Race, 'culture,' and mestizaje: The statistical construction of the Ecuadorian nation, 1930-1950

Journal of Historical Sociology

Volumn 11, Issue 2, 1998, Pages

  Clark, A Kim ^a  

^a NONE

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0032093267     PISSN: 09521909     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/1467-6443.00060     Document Type: Review

References (93)

1. This article is based on research funded by the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada and the Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research, to whom I am grateful. My thanks also to the staff of the Biblioteca Aurelio Espinosa Polit (BAEP) in Quito, where many of the sources used here were reviewed. Finally, I benefited from helpful suggestions from Marc Becker, Erin O'Connor, and four reviewers for this journal.
2. Joan W. Scott, "A Statistical Representation of Work: La Statistique de l'industrie a Paris, 1847-8," in Gender and the Politics of History (New York: Columbia University Press, 1988), 113-38.
3. William Roseberry, Anthropologies and Histories: Essays in Culture, History and Political Economy (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1989), 28.
4. This discussion is informed by Ian Hacking, The Taming of Chance (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), and "How Should We Do the History of Statistics?" Ideology and Consciousness 8 (1981), 15-26.
5. This discussion is informed by Ian Hacking, The Taming of Chance (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), and "How Should We Do the History of Statistics?" Ideology and Consciousness 8 (1981), 15-26.
6. Talal Asad, "Ethnographic Representation, Statistics, and Modern Power," Social Research 61:1 (1994), 55-88; Bernard S. Cohn, "The Census, Social Structure and Objectification in South Asia," in Cohn, An Anthropologist among the Historians and Other Essays (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987), 224-54; Bernard S. Cohn, Colonialism and its Forms of Knowledge (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996); Bernard S. Cohn and Nicholas B. Dirks, "Beyond the Fringe: The Nation State, Colonialism and the Technologies of Power," Journal of Historical Sociology 1:2 (1988), 224-29; Bruce Curtis, "On the Local Construction of Statistical Knowledge: Making up the 1861 Census of the Canadas," Journal of Historical Sociology 7:4 (1994), 416-34; Michel Foucault, "Governmentality," in G. Burchell, C. Gordon and P. Miller, eds., The Foucault Effect: Studies in Governmentality (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991), 87-104; Erwin P. Grieshaber, "Fluctuaciones en la Definicion del Indio: Comparacion de los Censos de 1900 y 1950," Historia Boliviana 5:1-2 (1985), 45-65; Roger Owen, "The Population Census of 1917 and its Relationship to Egypt's Three 19th Century Statistical Regimes," Journal of Historical Sociology 9:4 (1996), 457-72; Lisandro Perez, "The Political Contexts of Cuban Population Censuses, 1899-1981," Latin American Research Review 19:2 (1984), 143-61; Stuart Woolf, "Statistics and the Modern State," Comparative Studies in Society and History 31:3 (1989), 588-604. See also several of the articles in Martin Bulmer, Kevin Bales and Kathryn Kish Sklar, eds., The Social Survey in Historical Perspective, 1880-1940 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991); and in L. Druger, L.J. Daston and M. Heidelberger, eds., The Probabilistic Revolution, vol. 1 (Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1987).
7. Talal Asad, "Ethnographic Representation, Statistics, and Modern Power," Social Research 61:1 (1994), 55-88; Bernard S. Cohn, "The Census, Social Structure and Objectification in South Asia," in Cohn, An Anthropologist among the Historians and Other Essays (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987), 224-54; Bernard S. Cohn, Colonialism and its Forms of Knowledge (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996); Bernard S. Cohn and Nicholas B. Dirks, "Beyond the Fringe: The Nation State, Colonialism and the Technologies of Power," Journal of Historical Sociology 1:2 (1988), 224-29; Bruce Curtis, "On the Local Construction of Statistical Knowledge: Making up the 1861 Census of the Canadas," Journal of Historical Sociology 7:4 (1994), 416-34; Michel Foucault, "Governmentality," in G. Burchell, C. Gordon and P. Miller, eds., The Foucault Effect: Studies in Governmentality (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991), 87-104; Erwin P. Grieshaber, "Fluctuaciones en la Definicion del Indio: Comparacion de los Censos de 1900 y 1950," Historia Boliviana 5:1-2 (1985), 45-65; Roger Owen, "The Population Census of 1917 and its Relationship to Egypt's Three 19th Century Statistical Regimes," Journal of Historical Sociology 9:4 (1996), 457-72; Lisandro Perez, "The Political Contexts of Cuban Population Censuses, 1899-1981," Latin American Research Review 19:2 (1984), 143-61; Stuart Woolf, "Statistics and the Modern State," Comparative Studies in Society and History 31:3 (1989), 588-604. See also several of the articles in Martin Bulmer, Kevin Bales and Kathryn Kish Sklar, eds., The Social Survey in Historical Perspective, 1880-1940 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991); and in L. Druger, L.J. Daston and M. Heidelberger, eds., The Probabilistic Revolution, vol. 1 (Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1987).
8. Talal Asad, "Ethnographic Representation, Statistics, and Modern Power," Social Research 61:1 (1994), 55-88; Bernard S. Cohn, "The Census, Social Structure and Objectification in South Asia," in Cohn, An Anthropologist among the Historians and Other Essays (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987), 224-54; Bernard S. Cohn, Colonialism and its Forms of Knowledge (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996); Bernard S. Cohn and Nicholas B. Dirks, "Beyond the Fringe: The Nation State, Colonialism and the Technologies of Power," Journal of Historical Sociology 1:2 (1988), 224-29; Bruce Curtis, "On the Local Construction of Statistical Knowledge: Making up the 1861 Census of the Canadas," Journal of Historical Sociology 7:4 (1994), 416-34; Michel Foucault, "Governmentality," in G. Burchell, C. Gordon and P. Miller, eds., The Foucault Effect: Studies in Governmentality (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991), 87-104; Erwin P. Grieshaber, "Fluctuaciones en la Definicion del Indio: Comparacion de los Censos de 1900 y 1950," Historia Boliviana 5:1-2 (1985), 45-65; Roger Owen, "The Population Census of 1917 and its Relationship to Egypt's Three 19th Century Statistical Regimes," Journal of Historical Sociology 9:4 (1996), 457-72; Lisandro Perez, "The Political Contexts of Cuban Population Censuses, 1899-1981," Latin American Research Review 19:2 (1984), 143-61; Stuart Woolf, "Statistics and the Modern State," Comparative Studies in Society and History 31:3 (1989), 588-604. See also several of the articles in Martin Bulmer, Kevin Bales and Kathryn Kish Sklar, eds., The Social Survey in Historical Perspective, 1880-1940 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991); and in L. Druger, L.J. Daston and M. Heidelberger, eds., The Probabilistic Revolution, vol. 1 (Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1987).
