Savagery and the supersensible: Kant's universalism in historical context

History of European Ideas

Volumn 24, Issue 4-5, 1998, Pages 315-330

  Wilson, Catherine ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA   (Canada)

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EID: 0032114374     PISSN: 01916599     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S0191-6599(99)00007-8     Document Type: Article

References (115)

1. 1. Kant complained frequently about what he regarded as unsystematic empiricism. But he was keenly interested in orderly expositions of the origins of the solar system and its plants and animals. The production of a self-regulating orderly cosmos from a cloud of particles acted upon by Newtonian attraction and repulsion and its cycles of death and rebirth are described in the Universal Natural History and Theory of the Heavens of 1755, while section 80 of the Critique of Judgement of 1790 and parts of the Opus Postumum (1800-1803) discuss transformism in biology. His views on the evolution of life are discussed, perhaps with undue skepticism, by A. O. Lovejoy in 'Kant and Evolution' in B. Glass, O. Temkin, W. L. Straus, Jr. (Eds.), Forerunners of Darwin: 1745-1859 (Baltimore: 1959), pp. 173-206.
2. 2. According to a Fragment of 1764-1765, quoted by P. Schilpp, Kant's Pre-Critical Ethics (Evanston: 1938), p. 69.
3. 3. Kant is thought to have turned away from the ethics of sentiment of Hume and Shaftesbury at about the same time that, in the Inaugural Dissertation, he embarked on another major project of purification, having discovered the error of confounding sensibility and reason. See, for a full reconstruction, Schilpp, Kant's Pre-Critical Ethics.
4. 4. Kant, 'Foundations of the Metaphysics of Morals', J. W. Ellington (Tr.), Ethical Philosophy (Indianapolis: 1983), pp. 8-15; Gesammelte Schriften (28 vols., Berlin: 1904), pp. 395-402.
5. 4. Kant, 'Foundations of the Metaphysics of Morals', J. W. Ellington (Tr.), Ethical Philosophy (Indianapolis: 1983), pp. 8-15; Gesammelte Schriften (28 vols., Berlin: 1904), pp. 395-402.
6. 5. See G. A. Kelly 'Rousseau, Kant and History', Journal of the History of Ideas, 29 (1968), pp. 347-364. Kelly reviews the earlier literature and sketchily but effectively contrasts Kantian ethico-teleology with Rousseau's pathos and passivity. For a recent discussion, see S. Neiman, 'Metaphysics, Philosophy: Rousseau on the Problem of Evil', in A. Reath et al. (Eds.), Reclaiming the History of Ethics: Essays for John Rawls (Cambridge: 1997), pp. 140-169.
7. 5. See G. A. Kelly 'Rousseau, Kant and History', Journal of the History of Ideas, 29 (1968), pp. 347-364. Kelly reviews the earlier literature and sketchily but effectively contrasts Kantian ethico-teleology with Rousseau's pathos and passivity. For a recent discussion, see S. Neiman, 'Metaphysics, Philosophy: Rousseau on the Problem of Evil', in A. Reath et al. (Eds.), Reclaiming the History of Ethics: Essays for John Rawls (Cambridge: 1997), pp. 140-169.
8. 6. Kant, 'Foundations of the Metaphysics of Morals', Ellington (Tr.), p. 3; Gesammelte Schriften 4: 390.
9. 6. Kant, 'Foundations of the Metaphysics of Morals', Ellington (Tr.), p. 3; Gesammelte Schriften 4: 390.
10. 7. Ibid., 21; Gesammelte Schriften, 4: 409.
11. 7. Ibid., 21; Gesammelte Schriften, 4: 409.
12. 8. Ibid., 22; Gesammelte Schriften, 4: 411.
13. 8. Ibid., 22; Gesammelte Schriften, 4: 411.
14. 9. Ibid., 10-11, 34-35, 57; Gesammelte Schriften, 4: 398, 426-428, 457.
15. 9. Ibid., 10-11, 34-35, 57; Gesammelte Schriften, 4: 398, 426-428, 457.
16. 10. Ibid., 31; Gesammelte Schriften, 4: 423.
17. 10. Ibid., 31; Gesammelte Schriften, 4: 423.
18. 11. Kant, 'Lectures on Ethics', L. Infield (Tr.), (Indianapolis: 1963), pp. 141-142.
