weekly Reports, 20 Oct. 1941, WPA (795) Records.
  • 118
    • 11744290466 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • A. Lowan to W. Weaver, 23 Dec. 23, 1943, General Correspondence, AMP Records
    • A. Lowan to W. Weaver, 23 Dec. 23, 1943, General Correspondence, AMP Records.
  • 119
    • 11744375836 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • The original letter (dated 16 May 1941 and addressed To Whom It May Concern) read as follows: "The WPA project of computing mathematical tables, executed under the sponsorship of the National Bureau of Standards and the direction of Dr. Arnold N. Lowan, fills an important need which exists in mathematics, both for research work and for applied mathematics and physics. Dr. Lowan possesses the background and the qualifications to direct such work, and the result has fully justified the undertaking. I do not hesitate to express a feeling which is undoubtedly shared by most mathematicians, that work of real lasting value has been done." It was signed by J. von Neumann. Miscellaneous Correspondence "L," John von Neumann Papers, Library of Congress.
  • 120
    • 11744262918 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See A. Lowan to J. von Neumann, 7 May 1941; J. von Neumann to A. Lowan, 16 May 1941; A. Lowan to J. von Neumann, 17 May 1941; J. von Neumann to Lowan, 22 May 1941, Miscellaneous Correspondence "L," John von Neumann Papers, Library of Congress.
  • 121
    • 11744297724 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Chief of Medicine and Surgery to Office of Naval Research, 17 Feb. 1942, ONR Records
    • Chief of Medicine and Surgery to Office of Naval Research, 17 Feb. 1942, ONR Records.
  • 122
    • 11744337395 scopus 로고
    • Gentlemen of the Committee on Mathematical Tables and Aids to Computation
    • 20 Apr. correspondence relating to the journal Wallace Eckert papers, CBI 9, Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota
    • Lowan could not even get a unanimous vote of support from his advisory board, the Committee on Mathematical Tables and Other Aids to Computation. See W.J. Eckert to R.C. Archibald, 7 Jan. 1942. Archibald, a supporter of Lowan and the Math Tables Project, chose to ignore Eckert's protest. See Archibald to "Gentlemen of the Committee on Mathematical Tables and Aids to Computation," 20 Apr. 1942, correspondence relating to the journal Mathematical Tables und Other Aids to Computation, Wallace Eckert papers, CBI 9, Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota.
    • (1942) Mathematical Tables und Other Aids to Computation
    • Archibald1
  • 123
    • 11744369358 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Officer of David Taylor Model Basin to Admiral Julius Furer, 10 Jan. 1942, ONR Records. It should be noted that this same officer quickly changed his opinions on such matters and soon became a strong advocate of large-scale computing. See Officer in charge of David Taylor Naval Basin, 9 Nov. 1943,ONR Records.
  • 124
    • 11744376874 scopus 로고
    • 10 Dec. Box 15, AMP Records
    • Diary of W. Weaver, 10 Dec. 1942, Box 15, AMP Records.
    • (1942) Diary of W. Weaver
  • 125
    • 11744280590 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • W. Weaver to D.L. Moreland, 15 Feb. 1943, Correspondence 1942-1943, AMP Records
    • W. Weaver to D.L. Moreland, 15 Feb. 1943, Correspondence 1942-1943, AMP Records.
  • 126
    • 11744358754 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • W. Weaver to J. Conant, 3 Feb. 1943, General Correspondence, 1943, A.M.P. Records
    • W. Weaver to J. Conant, 3 Feb. 1943, General Correspondence, 1943, A.M.P. Records.
  • 127
    • 11744347857 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • W. Weaver to E.L. Moreland of the National Defense Research Council, 15 Feb. 1943, Correspondence of the Applied Mathematics Panel, 1942-1943, Box 15, AMP Records
    • W. Weaver to E.L. Moreland of the National Defense Research Council, 15 Feb. 1943, Correspondence of the Applied Mathematics Panel, 1942-1943, Box 15, AMP Records.
  • 128
    • 11744361121 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • W. Weaver to J. Conant, 17 May 1943, Correspondence 1943, AMP Records
    • W. Weaver to J. Conant, 17 May 1943, Correspondence 1943, AMP Records.
  • 129
    • 11744276082 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See Eckert to Butler, 1 Feb. 1940, Box 1 and L. Goldberg to Eckert, 18 Apr. 1947, Wallace Eckert Papers, CBI 9, Charles Babbage Institute, Univ. of Minnesota.