9. Talal Asad, "Ethnographic Representation, Statistics, and Modern Power," Social Research 61:1 (1994), 55-88; Bernard S. Cohn, "The Census, Social Structure and Objectification in South Asia," in Cohn, An Anthropologist among the Historians and Other Essays (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987), 224-54; Bernard S. Cohn, Colonialism and its Forms of Knowledge (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996); Bernard S. Cohn and Nicholas B. Dirks, "Beyond the Fringe: The Nation State, Colonialism and the Technologies of Power," Journal of Historical Sociology 1:2 (1988), 224-29; Bruce Curtis, "On the Local Construction of Statistical Knowledge: Making up the 1861 Census of the Canadas," Journal of Historical Sociology 7:4 (1994), 416-34; Michel Foucault, "Governmentality," in G. Burchell, C. Gordon and P. Miller, eds., The Foucault Effect: Studies in Governmentality (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991), 87-104; Erwin P. Grieshaber, "Fluctuaciones en la Definicion del Indio: Comparacion de los Censos de 1900 y 1950," Historia Boliviana 5:1-2 (1985), 45-65; Roger Owen, "The Population Census of 1917 and its Relationship to Egypt's Three 19th Century Statistical Regimes," Journal of Historical Sociology 9:4 (1996), 457-72; Lisandro Perez, "The Political Contexts of Cuban Population Censuses, 1899-1981," Latin American Research Review 19:2 (1984), 143-61; Stuart Woolf, "Statistics and the Modern State," Comparative Studies in Society and History 31:3 (1989), 588-604. See also several of the articles in Martin Bulmer, Kevin Bales and Kathryn Kish Sklar, eds., The Social Survey in Historical Perspective, 1880-1940 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991); and in L. Druger, L.J. Daston and M. Heidelberger, eds., The Probabilistic Revolution, vol. 1 (Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1987).
10. Talal Asad, "Ethnographic Representation, Statistics, and Modern Power," Social Research 61:1 (1994), 55-88; Bernard S. Cohn, "The Census, Social Structure and Objectification in South Asia," in Cohn, An Anthropologist among the Historians and Other Essays (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987), 224-54; Bernard S. Cohn, Colonialism and its Forms of Knowledge (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996); Bernard S. Cohn and Nicholas B. Dirks, "Beyond the Fringe: The Nation State, Colonialism and the Technologies of Power," Journal of Historical Sociology 1:2 (1988), 224-29; Bruce Curtis, "On the Local Construction of Statistical Knowledge: Making up the 1861 Census of the Canadas," Journal of Historical Sociology 7:4 (1994), 416-34; Michel Foucault, "Governmentality," in G. Burchell, C. Gordon and P. Miller, eds., The Foucault Effect: Studies in Governmentality (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991), 87-104; Erwin P. Grieshaber, "Fluctuaciones en la Definicion del Indio: Comparacion de los Censos de 1900 y 1950," Historia Boliviana 5:1-2 (1985), 45-65; Roger Owen, "The Population Census of 1917 and its Relationship to Egypt's Three 19th Century Statistical Regimes," Journal of Historical Sociology 9:4 (1996), 457-72; Lisandro Perez, "The Political Contexts of Cuban Population Censuses, 1899-1981," Latin American Research Review 19:2 (1984), 143-61; Stuart Woolf, "Statistics and the Modern State," Comparative Studies in Society and History 31:3 (1989), 588-604. See also several of the articles in Martin Bulmer, Kevin Bales and Kathryn Kish Sklar, eds., The Social Survey in Historical Perspective, 1880-1940 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991); and in L. Druger, L.J. Daston and M. Heidelberger, eds., The Probabilistic Revolution, vol. 1 (Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1987).
11. Talal Asad, "Ethnographic Representation, Statistics, and Modern Power," Social Research 61:1 (1994), 55-88; Bernard S. Cohn, "The Census, Social Structure and Objectification in South Asia," in Cohn, An Anthropologist among the Historians and Other Essays (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987), 224-54; Bernard S. Cohn, Colonialism and its Forms of Knowledge (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996); Bernard S. Cohn and Nicholas B. Dirks, "Beyond the Fringe: The Nation State, Colonialism and the Technologies of Power," Journal of Historical Sociology 1:2 (1988), 224-29; Bruce Curtis, "On the Local Construction of Statistical Knowledge: Making up the 1861 Census of the Canadas," Journal of Historical Sociology 7:4 (1994), 416-34; Michel Foucault, "Governmentality," in G. Burchell, C. Gordon and P. Miller, eds., The Foucault Effect: Studies in Governmentality (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991), 87-104; Erwin P. Grieshaber, "Fluctuaciones en la Definicion del Indio: Comparacion de los Censos de 1900 y 1950," Historia Boliviana 5:1-2 (1985), 45-65; Roger Owen, "The Population Census of 1917 and its Relationship to Egypt's Three 19th Century Statistical Regimes," Journal of Historical Sociology 9:4 (1996), 457-72; Lisandro Perez, "The Political Contexts of Cuban Population Censuses, 1899-1981," Latin American Research Review 19:2 (1984), 143-61; Stuart Woolf, "Statistics and the Modern State," Comparative Studies in Society and History 31:3 (1989), 588-604. See also several of the articles in Martin Bulmer, Kevin Bales and Kathryn Kish Sklar, eds., The Social Survey in Historical Perspective, 1880-1940 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991); and in L. Druger, L.J. Daston and M. Heidelberger, eds., The Probabilistic Revolution, vol. 1 (Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1987).