19. 12. Louis Antoine Bougainville's Voyage autour du monde. . . en 1766, 1767, 1768 et 1769 appeared in Paris in 1771 and was translated into English in 1772. G. Forster published an account of his father's tour with J. Cook first in English in 1775, then as Johann Rheinhold Forsters Reise um die Welt waehrend den Jahren 1772 bis 1775 (Berlin: 1775-1780). Excerpts appeared in the Gottingisches Magazin der Wissenschaften und Literatur from 1780-1785. Cf. Kant, Gesammelte Schriften, 9: 186, 267; 10: 251-254, 513; 11: 220-235. Cook's Journals covering the years 1768 to his death in 1779 were published in numerous versions, beginning with J. Hawkesworth, An Account of the Voyages Undertaken for Making Discoveries in the South Seas, London 1773, which covered Cook's first voyage; the fourth edition of his collected voyages would appear by 1784. The fifth volume of the Berlin Magazin von merkwuerdigen neuen Reisenbeschreibungen, pp. 137-232 contains a German version of William Bligh's story of the famous mutiny, published in London in 1790. Cf. Kant, Gesammelte Schriften, 7: 304; 8: 58 and 15: 544. Translations and editions were reviewed and excepted in German literary periodicals such as the Teutsche Merkur and the Gottingische Gelehrten Anzeigen as they appeared. William Marsden's History of Sumatra of 1783 is also occasionally referred to by Kant; v. Gesammelte Schriften, 5: 243; 6: 304; 8: 174.
20. 12. Louis Antoine Bougainville's Voyage autour du monde. . . en 1766, 1767, 1768 et 1769 appeared in Paris in 1771 and was translated into English in 1772. G. Forster published an account of his father's tour with J. Cook first in English in 1775, then as Johann Rheinhold Forsters Reise um die Welt waehrend den Jahren 1772 bis 1775 (Berlin: 1775-1780). Excerpts appeared in the Gottingisches Magazin der Wissenschaften und Literatur from 1780-1785. Cf. Kant, Gesammelte Schriften, 9: 186, 267; 10: 251-254, 513; 11: 220-235. Cook's Journals covering the years 1768 to his death in 1779 were published in numerous versions, beginning with J. Hawkesworth, An Account of the Voyages Undertaken for Making Discoveries in the South Seas, London 1773, which covered Cook's first voyage; the fourth edition of his collected voyages would appear by 1784. The fifth volume of the Berlin Magazin von merkwuerdigen neuen Reisenbeschreibungen, pp. 137-232 contains a German version of William Bligh's story of the famous mutiny, published in London in 1790. Cf. Kant, Gesammelte Schriften, 7: 304; 8: 58 and 15: 544. Translations and editions were reviewed and excepted in German literary periodicals such as the Teutsche Merkur and the Gottingische Gelehrten Anzeigen as they appeared. William Marsden's History of Sumatra of 1783 is also occasionally referred to by Kant; v. Gesammelte Schriften, 5: 243; 6: 304; 8: 174.
21. 12. Louis Antoine Bougainville's Voyage autour du monde. . . en 1766, 1767, 1768 et 1769 appeared in Paris in 1771 and was translated into English in 1772. G. Forster published an account of his father's tour with J. Cook first in English in 1775, then as Johann Rheinhold Forsters Reise um die Welt waehrend den Jahren 1772 bis 1775 (Berlin: 1775-1780). Excerpts appeared in the Gottingisches Magazin der Wissenschaften und Literatur from 1780-1785. Cf. Kant, Gesammelte Schriften, 9: 186, 267; 10: 251-254, 513; 11: 220-235. Cook's Journals covering the years 1768 to his death in 1779 were published in numerous versions, beginning with J. Hawkesworth, An Account of the Voyages Undertaken for Making Discoveries in the South Seas, London 1773, which covered Cook's first voyage; the fourth edition of his collected voyages would appear by 1784. The fifth volume of the Berlin Magazin von merkwuerdigen neuen Reisenbeschreibungen, pp. 137-232 contains a German version of William Bligh's story of the famous mutiny, published in London in 1790. Cf. Kant, Gesammelte Schriften, 7: 304; 8: 58 and 15: 544. Translations and editions were reviewed and excepted in German literary periodicals such as the Teutsche Merkur and the Gottingische Gelehrten Anzeigen as they appeared. William Marsden's History of Sumatra of 1783 is also occasionally referred to by Kant; v. Gesammelte Schriften, 5: 243; 6: 304; 8: 174.
22. 12. Louis Antoine Bougainville's Voyage autour du monde. . . en 1766, 1767, 1768 et 1769 appeared in Paris in 1771 and was translated into English in 1772. G. Forster published an account of his father's tour with J. Cook first in English in 1775, then as Johann Rheinhold Forsters Reise um die Welt waehrend den Jahren 1772 bis 1775 (Berlin: 1775-1780). Excerpts appeared in the Gottingisches Magazin der Wissenschaften und Literatur from 1780-1785. Cf. Kant, Gesammelte Schriften, 9: 186, 267; 10: 251-254, 513; 11: 220-235. Cook's Journals covering the years 1768 to his death in 1779 were published in numerous versions, beginning with J. Hawkesworth, An Account of the Voyages Undertaken for Making Discoveries in the South Seas, London 1773, which covered Cook's first voyage; the fourth edition of his collected voyages would appear by 1784. The fifth volume of the Berlin Magazin von merkwuerdigen neuen Reisenbeschreibungen, pp. 137-232 contains a German version of William Bligh's story of the famous mutiny, published in London in 1790. Cf. Kant, Gesammelte Schriften, 7: 304; 8: 58 and 15: 544. Translations and editions were reviewed and excepted in German literary periodicals such as the Teutsche Merkur and the Gottingische Gelehrten Anzeigen as they appeared. William Marsden's History of Sumatra of 1783 is also occasionally referred to by Kant; v. Gesammelte Schriften, 5: 243; 6: 304; 8: 174.