  • 130
    • 11744273272 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Wallace Eckert papers, CBI 9, Charles Babbage Institute, Univ. of Minnesota
    • W. Eckert to Archibald, 16 Sept. 1943, Correspondence relating to the journal Mathematical Tables and Other Aids to Computation, Wallace Eckert papers, CBI 9, Charles Babbage Institute, Univ. of Minnesota.
    • Mathematical Tables and Other Aids to Computation
  • 131
    • 11744346518 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Letter from W.J. Eckert to D.W. Rubidge, Commercial Research Department of IBM, 11 Jan. 1941, Box 1, File Wallace J. Eckert papers, CBI 9, Charles Babbage Institute.
  • 132
    • 11744249960 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • L.J. Comrie, "The Math Tables Project," mimeograph note attached to Lowan to Weaver, 9 Mar. 1944, AMP Records. Quoted by I. Rhodes in interview with H. Tropp, Record Group 196, Smithsonian Archives Center
    • L.J. Comrie, "The Math Tables Project," mimeograph note attached to Lowan to Weaver, 9 Mar. 1944, AMP Records. Quoted by I. Rhodes in interview with H. Tropp, Record Group 196, Smithsonian Archives Center.
  • 133
    • 11744319379 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • L.J. Comrie to J.L. Ginniff, 6 May 1942, WPA (765) Records
    • L.J. Comrie to J.L. Ginniff, 6 May 1942, WPA (765) Records.
  • 134
    • 11744323470 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Certain volumes of Math Tables Project tables can often be found in nearly pristine condition (albeit dusty) on the shelves of research libraries. However, the early electronic computing groups are also open to this charge. One of the first tasks undertaken by Aiken on the Mark 1 was to produce a large multivolume table of Bessel Functions. Rarely can one find a copy that shows any signs of use. The Math Tables Project also produced smaller tables, called "Lilliputian."
  • 135
    • 11744357190 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See note 127. Lowan often had to write WPA urging them to approve projects in order to keep the computers busy. See A. Lowan to L. Briggs, 29 Aug. 1940, Briggs Records.
  • 136
    • 11744381333 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See note 63
    • See note 63.
  • 137
    • 11744344129 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • W. Weaver to A. Lowan, 9 Mar. 1943, Correspondence, 1942-1943, AMP Records
    • W. Weaver to A. Lowan, 9 Mar. 1943, Correspondence, 1942-1943, AMP Records.
  • 138
    • 11744302852 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See note 119 and W. Weaver to LeMer, 15 Feb. 1943, Correspondence 1942-1943, AMP Records
    • See note 119 and W. Weaver to LeMer, 15 Feb. 1943, Correspondence 1942-1943, AMP Records.
  • 139
    • 11744375839 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • W. Weaver to L. Briggs, 23 Feb. 1943, Correspondence, 1942-1943, AMP Records
    • W. Weaver to L. Briggs, 23 Feb. 1943, Correspondence, 1942-1943, AMP Records.
  • 140
    • 11744369934 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • W. Weaver to L. Briggs, 8 Mar. 1943, Correspondence, 1942-1943, AMP Records
    • W. Weaver to L. Briggs, 8 Mar. 1943, Correspondence, 1942-1943, AMP Records.
  • 142
    • 11744282759 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See thread of correspondence on mechanical computation of tables that begins with W. Weaver to A. Lowan, 25 Aug. 1943, Correspondence, 1942-1943, AMP Records.
  • 143
    • 11744322097 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Letter from W. Weaver to L. Briggs, 19 Apr. 1943, Correspondence of the Applied Mathematics Panel, 1942-1943, Box 16, AMP Records. "From the work which is now before us, it seems clear that this project will be of very real usefulness in the war effort, and the amount of work promises to increase enough so that we felt it was only prudent to ask for $100,000 rather than the annual level of $75,000 which was proposed somewhat earlier."
  • 144
    • 11744256958 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • W. Weaver to Dean H.V. Gaskill, Iowa State College, 4 Nov. 1943, Iowa State File, Box 20, AMP Records
    • W. Weaver to Dean H.V. Gaskill, Iowa State College, 4 Nov. 1943, Iowa State File, Box 20, AMP Records.
  • 145
    • 11744323469 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • With most mathematicians, Weaver was relaxed and informal. He would occasionally call von Neumann "Johnny" or Oswald Veblen "Veb." However, he always called Arnold Lowan "Dr. Lowan" or "Mr. Lowan." Given that Lowan worked with these two mathematicians when he was at the Institute for Advanced Study, this seems ample evidence that Lowan never entered the social circle of U.S. mathematics. See General Correspondence, A.M.P. Records.
  • 146
    • 11744268523 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • M. Rees to O. Veblen, 9 June 1945, Correspondence, 1945, AMP Records. This letter may be the first to use the retrologism "hand computing."