12. Talal Asad, "Ethnographic Representation, Statistics, and Modern Power," Social Research 61:1 (1994), 55-88; Bernard S. Cohn, "The Census, Social Structure and Objectification in South Asia," in Cohn, An Anthropologist among the Historians and Other Essays (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987), 224-54; Bernard S. Cohn, Colonialism and its Forms of Knowledge (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996); Bernard S. Cohn and Nicholas B. Dirks, "Beyond the Fringe: The Nation State, Colonialism and the Technologies of Power," Journal of Historical Sociology 1:2 (1988), 224-29; Bruce Curtis, "On the Local Construction of Statistical Knowledge: Making up the 1861 Census of the Canadas," Journal of Historical Sociology 7:4 (1994), 416-34; Michel Foucault, "Governmentality," in G. Burchell, C. Gordon and P. Miller, eds., The Foucault Effect: Studies in Governmentality (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991), 87-104; Erwin P. Grieshaber, "Fluctuaciones en la Definicion del Indio: Comparacion de los Censos de 1900 y 1950," Historia Boliviana 5:1-2 (1985), 45-65; Roger Owen, "The Population Census of 1917 and its Relationship to Egypt's Three 19th Century Statistical Regimes," Journal of Historical Sociology 9:4 (1996), 457-72; Lisandro Perez, "The Political Contexts of Cuban Population Censuses, 1899-1981," Latin American Research Review 19:2 (1984), 143-61; Stuart Woolf, "Statistics and the Modern State," Comparative Studies in Society and History 31:3 (1989), 588-604. See also several of the articles in Martin Bulmer, Kevin Bales and Kathryn Kish Sklar, eds., The Social Survey in Historical Perspective, 1880-1940 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991); and in L. Druger, L.J. Daston and M. Heidelberger, eds., The Probabilistic Revolution, vol. 1 (Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1987).
13. Talal Asad, "Ethnographic Representation, Statistics, and Modern Power," Social Research 61:1 (1994), 55-88; Bernard S. Cohn, "The Census, Social Structure and Objectification in South Asia," in Cohn, An Anthropologist among the Historians and Other Essays (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987), 224-54; Bernard S. Cohn, Colonialism and its Forms of Knowledge (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996); Bernard S. Cohn and Nicholas B. Dirks, "Beyond the Fringe: The Nation State, Colonialism and the Technologies of Power," Journal of Historical Sociology 1:2 (1988), 224-29; Bruce Curtis, "On the Local Construction of Statistical Knowledge: Making up the 1861 Census of the Canadas," Journal of Historical Sociology 7:4 (1994), 416-34; Michel Foucault, "Governmentality," in G. Burchell, C. Gordon and P. Miller, eds., The Foucault Effect: Studies in Governmentality (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991), 87-104; Erwin P. Grieshaber, "Fluctuaciones en la Definicion del Indio: Comparacion de los Censos de 1900 y 1950," Historia Boliviana 5:1-2 (1985), 45-65; Roger Owen, "The Population Census of 1917 and its Relationship to Egypt's Three 19th Century Statistical Regimes," Journal of Historical Sociology 9:4 (1996), 457-72; Lisandro Perez, "The Political Contexts of Cuban Population Censuses, 1899-1981," Latin American Research Review 19:2 (1984), 143-61; Stuart Woolf, "Statistics and the Modern State," Comparative Studies in Society and History 31:3 (1989), 588-604. See also several of the articles in Martin Bulmer, Kevin Bales and Kathryn Kish Sklar, eds., The Social Survey in Historical Perspective, 1880-1940 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991); and in L. Druger, L.J. Daston and M. Heidelberger, eds., The Probabilistic Revolution, vol. 1 (Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1987).
14. Talal Asad, "Ethnographic Representation, Statistics, and Modern Power," Social Research 61:1 (1994), 55-88; Bernard S. Cohn, "The Census, Social Structure and Objectification in South Asia," in Cohn, An Anthropologist among the Historians and Other Essays (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987), 224-54; Bernard S. Cohn, Colonialism and its Forms of Knowledge (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996); Bernard S. Cohn and Nicholas B. Dirks, "Beyond the Fringe: The Nation State, Colonialism and the Technologies of Power," Journal of Historical Sociology 1:2 (1988), 224-29; Bruce Curtis, "On the Local Construction of Statistical Knowledge: Making up the 1861 Census of the Canadas," Journal of Historical Sociology 7:4 (1994), 416-34; Michel Foucault, "Governmentality," in G. Burchell, C. Gordon and P. Miller, eds., The Foucault Effect: Studies in Governmentality (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991), 87-104; Erwin P. Grieshaber, "Fluctuaciones en la Definicion del Indio: Comparacion de los Censos de 1900 y 1950," Historia Boliviana 5:1-2 (1985), 45-65; Roger Owen, "The Population Census of 1917 and its Relationship to Egypt's Three 19th Century Statistical Regimes," Journal of Historical Sociology 9:4 (1996), 457-72; Lisandro Perez, "The Political Contexts of Cuban Population Censuses, 1899-1981," Latin American Research Review 19:2 (1984), 143-61; Stuart Woolf, "Statistics and the Modern State," Comparative Studies in Society and History 31:3 (1989), 588-604. See also several of the articles in Martin Bulmer, Kevin Bales and Kathryn Kish Sklar, eds., The Social Survey in Historical Perspective, 1880-1940 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991); and in L. Druger, L.J. Daston and M. Heidelberger, eds., The Probabilistic Revolution, vol. 1 (Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1987).