23. 12. Louis Antoine Bougainville's Voyage autour du monde. . . en 1766, 1767, 1768 et 1769 appeared in Paris in 1771 and was translated into English in 1772. G. Forster published an account of his father's tour with J. Cook first in English in 1775, then as Johann Rheinhold Forsters Reise um die Welt waehrend den Jahren 1772 bis 1775 (Berlin: 1775-1780). Excerpts appeared in the Gottingisches Magazin der Wissenschaften und Literatur from 1780-1785. Cf. Kant, Gesammelte Schriften, 9: 186, 267; 10: 251-254, 513; 11: 220-235. Cook's Journals covering the years 1768 to his death in 1779 were published in numerous versions, beginning with J. Hawkesworth, An Account of the Voyages Undertaken for Making Discoveries in the South Seas, London 1773, which covered Cook's first voyage; the fourth edition of his collected voyages would appear by 1784. The fifth volume of the Berlin Magazin von merkwuerdigen neuen Reisenbeschreibungen, pp. 137-232 contains a German version of William Bligh's story of the famous mutiny, published in London in 1790. Cf. Kant, Gesammelte Schriften, 7: 304; 8: 58 and 15: 544. Translations and editions were reviewed and excepted in German literary periodicals such as the Teutsche Merkur and the Gottingische Gelehrten Anzeigen as they appeared. William Marsden's History of Sumatra of 1783 is also occasionally referred to by Kant; v. Gesammelte Schriften, 5: 243; 6: 304; 8: 174.
24. 12. Louis Antoine Bougainville's Voyage autour du monde. . . en 1766, 1767, 1768 et 1769 appeared in Paris in 1771 and was translated into English in 1772. G. Forster published an account of his father's tour with J. Cook first in English in 1775, then as Johann Rheinhold Forsters Reise um die Welt waehrend den Jahren 1772 bis 1775 (Berlin: 1775-1780). Excerpts appeared in the Gottingisches Magazin der Wissenschaften und Literatur from 1780-1785. Cf. Kant, Gesammelte Schriften, 9: 186, 267; 10: 251-254, 513; 11: 220-235. Cook's Journals covering the years 1768 to his death in 1779 were published in numerous versions, beginning with J. Hawkesworth, An Account of the Voyages Undertaken for Making Discoveries in the South Seas, London 1773, which covered Cook's first voyage; the fourth edition of his collected voyages would appear by 1784. The fifth volume of the Berlin Magazin von merkwuerdigen neuen Reisenbeschreibungen, pp. 137-232 contains a German version of William Bligh's story of the famous mutiny, published in London in 1790. Cf. Kant, Gesammelte Schriften, 7: 304; 8: 58 and 15: 544. Translations and editions were reviewed and excepted in German literary periodicals such as the Teutsche Merkur and the Gottingische Gelehrten Anzeigen as they appeared. William Marsden's History of Sumatra of 1783 is also occasionally referred to by Kant; v. Gesammelte Schriften, 5: 243; 6: 304; 8: 174.
25. 12. Louis Antoine Bougainville's Voyage autour du monde. . . en 1766, 1767, 1768 et 1769 appeared in Paris in 1771 and was translated into English in 1772. G. Forster published an account of his father's tour with J. Cook first in English in 1775, then as Johann Rheinhold Forsters Reise um die Welt waehrend den Jahren 1772 bis 1775 (Berlin: 1775-1780). Excerpts appeared in the Gottingisches Magazin der Wissenschaften und Literatur from 1780-1785. Cf. Kant, Gesammelte Schriften, 9: 186, 267; 10: 251-254, 513; 11: 220-235. Cook's Journals covering the years 1768 to his death in 1779 were published in numerous versions, beginning with J. Hawkesworth, An Account of the Voyages Undertaken for Making Discoveries in the South Seas, London 1773, which covered Cook's first voyage; the fourth edition of his collected voyages would appear by 1784. The fifth volume of the Berlin Magazin von merkwuerdigen neuen Reisenbeschreibungen, pp. 137-232 contains a German version of William Bligh's story of the famous mutiny, published in London in 1790. Cf. Kant, Gesammelte Schriften, 7: 304; 8: 58 and 15: 544. Translations and editions were reviewed and excepted in German literary periodicals such as the Teutsche Merkur and the Gottingische Gelehrten Anzeigen as they appeared. William Marsden's History of Sumatra of 1783 is also occasionally referred to by Kant; v. Gesammelte Schriften, 5: 243; 6: 304; 8: 174.