    • M. Rees to O. Veblen, 9 June 1945, Correspondence, 1945, AMP Records. This letter may be the first to use the retrologism "hand computing."
  • 147
    • 11744315092 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • No footnote
    • No footnote.
  • 148
    • 11744334933 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • P. Morse to W. Weaver, 20 Oct. 1944, General Correspondence, AMP Records
    • P. Morse to W. Weaver, 20 Oct. 1944, General Correspondence, AMP Records.
  • 149
    • 11744286809 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See note 140
    • See note 140.
  • 150
    • 11744256957 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • J. Curtiss to A. Lowan, 12 Apr. 1945, N.B.S. Director's Records
    • J. Curtiss to A. Lowan, 12 Apr. 1945, N.B.S. Director's Records.
  • 151
    • 11744347856 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • A. Lowan to W. Weaver, 22 Sept. 1945, General Correspondence, AMP Records. E. Condon to A. Lowan, 16 Jan. 1946, N.B.S. Director's Records
    • A. Lowan to W. Weaver, 22 Sept. 1945, General Correspondence, AMP Records. E. Condon to A. Lowan, 16 Jan. 1946, N.B.S. Director's Records.
  • 152
    • 11744376873 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • R.C. Archibald to R.C. Gibbs, 27 Apr. 1948, M.T.A.C. Records
    • R.C. Archibald to R.C. Gibbs, 27 Apr. 1948, M.T.A.C. Records.
  • 153
    • 11744367037 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • L. Issacson, Representative of the 24th Congressional District of New York to E. Condon, 23 June 1948, N.B.S. Director's Records. See also J. Todd, Oral Interview, Archives, California Institute of Technology
    • L. Issacson, Representative of the 24th Congressional District of New York to E. Condon, 23 June 1948, N.B.S. Director's Records. See also J. Todd, Oral Interview, Archives, California Institute of Technology.
  • 154
    • 11744361120 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • S. Finkelstein, president, United Public Workers of America, 9 Apr. 1948. M.T.A.C. Records
    • S. Finkelstein, president, United Public Workers of America, 9 Apr. 1948. M.T.A.C. Records.
  • 155
    • 11744349391 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Todd Interview. Remarks by Curtiss, mimeographed document, M.T.A.C. Records
    • Todd Interview. Remarks by Curtiss, mimeographed document, M.T.A.C. Records.
  • 156
    • 11744369933 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Todd interview
    • Todd interview.
  • 158
    • 11744288269 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • During World War II, a Harvard mathematician had attacked the Applied Mathematics Panel with the charge that it was incompetent. Careful study of his claims indicates that he was less concerned with the competency of the panel and more interested in the fact that it was dominated by mathematicians from New York City who did not seem to give many projects to Harvard's Mathematics Department. Marshall Stone File, AMP Records. For Curtiss's opinion on the relevancy to the Math Tables Project move, see J. Curtiss to J. Condo, 6 Mar. 1946, Director's Correspondence, N.B.S. Director Records.
  • 159
    • 11744350050 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Report from the Committee on Mathematical Tables and Other Aids to Computation, Apr. 1946, Records of the Division of Physical Sciences, National Research Council Archives, National Academy of Sciences
    • Report from the Committee on Mathematical Tables and Other Aids to Computation, Apr. 1946, Records of the Division of Physical Sciences, National Research Council Archives, National Academy of Sciences.
  • 160
    • 11744379721 scopus 로고
    • 30 May Folder 9, Box 1, Papers of E.C. Berkeley, CBI 50, Charles Babbage Institute
    • Report 7 of the Eastern Assoc. for Computing Machinery, 30 May 1949, Folder 9, Box 1, Papers of E.C. Berkeley, CBI 50, Charles Babbage Institute. It should be noted that the EACM produced two newsletters labeled "Report 7." The first one is dated 25 Feb. 1949.
    • (1949) Report 7 of the Eastern Assoc. for Computing Machinery
  • 163
    • 11744367036 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • The exact figure is impossible to determine without a detailed study of the records of Dover Publishing and the Government Printing Office, the two organizations that publish the handbook. No one connected with the publication of the handbook disputes that it has sold extremely well, and uninformed estimates of its sales range between 50,000 and 500,000. The estimate of 200,000 was achieved by compiling publication records from various editions of the book itself.
  • 164
    • 11744258885 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • National Bureau of Standards, Applied Mathematics Laboratory, Projects and Publications, Washington, D.C., July 1965
    • National Bureau of Standards, Applied Mathematics Laboratory, Projects and Publications, Washington, D.C., July 1965.


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