15. Talal Asad, "Ethnographic Representation, Statistics, and Modern Power," Social Research 61:1 (1994), 55-88; Bernard S. Cohn, "The Census, Social Structure and Objectification in South Asia," in Cohn, An Anthropologist among the Historians and Other Essays (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987), 224-54; Bernard S. Cohn, Colonialism and its Forms of Knowledge (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996); Bernard S. Cohn and Nicholas B. Dirks, "Beyond the Fringe: The Nation State, Colonialism and the Technologies of Power," Journal of Historical Sociology 1:2 (1988), 224-29; Bruce Curtis, "On the Local Construction of Statistical Knowledge: Making up the 1861 Census of the Canadas," Journal of Historical Sociology 7:4 (1994), 416-34; Michel Foucault, "Governmentality," in G. Burchell, C. Gordon and P. Miller, eds., The Foucault Effect: Studies in Governmentality (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991), 87-104; Erwin P. Grieshaber, "Fluctuaciones en la Definicion del Indio: Comparacion de los Censos de 1900 y 1950," Historia Boliviana 5:1-2 (1985), 45-65; Roger Owen, "The Population Census of 1917 and its Relationship to Egypt's Three 19th Century Statistical Regimes," Journal of Historical Sociology 9:4 (1996), 457-72; Lisandro Perez, "The Political Contexts of Cuban Population Censuses, 1899-1981," Latin American Research Review 19:2 (1984), 143-61; Stuart Woolf, "Statistics and the Modern State," Comparative Studies in Society and History 31:3 (1989), 588-604. See also several of the articles in Martin Bulmer, Kevin Bales and Kathryn Kish Sklar, eds., The Social Survey in Historical Perspective, 1880-1940 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991); and in L. Druger, L.J. Daston and M. Heidelberger, eds., The Probabilistic Revolution, vol. 1 (Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1987).
16. Talal Asad, "Ethnographic Representation, Statistics, and Modern Power," Social Research 61:1 (1994), 55-88; Bernard S. Cohn, "The Census, Social Structure and Objectification in South Asia," in Cohn, An Anthropologist among the Historians and Other Essays (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987), 224-54; Bernard S. Cohn, Colonialism and its Forms of Knowledge (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996); Bernard S. Cohn and Nicholas B. Dirks, "Beyond the Fringe: The Nation State, Colonialism and the Technologies of Power," Journal of Historical Sociology 1:2 (1988), 224-29; Bruce Curtis, "On the Local Construction of Statistical Knowledge: Making up the 1861 Census of the Canadas," Journal of Historical Sociology 7:4 (1994), 416-34; Michel Foucault, "Governmentality," in G. Burchell, C. Gordon and P. Miller, eds., The Foucault Effect: Studies in Governmentality (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991), 87-104; Erwin P. Grieshaber, "Fluctuaciones en la Definicion del Indio: Comparacion de los Censos de 1900 y 1950," Historia Boliviana 5:1-2 (1985), 45-65; Roger Owen, "The Population Census of 1917 and its Relationship to Egypt's Three 19th Century Statistical Regimes," Journal of Historical Sociology 9:4 (1996), 457-72; Lisandro Perez, "The Political Contexts of Cuban Population Censuses, 1899-1981," Latin American Research Review 19:2 (1984), 143-61; Stuart Woolf, "Statistics and the Modern State," Comparative Studies in Society and History 31:3 (1989), 588-604. See also several of the articles in Martin Bulmer, Kevin Bales and Kathryn Kish Sklar, eds., The Social Survey in Historical Perspective, 1880-1940 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991); and in L. Druger, L.J. Daston and M. Heidelberger, eds., The Probabilistic Revolution, vol. 1 (Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1987).
17. Talal Asad, "Ethnographic Representation, Statistics, and Modern Power," Social Research 61:1 (1994), 55-88; Bernard S. Cohn, "The Census, Social Structure and Objectification in South Asia," in Cohn, An Anthropologist among the Historians and Other Essays (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987), 224-54; Bernard S. Cohn, Colonialism and its Forms of Knowledge (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996); Bernard S. Cohn and Nicholas B. Dirks, "Beyond the Fringe: The Nation State, Colonialism and the Technologies of Power," Journal of Historical Sociology 1:2 (1988), 224-29; Bruce Curtis, "On the Local Construction of Statistical Knowledge: Making up the 1861 Census of the Canadas," Journal of Historical Sociology 7:4 (1994), 416-34; Michel Foucault, "Governmentality," in G. Burchell, C. Gordon and P. Miller, eds., The Foucault Effect: Studies in Governmentality (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991), 87-104; Erwin P. Grieshaber, "Fluctuaciones en la Definicion del Indio: Comparacion de los Censos de 1900 y 1950," Historia Boliviana 5:1-2 (1985), 45-65; Roger Owen, "The Population Census of 1917 and its Relationship to Egypt's Three 19th Century Statistical Regimes," Journal of Historical Sociology 9:4 (1996), 457-72; Lisandro Perez, "The Political Contexts of Cuban Population Censuses, 1899-1981," Latin American Research Review 19:2 (1984), 143-61; Stuart Woolf, "Statistics and the Modern State," Comparative Studies in Society and History 31:3 (1989), 588-604. See also several of the articles in Martin Bulmer, Kevin Bales and Kathryn Kish Sklar, eds., The Social Survey in Historical Perspective, 1880-1940 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991); and in L. Druger, L.J. Daston and M. Heidelberger, eds., The Probabilistic Revolution, vol. 1 (Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1987).
18. Contribucion al Estudio de las Realidades entre las Clases Obreras y Campesinas (Quito: Imprenta de la Universidad Central, 1934). Cited henceforth as Contribucion.
19. For discussions of the economic and political crises of the 1920s to 1940s: Juan Maiguashca, "Los Sectores Subalternos en los Anos 30 y el Aparecimiento del Velasquismo," in Las Crisis en el Ecuador: Los Treinta y Ochenta (Quito: Corporacion Editor a Nacional, 1991), 79-94; Juan Maiguashca and Liisa North, "Or genes y Significado del Velasquismo: Lucha de Clases y Participacion Pol tica en el Ecuador, 1920-1972," in Rafael Quintero, ed., La Cuestion Regional y el Poder (Quito: Corporacion Editora Nacional, 1991), 89-159; Carlos Marchan Romero, "Crisis Nacional, Aprovechamiento Regional y Discriminacion Social de sus Efectos Economicos (1920-1927)," in Carlos Marchan Romero, ed., Crisis y Cambios en la Econom a Ecuatoriana en los Anos Veinte (Quito: Banco Central, 1987), 221-284; Carlos Marchan Romero, "La Crisis de los Anos Treinta: Diferenciacion Social de sus Efectos Economicos," in Las Crisis en el Ecuador, 31-60.