26. 12. Louis Antoine Bougainville's Voyage autour du monde. . . en 1766, 1767, 1768 et 1769 appeared in Paris in 1771 and was translated into English in 1772. G. Forster published an account of his father's tour with J. Cook first in English in 1775, then as Johann Rheinhold Forsters Reise um die Welt waehrend den Jahren 1772 bis 1775 (Berlin: 1775-1780). Excerpts appeared in the Gottingisches Magazin der Wissenschaften und Literatur from 1780-1785. Cf. Kant, Gesammelte Schriften, 9: 186, 267; 10: 251-254, 513; 11: 220-235. Cook's Journals covering the years 1768 to his death in 1779 were published in numerous versions, beginning with J. Hawkesworth, An Account of the Voyages Undertaken for Making Discoveries in the South Seas, London 1773, which covered Cook's first voyage; the fourth edition of his collected voyages would appear by 1784. The fifth volume of the Berlin Magazin von merkwuerdigen neuen Reisenbeschreibungen, pp. 137-232 contains a German version of William Bligh's story of the famous mutiny, published in London in 1790. Cf. Kant, Gesammelte Schriften, 7: 304; 8: 58 and 15: 544. Translations and editions were reviewed and excepted in German literary periodicals such as the Teutsche Merkur and the Gottingische Gelehrten Anzeigen as they appeared. William Marsden's History of Sumatra of 1783 is also occasionally referred to by Kant; v. Gesammelte Schriften, 5: 243; 6: 304; 8: 174.
27. 12. Louis Antoine Bougainville's Voyage autour du monde. . . en 1766, 1767, 1768 et 1769 appeared in Paris in 1771 and was translated into English in 1772. G. Forster published an account of his father's tour with J. Cook first in English in 1775, then as Johann Rheinhold Forsters Reise um die Welt waehrend den Jahren 1772 bis 1775 (Berlin: 1775-1780). Excerpts appeared in the Gottingisches Magazin der Wissenschaften und Literatur from 1780-1785. Cf. Kant, Gesammelte Schriften, 9: 186, 267; 10: 251-254, 513; 11: 220-235. Cook's Journals covering the years 1768 to his death in 1779 were published in numerous versions, beginning with J. Hawkesworth, An Account of the Voyages Undertaken for Making Discoveries in the South Seas, London 1773, which covered Cook's first voyage; the fourth edition of his collected voyages would appear by 1784. The fifth volume of the Berlin Magazin von merkwuerdigen neuen Reisenbeschreibungen, pp. 137-232 contains a German version of William Bligh's story of the famous mutiny, published in London in 1790. Cf. Kant, Gesammelte Schriften, 7: 304; 8: 58 and 15: 544. Translations and editions were reviewed and excepted in German literary periodicals such as the Teutsche Merkur and the Gottingische Gelehrten Anzeigen as they appeared. William Marsden's History of Sumatra of 1783 is also occasionally referred to by Kant; v. Gesammelte Schriften, 5: 243; 6: 304; 8: 174.
28. 12. Louis Antoine Bougainville's Voyage autour du monde. . . en 1766, 1767, 1768 et 1769 appeared in Paris in 1771 and was translated into English in 1772. G. Forster published an account of his father's tour with J. Cook first in English in 1775, then as Johann Rheinhold Forsters Reise um die Welt waehrend den Jahren 1772 bis 1775 (Berlin: 1775-1780). Excerpts appeared in the Gottingisches Magazin der Wissenschaften und Literatur from 1780-1785. Cf. Kant, Gesammelte Schriften, 9: 186, 267; 10: 251-254, 513; 11: 220-235. Cook's Journals covering the years 1768 to his death in 1779 were published in numerous versions, beginning with J. Hawkesworth, An Account of the Voyages Undertaken for Making Discoveries in the South Seas, London 1773, which covered Cook's first voyage; the fourth edition of his collected voyages would appear by 1784. The fifth volume of the Berlin Magazin von merkwuerdigen neuen Reisenbeschreibungen, pp. 137-232 contains a German version of William Bligh's story of the famous mutiny, published in London in 1790. Cf. Kant, Gesammelte Schriften, 7: 304; 8: 58 and 15: 544. Translations and editions were reviewed and excepted in German literary periodicals such as the Teutsche Merkur and the Gottingische Gelehrten Anzeigen as they appeared. William Marsden's History of Sumatra of 1783 is also occasionally referred to by Kant; v. Gesammelte Schriften, 5: 243; 6: 304; 8: 174.
29. 13. There is a large body of scholarship on European representations of the South Seas, going back to H. Jacquier, 'Le Mirage et l'exotisme tahitiens dans la literature', Bulletin de la societé des etudes oceaniénnes, VII (1944-1945), 3-7, 50-76, 91-114; see also H. Baudet, 'Paradise on Earth: Some Thoughts on European Images of Non-European Man', E. Wentholt (Tr.), (New Haven: 1965); H. White, Tropics of Discourse: Essays in Cultural Criticism (Baltimore: 1978); and R.-R. Wuthenow, Die erfahrene Welt (Frankfurt: 1980). In moral philosophy the Tahitian mirage has been influentially evoked by Bernard Williams's retelling of the Gauguin story in 'Moral Luck' in Moral Luck (Cambridge: 1981), pp. 20-39.
30. 13. There is a large body of scholarship on European representations of the South Seas, going back to H. Jacquier, 'Le Mirage et l'exotisme tahitiens dans la literature', Bulletin de la societé des etudes oceaniénnes, VII (1944-1945), 3-7, 50-76, 91-114; see also H. Baudet, 'Paradise on Earth: Some Thoughts on European Images of Non-European Man', E. Wentholt (Tr.), (New Haven: 1965); H. White, Tropics of Discourse: Essays in Cultural Criticism (Baltimore: 1978); and R.-R. Wuthenow, Die erfahrene Welt (Frankfurt: 1980). In moral philosophy the Tahitian mirage has been influentially evoked by Bernard Williams's retelling of the Gauguin story in 'Moral Luck' in Moral Luck (Cambridge: 1981), pp. 20-39.
31. 13. There is a large body of scholarship on European representations of the South Seas, going back to H. Jacquier, 'Le Mirage et l'exotisme tahitiens dans la literature', Bulletin de la societé des etudes oceaniénnes, VII (1944-1945), 3-7, 50-76, 91-114; see also H. Baudet, 'Paradise on Earth: Some Thoughts on European Images of Non-European Man', E. Wentholt (Tr.), (New Haven: 1965); H. White, Tropics of Discourse: Essays in Cultural Criticism (Baltimore: 1978); and R.-R. Wuthenow, Die erfahrene Welt (Frankfurt: 1980). In moral philosophy the Tahitian mirage has been influentially evoked by Bernard Williams's retelling of the Gauguin story in 'Moral Luck' in Moral Luck (Cambridge: 1981), pp. 20-39.
32. 13. There is a large body of scholarship on European representations of the South Seas, going back to H. Jacquier, 'Le Mirage et l'exotisme tahitiens dans la literature', Bulletin de la societé des etudes oceaniénnes, VII (1944-1945), 3-7, 50-76, 91-114; see also H. Baudet, 'Paradise on Earth: Some Thoughts on European Images of Non-European Man', E. Wentholt (Tr.), (New Haven: 1965); H. White, Tropics of Discourse: Essays in Cultural Criticism (Baltimore: 1978); and R.-R. Wuthenow, Die erfahrene Welt (Frankfurt: 1980). In moral philosophy the Tahitian mirage has been influentially evoked by Bernard Williams's retelling of the Gauguin story in 'Moral Luck' in Moral Luck (Cambridge: 1981), pp. 20-39.
33. 13. There is a large body of scholarship on European representations of the South Seas, going back to H. Jacquier, 'Le Mirage et l'exotisme tahitiens dans la literature', Bulletin de la societé des etudes oceaniénnes, VII (1944-1945), 3-7, 50-76, 91-114; see also H. Baudet, 'Paradise on Earth: Some Thoughts on European Images of Non-European Man', E. Wentholt (Tr.), (New Haven: 1965); H. White, Tropics of Discourse: Essays in Cultural Criticism (Baltimore: 1978); and R.-R. Wuthenow, Die erfahrene Welt (Frankfurt: 1980). In moral philosophy the Tahitian mirage has been influentially evoked by Bernard Williams's retelling of the Gauguin story in 'Moral Luck' in Moral Luck (Cambridge: 1981), pp. 20-39.
34. 14. S. Parkinson, Cook's draftsman, has obviously read his Rousseau. 'The Tahitians', he says, 'must be very honest among themselves, as every house is without any fastening. Locks, bolts, bars, are peculiar to civilized countries, where their moral theory is the best and their moral practices too generally of the worst; which might induce a celebrated writer to conclude, though erroneously, that mankind, upon the whole, are necessarily rendered worse, and less happy, by civilization, and the cultivation of the arts and sciences. Nature's wants, it is true, are but few, and the uncivilized part of mankind, in general, seem contented if they can acquire those few. . . '. S. Parkinson, Journal of a Voyage to the South Seas in His Majesty's Ship, The Endeavour, London, 1773, p. 93.