20. For discussions of the economic and political crises of the 1920s to 1940s: Juan Maiguashca, "Los Sectores Subalternos en los Anos 30 y el Aparecimiento del Velasquismo," in Las Crisis en el Ecuador: Los Treinta y Ochenta (Quito: Corporacion Editor a Nacional, 1991), 79-94; Juan Maiguashca and Liisa North, "Or genes y Significado del Velasquismo: Lucha de Clases y Participacion Pol tica en el Ecuador, 1920-1972," in Rafael Quintero, ed., La Cuestion Regional y el Poder (Quito: Corporacion Editora Nacional, 1991), 89-159; Carlos Marchan Romero, "Crisis Nacional, Aprovechamiento Regional y Discriminacion Social de sus Efectos Economicos (1920-1927)," in Carlos Marchan Romero, ed., Crisis y Cambios en la Econom a Ecuatoriana en los Anos Veinte (Quito: Banco Central, 1987), 221-284; Carlos Marchan Romero, "La Crisis de los Anos Treinta: Diferenciacion Social de sus Efectos Economicos," in Las Crisis en el Ecuador, 31-60.
21. For discussions of the economic and political crises of the 1920s to 1940s: Juan Maiguashca, "Los Sectores Subalternos en los Anos 30 y el Aparecimiento del Velasquismo," in Las Crisis en el Ecuador: Los Treinta y Ochenta (Quito: Corporacion Editor a Nacional, 1991), 79-94; Juan Maiguashca and Liisa North, "Or genes y Significado del Velasquismo: Lucha de Clases y Participacion Pol tica en el Ecuador, 1920-1972," in Rafael Quintero, ed., La Cuestion Regional y el Poder (Quito: Corporacion Editora Nacional, 1991), 89-159; Carlos Marchan Romero, "Crisis Nacional, Aprovechamiento Regional y Discriminacion Social de sus Efectos Economicos (1920-1927)," in Carlos Marchan Romero, ed., Crisis y Cambios en la Econom a Ecuatoriana en los Anos Veinte (Quito: Banco Central, 1987), 221-284; Carlos Marchan Romero, "La Crisis de los Anos Treinta: Diferenciacion Social de sus Efectos Economicos," in Las Crisis en el Ecuador, 31-60.
22. For discussions of the economic and political crises of the 1920s to 1940s: Juan Maiguashca, "Los Sectores Subalternos en los Anos 30 y el Aparecimiento del Velasquismo," in Las Crisis en el Ecuador: Los Treinta y Ochenta (Quito: Corporacion Editor a Nacional, 1991), 79-94; Juan Maiguashca and Liisa North, "Or genes y Significado del Velasquismo: Lucha de Clases y Participacion Pol tica en el Ecuador, 1920-1972," in Rafael Quintero, ed., La Cuestion Regional y el Poder (Quito: Corporacion Editora Nacional, 1991), 89-159; Carlos Marchan Romero, "Crisis Nacional, Aprovechamiento Regional y Discriminacion Social de sus Efectos Economicos (1920-1927)," in Carlos Marchan Romero, ed., Crisis y Cambios en la Econom a Ecuatoriana en los Anos Veinte (Quito: Banco Central, 1987), 221-284; Carlos Marchan Romero, "La Crisis de los Anos Treinta: Diferenciacion Social de sus Efectos Economicos," in Las Crisis en el Ecuador, 31-60.
23. There was a perception among twentieth-century administrators that the Spanish colonial state had known more precisely how many people lived in each region, and their distribution by race, sex, and age; this information had formed the basis for the collection of Indian tribute. However, admiration for the colonial state's knowledge of the population was tempered by the criticism that this information was used only to collect taxes rather than being applied to improve the population's living conditions, as would purportedly be the case under republican governments.
24. Cited in Luis T. Paz y Mino, Se Puede Levantar el Censo? (Quito: Imprenta de Heriberto A. Reinoso Y., 1939), 12.
25. Suarez also wrote Informe Acerca de la Visita de los Estudiantes de Higiene de la Universidad Central a la Poblacion de Saquisil (Quito: Imprenta de la Universidad Central, 1936); Contribucion al Estudio de la Alimentacion y Nutricion del Indio de Otavalo (Quito: Imprenta de la Universidad Central, 1943); and Lecciones de Higiene (Quito: Imprenta de la Universidad Central, 1943). Numerous additional studies by Suarez and his students were published in the journals Anales de la Universidad Central, Archivos de la Facultad de Ciencias Medicas of the Central University, and the Bolet n del Departamento Medico-Social of the Social Welfare Institute.
26. See Suarez, Contribucion al Estudio... del Indio de Otavalo, 7-8.
27. Contribucion, 5.
28. Contribucion, 41.
29. Contribucion, 39.
30. Contribucion, 16-17.
31. The theory of temperaments was based on the work of the psychologist Ernesto Kretschmer. The principal Ecuadorian text dealing with these issues was compiled by Suarez' colleague at the Central University, the psychologist and criminologist Julio Endara (Los Temperamentos [Quito: Imprenta de la Universidad Central, 1930]).
32. Contribucion, 58.
33. See Nancy Leys Stepan, "The Hour of Eugenics": Race, Gender and Nation in Latin America (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1991).
34. Contribucion, 20.
35. Contribucion, 58-9.
36. Contribucion, 79.
37. Contribucion, 81.
38. Contribucion, 59-60.
39. Contribucion, 28 and 82.
40. Contribucion, 87-9.
41. This was particularly true after the 1925 July Revolution (Revolucion Juliana), when middle and professional sectors took on leadership roles in national politics. The physician Isidro Ayora (director of the Maternity Hospital in Quito) was Ecuador's president from 1926 to 1931. Another physician, Carlos Andrade Mar n, who wrote important works on child health and welfare (very much within the framework developed by Suarez), became mayor of Quito in the 1930s and later, Minister of Social Welfare.