35. 15. Quoted in Wuthenow, Die erfahrene Welt, p. 255.
36. 16. P. Commerson, repr. in B. G. Corney, The Quest and Occupation of Tahiti (3 vols., London: 1913-1919), 2: 461-462.
37. 17. 'They did not seem to have any form of government among them, nor did there appear to be any kind of subordination. These people appeared upon the whole to be the out-casts of human nature, whose whole lives were passed in wandering in a forlorn manner over dreary wastes; their only food was shell-fish, destitute of every convenience arising from the rudest art, or even an implement to dress their food. Such were these people, who nevertheless appeared content; so little does refinement or luxury produce happiness. . .'. J. Pinkerton, A General Collection of the Best and Most Interesting Voyages and Travels in all Parts of the World. . . Digested on a new Plan (17 vols., London: 1808-1814), 11: 501.
38. 18. G. Forster, A Voyage around the World in his Britannic Majesty's ship, Resolution (2 vols., London: 1777), II: 253-254. See, on Forster's ambivalence, H. West, 'The Limits of Enlightenment Anthropology: Georg Forster and the Tahitians', History of European Ideas, 10 (1989), pp. 147-159.
39. 18. G. Forster, A Voyage around the World in his Britannic Majesty's ship, Resolution (2 vols., London: 1777), II: 253-254. See, on Forster's ambivalence, H. West, 'The Limits of Enlightenment Anthropology: Georg Forster and the Tahitians', History of European Ideas, 10 (1989), pp. 147-159.
40. 19. Rousseau, 'Discours sur l'origine de l'inégalité', in B. Gagnebin and M. Raymond (Eds.), Oeuvres completes (4 vols., Paris: 1959-1969), 3: 139.
41. 20. Ibid., 171.
42. 21. Ibid.
43. 22. Kant, Idee zu einer allgemeinen Geschichte in weltbuergerlicher Abischt, Gesammelte Schriften, 8: 19.
44. 23. Kant, Foundations, Ellington (Tr.), p. 8; Gesammelte Schriften, 4: 395.
45. 23. Kant, Foundations, Ellington (Tr.), p. 8; Gesammelte Schriften, 4: 395.
46. 24. Ibid.
47. 25. Kant, Muthmasslicher Anfang der Menschengeschichte, Gesammelte Schriften, 8: 122.
48. 26. Ibid.
49. 27. 'Every living being enjoys its existence; it does not inquire into or brood over, the reasons of its existence. Its purpose is intrinsic to itself. No savage commits suicide, no animal destroys itself. Herder, Ideas on the Philosophy of History of Mankind, trans. in F. M. Barnard (Ed.), J. G. Herder on Social and Political Culture (Cambridge: 1969), p. 308; Saemtliche Werke, in B. Suphan (Ed.), (Berlin: 1877-1913), 13: 337.
50. 27. 'Every living being enjoys its existence; it does not inquire into or brood over, the reasons of its existence. Its purpose is intrinsic to itself. No savage commits suicide, no animal destroys itself. Herder, Ideas on the Philosophy of History of Mankind, trans. in F. M. Barnard (Ed.), J. G. Herder on Social and Political Culture (Cambridge: 1969), p. 308; Saemtliche Werke, in B. Suphan (Ed.), (Berlin: 1877-1913), 13: 337.
51. 28. Kant, Foundations, Ellington (Tr.), p. 31, Gesammelte Schriften, 4: 422.
52. 28. Kant, Foundations, Ellington (Tr.), p. 31, Gesammelte Schriften, 4: 422.
53. 29. 'And so, it would appear, there is an ever growing progress. Soon there will be European colonies everywhere! Savages all over the world will become ripe for conversion as they grow fonder of our brandy and our luxuries; they will soon approach our culture and become, so help me God, good, strong and happy men, just like us'. Herder, Yet Another Philosophy of History for the Enlightenment of Mankind (1774), Barnard (Tr.), p. 206; Saemtliche Werke, V: 546.
54. 29. 'And so, it would appear, there is an ever growing progress. Soon there will be European colonies everywhere! Savages all over the world will become ripe for conversion as they grow fonder of our brandy and our luxuries; they will soon approach our culture and become, so help me God, good, strong and happy men, just like us'. Herder, Yet Another Philosophy of History for the Enlightenment of Mankind (1774), Barnard (Tr.), p. 206; Saemtliche Werke, V: 546.
55. 30. Herder, Ideas, Barnard (Tr.), p. 308; Saemtliche Werke, 13: 337.
56. 30. Herder, Ideas, Barnard (Tr.), p. 308; Saemtliche Werke, 13: 337.
57. 31. Herder, Ideen, 13: 342.
58. 32. Ibid., 336.
59. 33. Kant, 'Review of Herder's Ideas', in H. B. Nisbet (Tr.), H. Reiss (Ed.), Kant: Political Writings, 2nd edn. (Cambridge: 1991), pp. 219-220; Gesammelte Schriften, 8: 64.
60. 33. Kant, 'Review of Herder's Ideas', in H. B. Nisbet (Tr.), H. Reiss (Ed.), Kant: Political Writings, 2nd edn. (Cambridge: 1991), pp. 219-220; Gesammelte Schriften, 8: 64.
61. 34. Kant, Idee zu einer allgemeinen Geschichte der Menschheit, Gesammelte Schriften, 8: 21.
62. 35. Rousseau, Du Contrat Social, in Oeuvres, 3: 360-361.
63. 36. Ibid., 3: 364.
64. 37. Ibid., 3: 365.
65. 38. The Idee zu einer allgemeinen Geschichte says that 'Man is an animal that, when it lives amongst others of its species, needs a master. . . . For he typically misuses his freedom against others of his kind and, if, at the same time, as a reasonable being, he desires a law which sets limits to the freedom of others, his animalistic tendencies lead him to exclude himself wherever he dares. Therefore he needs a master who will break his self-will and force him to obey a universally valid will, whereby everyone can be free'. Gesammelte Schriften, 8: 23. Herder took violent exception to this passage.
66. 39. 'Discipline ensures that man is not turned aside by his animalistic drives from his destiny, humanity. . . . Discipline, or upbringing, transforms the animality in man'. Kant, Paedagogik, Gesammelte Schriften, 9: 442, 449.
67. 40. Kant, Religion within the Limits of Reason Alone, T. M. Greene and H. H. Hudson (Trs.), (New York: 1960), p. 28.
68. 41. Kant, 'Ueber den Gebrauch teleologischer Principien in der Philosophie', Gesammelte Schriften, 8: 159-184. Kant's criticisms are addressed to Forster's articles in the Teutsche Merkur for October and November 1786.
69. 42. Kant, Perpetual Peace, in Nisbet (Tr.), Reiss (Ed.), Political Writings, p. 102, Gesammelte Schriften, 8: 354. Compare the unreconstructed Rousseau: 'When I see animals born free and despairing of their captivity breaking their heads against the bars of their cages; when I see multitudes of naked savages scornful of European pleasures brave hunger, fire, the sword and death, to conserve to preserve nothing more than their freedom, I feel that it is not for slaves to reason about liberty'. Discours sur l'origine de l'inégalite, Oeuvres, 3: 182.
70. 42. Kant, Perpetual Peace, in Nisbet (Tr.), Reiss (Ed.), Political Writings, p. 102, Gesammelte Schriften, 8: 354. Compare the unreconstructed Rousseau: 'When I see animals born free and despairing of their captivity breaking their heads against the bars of their cages; when I see multitudes of naked savages scornful of European pleasures brave hunger, fire, the sword and death, to conserve to preserve nothing more than their freedom, I feel that it is not for slaves to reason about liberty'. Discours sur l'origine de l'inégalite, Oeuvres, 3: 182.
71. 42. Kant, Perpetual Peace, in Nisbet (Tr.), Reiss (Ed.), Political Writings, p. 102, Gesammelte Schriften, 8: 354. Compare the unreconstructed Rousseau: 'When I see animals born free and despairing of their captivity breaking their heads against the bars of their cages; when I see multitudes of naked savages scornful of European pleasures brave hunger, fire, the sword and death, to conserve to preserve nothing more than their freedom, I feel that it is not for slaves to reason about liberty'. Discours sur l'origine de l'inégalite, Oeuvres, 3: 182.
72. 43. Kant, Critique of Pure Reason, N. K. Smith (Tr.), (New York: Macmillan, 1965), A 50/B74; A 68/B93; A 97.
73. 43. Kant, Critique of Pure Reason, N. K. Smith (Tr.), (New York: Macmillan, 1965), A 50/B74; A 68/B93; A 97.
74. 43. Kant, Critique of Pure Reason, N. K. Smith (Tr.), (New York: Macmillan, 1965), A 50/B74; A 68/B93; A 97.
75. 43. Kant, Critique of Pure Reason, N. K. Smith (Tr.), (New York: Macmillan, 1965), A 50/B74; A 68/B93; A 97.
76. 44. Ibid., B 430.
77. 45. Kant, Foundations, Ellington (Tr.), p. 57; Gesammelte Schriften, 4: 457.
78. 45. Kant, Foundations, Ellington (Tr.), p. 57; Gesammelte Schriften, 4: 457.
79. 46. I. Berlin, 'Kant as an Unfamiliar Source of Nationalism', in H. Hardy (Ed.), The Sense of Reality: Studies in Ideas and their History (London: 1997), pp. 232-248.