42. All calculations of the Ecuadorian population prior to 1950 were based on some previous estimate. For detailed criticisms of the nineteenth-century population figures that provided the basis for twentieth-century calculations, see: Luis T. Paz y Mino, "La Poblacion del Ecuador," Ecuador (Revista del Ministerio de Gobierno) (Quito) 1:3 (1936), no page numbering; Carlos Procaccia, "El Censo Continental de las Americas y el Primer Censo Demografico Nacional," El Trimestre Estad stico del Ecuador (Quito) 1:2 (1945), 7-17.
43. All calculations of the Ecuadorian population prior to 1950 were based on some previous estimate. For detailed criticisms of the nineteenth-century population figures that provided the basis for twentieth-century calculations, see: Luis T. Paz y Mino, "La Poblacion del Ecuador," Ecuador (Revista del Ministerio de Gobierno) (Quito) 1:3 (1936), no page numbering; Carlos Procaccia, "El Censo Continental de las Americas y el Primer Censo Demografico Nacional," El Trimestre Estad stico del Ecuador (Quito) 1:2 (1945), 7-17.
44. Clemente Yerovi Indaburu, "Proyecto de Ley por la cual se Fija la Fecha del Levantamiento del Primer Censo Demografico Nacional y se Provee de los Medios Economicos Necesarios: Exposicion de Motivos," El Trimestre Estad stico del Ecuador (Quito) 3:6-7 (1946-47), 6.
45. For problems encountered in 1835, see Julio Tobar Donoso, "Estad stica Ecuatoriana: Ensayo sobre su Desarrollo Historico," Revista de la Asociacion Catolica de la Juventud Ecuatoriana 23 (1920), 260-1. For problems in 1854, see Antonio Alomia Ll., "La Estad stica en el Ecuador," in Bolet n de Estad stica formado por Antonio Alomia Ll., Jefe de la oficina de Estad stica de Instruccion Publica, Correos, Telegrafos, Telefonos y Teatros (Quito: Imprenta y Encuadernacion Nacionales, 1910), 5. For the problems encountered during a 1899 urban census of Quito, see Jefatura de Estad stica, "Informe de la Jefatura de Estad stica," in Informe del Ministro de lo Interior al Congreso de 1899 (Quito: Imprenta Nacional, 1899). For the 1922 urban census of Quito see Paz y Mino, "La Poblacion del Ecuador."
46. For problems encountered in 1835, see Julio Tobar Donoso, "Estad stica Ecuatoriana: Ensayo sobre su Desarrollo Historico," Revista de la Asociacion Catolica de la Juventud Ecuatoriana 23 (1920), 260-1. For problems in 1854, see Antonio Alomia Ll., "La Estad stica en el Ecuador," in Bolet n de Estad stica formado por Antonio Alomia Ll., Jefe de la oficina de Estad stica de Instruccion Publica, Correos, Telegrafos, Telefonos y Teatros (Quito: Imprenta y Encuadernacion Nacionales, 1910), 5. For the problems encountered during a 1899 urban census of Quito, see Jefatura de Estad stica, "Informe de la Jefatura de Estad stica," in Informe del Ministro de lo Interior al Congreso de 1899 (Quito: Imprenta Nacional, 1899). For the 1922 urban census of Quito see Paz y Mino, "La Poblacion del Ecuador."
47. For problems encountered in 1835, see Julio Tobar Donoso, "Estad stica Ecuatoriana: Ensayo sobre su Desarrollo Historico," Revista de la Asociacion Catolica de la Juventud Ecuatoriana 23 (1920), 260-1. For problems in 1854, see Antonio Alomia Ll., "La Estad stica en el Ecuador," in Bolet n de Estad stica formado por Antonio Alomia Ll., Jefe de la oficina de Estad stica de Instruccion Publica, Correos, Telegrafos, Telefonos y Teatros (Quito: Imprenta y Encuadernacion Nacionales, 1910), 5. For the problems encountered during a 1899 urban census of Quito, see Jefatura de Estad stica, "Informe de la Jefatura de Estad stica," in Informe del Ministro de lo Interior al Congreso de 1899 (Quito: Imprenta Nacional, 1899). For the 1922 urban census of Quito see Paz y Mino, "La Poblacion del Ecuador."
48. For problems encountered in 1835, see Julio Tobar Donoso, "Estad stica Ecuatoriana: Ensayo sobre su Desarrollo Historico," Revista de la Asociacion Catolica de la Juventud Ecuatoriana 23 (1920), 260-1. For problems in 1854, see Antonio Alomia Ll., "La Estad stica en el Ecuador," in Bolet n de Estad stica formado por Antonio Alomia Ll., Jefe de la oficina de Estad stica de Instruccion Publica, Correos, Telegrafos, Telefonos y Teatros (Quito: Imprenta y Encuadernacion Nacionales, 1910), 5. For the problems encountered during a 1899 urban census of Quito, see Jefatura de Estad stica, "Informe de la Jefatura de Estad stica," in Informe del Ministro de lo Interior al Congreso de 1899 (Quito: Imprenta Nacional, 1899). For the 1922 urban census of Quito see Paz y Mino, "La Poblacion del Ecuador."
49. BAEP Coleccion Hojas Volantes 1946-1950, no. 123.
50. El Comercio (Quito), 26 November 1950.
51. El Comercio, 8 November 1950.
52. El Comercio, 19 November 1950.
53. The use of metaphors taken from nature was common in the description of indigenous people, such as the geological metaphor in the reference to the 'impermeability of the indigenous stratum.' Here the representation of a 'cloud of Indians' suggests an angry swarm of bees, with which it was impossible to reason.
54. El Comercio, 30 November 1950.
55. Galo Ramon et al, Actores de una Decada Ganada: Tribus, Comunidades y Campesinos en la Modernidad (Quito: COMUNIDEC and Abya Yala, 1992), 152.
56. Hernan Carrasco, "Democratizacion de los Poderes Locales y Levantamiento Ind gena," in CEDIME, ed., Sismo Etnico en el Ecuador: Varias Perspectivas (Quito: CEDIME and Abya Yala, 1993), 29-69.
57. This and the following quote are from El Comercio, 1 December 1950.
58. El Comercio, 10 December 1950.
59. El Comercio, 14 November 1950.
60. El Comercio, 1 December 1950 (emphasis added).
61. El Comercio, 19 November 1950 (emphasis added).
62. El Comercio, 21 November 1950.
63. J.V.D. Saunders, The People of Ecuador: A Demographic Analysis (Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 1961), 2.
64. Saunders, The People of Ecuador, 17-20. Note that his calculations are based in part on information that was not published in the results of the census, but rather was provided to him by the Direccion General de Estad stica y Censos in Quito.
65. Saunders, The People of Ecuador, 16-17.
66. A. Kim Clark, "Racial Ideologies and the Quest for National Development: Debating the Agrarian Problem in Ecuador, 1930-1950," Journal of Latin American Studies (in press, 1998).
67. See the analysis by Leon Zamosc (drawing on the work of Gregory Knapp), in Estad stica de las Areas de Predominio Etnico de la Sierra Ecuatoriana: Poblacion Rural, Indicadores Cantonales y Organizaciones de Base (Quito: Abya Yala, 1995), 17.
68. It was not by chance, then, that an illustration covering the front page of El Comercio on November 29 represented a globe surrounded by men to be enumerated. This was not because women were not counted, but rather because men were the representatives of the entire household before the state.
69. See Victor Gabriel Garces, "Inmigracion e Indígenismo," America Indigena 4:2 (1944), 97-105; and Víctor Gabriel Garces, "Inmigracion e Indigenismo," America Indígena 14:4 (1954), 289-302.
70. See Victor Gabriel Garces, "Inmigracion e Indígenismo," America Indigena 4:2 (1944), 97-105; and Víctor Gabriel Garces, "Inmigracion e Indigenismo," America Indígena 14:4 (1954), 289-302.
71. See Jorge Leon Trujillo, De Campesinos a Ciudadanos Diferentes: El Levantamiento Indígena (Quito: CEDIME and Abya Yala, 1994). For additional information about indigenous mobilizations in the 1990s, see: CEDIME, ed., Sismo Etnico en el Ecuador: Varias Perspectivas (Quito: CEDIME and Abya Yala, 1993); Diego Cornejo, coord., Indios: Una Reflexion Sobre el Levantamiento Indígena de 1990 (Quito: ILDIS, El Duende and Abya-Yala, 1991); Les Field, "Ecuador's Pan-Indian Uprising," NACLA Report on the Americas 25:3 (1991), 38-44; Andres Guerrero, "El Levantamiento Indígena de 1994: Discurso y Representacion Pol tica," Memoria (Quito) 5 (1995), 89-123; Nina Pacari, "Taking on the Neoliberal Agenda," NACLA Report on the Americas 29:5 (1996), 23-32; Leon Zamosc, "Agrarian Protest and the Indian Movement in the Ecuadorian Highlands," Latin American Research Review 29:3 (1994), 37-68.
72. See Jorge Leon Trujillo, De Campesinos a Ciudadanos Diferentes: El Levantamiento Indígena (Quito: CEDIME and Abya Yala, 1994). For additional information about indigenous mobilizations in the 1990s, see: CEDIME, ed., Sismo Etnico en el Ecuador: Varias Perspectivas (Quito: CEDIME and Abya Yala, 1993); Diego Cornejo, coord., Indios: Una Reflexion Sobre el Levantamiento Indígena de 1990 (Quito: ILDIS, El Duende and Abya-Yala, 1991); Les Field, "Ecuador's Pan-Indian Uprising," NACLA Report on the Americas 25:3 (1991), 38-44; Andres Guerrero, "El Levantamiento Indígena de 1994: Discurso y Representacion Pol tica," Memoria (Quito) 5 (1995), 89-123; Nina Pacari, "Taking on the Neoliberal Agenda," NACLA Report on the Americas 29:5 (1996), 23-32; Leon Zamosc, "Agrarian Protest and the Indian Movement in the Ecuadorian Highlands," Latin American Research Review 29:3 (1994), 37-68.
73. See Jorge Leon Trujillo, De Campesinos a Ciudadanos Diferentes: El Levantamiento Indígena (Quito: CEDIME and Abya Yala, 1994). For additional information about indigenous mobilizations in the 1990s, see: CEDIME, ed., Sismo Etnico en el Ecuador: Varias Perspectivas (Quito: CEDIME and Abya Yala, 1993); Diego Cornejo, coord., Indios: Una Reflexion Sobre el Levantamiento Indígena de 1990 (Quito: ILDIS, El Duende and Abya-Yala, 1991); Les Field, "Ecuador's Pan-Indian Uprising," NACLA Report on the Americas 25:3 (1991), 38-44; Andres Guerrero, "El Levantamiento Indígena de 1994: Discurso y Representacion Pol tica," Memoria (Quito) 5 (1995), 89-123; Nina Pacari, "Taking on the Neoliberal Agenda," NACLA Report on the Americas 29:5 (1996), 23-32; Leon Zamosc, "Agrarian Protest and the Indian Movement in the Ecuadorian Highlands," Latin American Research Review 29:3 (1994), 37-68.
74. See Jorge Leon Trujillo, De Campesinos a Ciudadanos Diferentes: El Levantamiento Indígena (Quito: CEDIME and Abya Yala, 1994). For additional information about indigenous mobilizations in the 1990s, see: CEDIME, ed., Sismo Etnico en el Ecuador: Varias Perspectivas (Quito: CEDIME and Abya Yala, 1993); Diego Cornejo, coord., Indios: Una Reflexion Sobre el Levantamiento Indígena de 1990 (Quito: ILDIS, El Duende and Abya-Yala, 1991); Les Field, "Ecuador's Pan-Indian Uprising," NACLA Report on the Americas 25:3 (1991), 38-44; Andres Guerrero, "El Levantamiento Indígena de 1994: Discurso y Representacion Pol tica," Memoria (Quito) 5 (1995), 89-123; Nina Pacari, "Taking on the Neoliberal Agenda," NACLA Report on the Americas 29:5 (1996), 23-32; Leon Zamosc, "Agrarian Protest and the Indian Movement in the Ecuadorian Highlands," Latin American Research Review 29:3 (1994), 37-68.