80. 47. See, for example, R. Scott, Cognition and Eros (Boston: 1988), pp. 114, 155, and B. Parekh, 'Moral Philosophy and its Anti-Pluralist Bias', in D. Arehand (Ed.), Philosophy and Pluralism (Cambridge: 1996), pp. 117-134.
81. 47. See, for example, R. Scott, Cognition and Eros (Boston: 1988), pp. 114, 155, and B. Parekh, 'Moral Philosophy and its Anti-Pluralist Bias', in D. Arehand (Ed.), Philosophy and Pluralism (Cambridge: 1996), pp. 117-134.
82. 48. Quoted by Wuthenow, Die erfahrene Welt, p. 256.
83. 49. Diderot, Supplement au Voyage de Bougainville (1796) repr. Ann Arbor MI: University Microfilms, 1969. p. 119ff.
84. 50. G. T. Raynal, Histoire philosophique et politique des etablissments et du commerce des Européens dans les deux Indes (5th edn, Maestrich: 1777) (orig. publ. 1770).
85. 51. See Y. Benot, Diderot: de l'atheisme à l'anticolonialisme (Paris: 1970), pp. 168.
86. 52. Raynal, Histoire, II: 290ff; IV, 237ff.
87. 52. Raynal, Histoire, II: 290ff; IV, 237ff.
88. 53. Kant, Perpetual Peace, in Nisbet (Tr.), Reiss (Ed.), Political Writings, pp. 105-106; Gesammelte Schriften, 8: 357-358.
89. 53. Kant, Perpetual Peace, in Nisbet (Tr.), Reiss (Ed.), Political Writings, pp. 105-106; Gesammelte Schriften, 8: 357-358.
90. 54. Ibid., 108, 110, Gesammelte Schriften, 8: 360, 363.
91. 54. Ibid., 108, 110, Gesammelte Schriften, 8: 360, 363.
92. 55. Ibid., 8: 359.
93. 56. Ibid., 8: 358.
94. 57. Ibid., 8: 358-359.
95. 58. Ibid., 8: 359.
96. 59. Kant, Metaphysical Elements of Justice (1797), J. Ladd (Tr.) (Indianapolis: 1965), p. 126. Gesammelte Schriften, 6: 353.
97. 59. Kant, Metaphysical Elements of Justice (1797), J. Ladd (Tr.) (Indianapolis: 1965), p. 126. Gesammelte Schriften, 6: 353.
98. 60. Ibid.
99. 61. Kant, 'Idee zu einer allgemeinen Geschichte', Gesammelte Schriften, 8: 21.
100. 62. Kant, Anthropology from a Pragmatic Point of View, M. J. Gregor (Tr.) (The Hague: 1974), pp. 30-31.
101. 63. Kant, Lectures on Ethics, Infield (Tr.), p. 46.
102. 64. Kant, 'Idee zu einer allgemeinen Geschichte', Gesammelte Schriften, 8: 21.
103. 65. For reasons which are unclear, H. Reiss downplays Kant's cosmopolitan hopes in his widely-read commentary on the English translation of Kant's political writings, concentrating mainly on Kant's arguments against the possibility of a world government; see his Postscript to Kant's Political Writings, pp. 270-271.
104. 66. Y. Yovel, Kant and the Philosophy of History (Princeton: 1980), p. 291.
105. 67. See note 1.
106. 68. Kant, Opus Postumum, in E. Foerster (Tr.), E. Foerster and M. Rosen (Ed.) (Cambridge: 1995), p. 221; Gesammelte Schriften, 21: 13-14.
107. 68. Kant, Opus Postumum, in E. Foerster (Tr.), E. Foerster and M. Rosen (Ed.) (Cambridge: 1995), p. 221; Gesammelte Schriften, 21: 13-14.
108. 69. Kant, 'Idea for a Universal History', in Nisbet (Tr.), Reiss (Ed.), Political Writings, p. 53; Gesammelte Schriften, 8: 30.
109. 69. Kant, 'Idea for a Universal History', in Nisbet (Tr.), Reiss (Ed.), Political Writings, p. 53; Gesammelte Schriften, 8: 30.
110. 70. Kant, Traeume eines Geistersehers, Gesammelte Schriften, 2: 336.
111. 71. Kant, Opus Postumum, Foerster and Rosen (Tr.), p. 245; Gesammelte Schriften, 21: 61.
112. 71. Kant, Opus Postumum, Foerster and Rosen (Tr.), p. 245; Gesammelte Schriften, 21: 61.
113. 72. Kant, The Contest of Faculties, in Nisbet (Tr.), Reiss (Ed.), Political Writings, p. 184.
114. 73. Ibid., 185.
115. 74. G. W. F. Hegel, Philosophy of Right, T. M. Knox (Tr.) (London: 1952), repr. 1967, Sect. 246-249, p. 151-152.