75. See Jorge Leon Trujillo, De Campesinos a Ciudadanos Diferentes: El Levantamiento Indígena (Quito: CEDIME and Abya Yala, 1994). For additional information about indigenous mobilizations in the 1990s, see: CEDIME, ed., Sismo Etnico en el Ecuador: Varias Perspectivas (Quito: CEDIME and Abya Yala, 1993); Diego Cornejo, coord., Indios: Una Reflexion Sobre el Levantamiento Indígena de 1990 (Quito: ILDIS, El Duende and Abya-Yala, 1991); Les Field, "Ecuador's Pan-Indian Uprising," NACLA Report on the Americas 25:3 (1991), 38-44; Andres Guerrero, "El Levantamiento Indígena de 1994: Discurso y Representacion Pol tica," Memoria (Quito) 5 (1995), 89-123; Nina Pacari, "Taking on the Neoliberal Agenda," NACLA Report on the Americas 29:5 (1996), 23-32; Leon Zamosc, "Agrarian Protest and the Indian Movement in the Ecuadorian Highlands," Latin American Research Review 29:3 (1994), 37-68.
76. See Jorge Leon Trujillo, De Campesinos a Ciudadanos Diferentes: El Levantamiento Indígena (Quito: CEDIME and Abya Yala, 1994). For additional information about indigenous mobilizations in the 1990s, see: CEDIME, ed., Sismo Etnico en el Ecuador: Varias Perspectivas (Quito: CEDIME and Abya Yala, 1993); Diego Cornejo, coord., Indios: Una Reflexion Sobre el Levantamiento Indígena de 1990 (Quito: ILDIS, El Duende and Abya-Yala, 1991); Les Field, "Ecuador's Pan-Indian Uprising," NACLA Report on the Americas 25:3 (1991), 38-44; Andres Guerrero, "El Levantamiento Indígena de 1994: Discurso y Representacion Pol tica," Memoria (Quito) 5 (1995), 89-123; Nina Pacari, "Taking on the Neoliberal Agenda," NACLA Report on the Americas 29:5 (1996), 23-32; Leon Zamosc, "Agrarian Protest and the Indian Movement in the Ecuadorian Highlands," Latin American Research Review 29:3 (1994), 37-68.
77. See Jorge Leon Trujillo, De Campesinos a Ciudadanos Diferentes: El Levantamiento Indígena (Quito: CEDIME and Abya Yala, 1994). For additional information about indigenous mobilizations in the 1990s, see: CEDIME, ed., Sismo Etnico en el Ecuador: Varias Perspectivas (Quito: CEDIME and Abya Yala, 1993); Diego Cornejo, coord., Indios: Una Reflexion Sobre el Levantamiento Indígena de 1990 (Quito: ILDIS, El Duende and Abya-Yala, 1991); Les Field, "Ecuador's Pan-Indian Uprising," NACLA Report on the Americas 25:3 (1991), 38-44; Andres Guerrero, "El Levantamiento Indígena de 1994: Discurso y Representacion Pol tica," Memoria (Quito) 5 (1995), 89-123; Nina Pacari, "Taking on the Neoliberal Agenda," NACLA Report on the Americas 29:5 (1996), 23-32; Leon Zamosc, "Agrarian Protest and the Indian Movement in the Ecuadorian Highlands," Latin American Research Review 29:3 (1994), 37-68.
78. See Kim Clark, "Genero, Raza y Nacion: la Proteccion a la Infancia en el Ecuador, 1910-1945," in Martha Moscoso, ed., Palabras del Silencio: Las Mujeres Latinoamericanas y su Historia (Quito: Abya Yala, DGIS-Holanda and UNICEF), 219-56.
79. Pablo Arturo Suarez, "El Alcoholismo y sus Consecuencias," Anales de la Universidad Central (Quito) 246 (1923), 6 (emphasis added).
80. See Endara, Los Temperamentos.
81. See Union Nacional de Periodistas, Incorporacion de las Masas Populares a la Cultura y al Progreso: 15 Anos de Labores de la Union Nacional de Periodistas (Quito: Editorial Raymundo de Salazar, 1958).
82. In this regard, the instructions given to the enumerators for the 1947 census of Quito were interesting. The enumerators were required to note their observations about race, although they were explicitly instructed not to ask those being enumerated for the answers. They were told: 'It is very difficult to determine when one is dealing with a person of the "indigenous race"; such that this classification will correspond to your personal observations. There are, however, data that will orient you, although they are not absolute; but you may be guided by the "typical costume" that the Indians use; their personal characteristics, such as the use of a hair braid among men, their way of expressing themselves, their limited knowledge of Spanish, etc.' (see BAEP Coleccion Hojas Volantes 1946-50, no. 115). Race was entirely defined in sociocultural terms. In addition, it is striking that neither in these instructions for 1947, nor in documents regarding the possibility of analyzing race in the 1950 census was it considered viable to ask the persons being enumerated for their own perception of what their race was (see Antonio Santiana, "El Censo Demografico del Ecuador: Posicion del Indio," Filosof a y Letras [Quito] 8 [1950], 75-88.)
83. In this regard, the instructions given to the enumerators for the 1947 census of Quito were interesting. The enumerators were required to note their observations about race, although they were explicitly instructed not to ask those being enumerated for the answers. They were told: 'It is very difficult to determine when one is dealing with a person of the "indigenous race"; such that this classification will correspond to your personal observations. There are, however, data that will orient you, although they are not absolute; but you may be guided by the "typical costume" that the Indians use; their personal characteristics, such as the use of a hair braid among men, their way of expressing themselves, their limited knowledge of Spanish, etc.' (see BAEP Coleccion Hojas Volantes 1946-50, no. 115). Race was entirely defined in sociocultural terms. In addition, it is striking that neither in these instructions for 1947, nor in documents regarding the possibility of analyzing race in the 1950 census was it considered viable to ask the persons being enumerated for their own perception of what their race was (see Antonio Santiana, "El Censo Demografico del Ecuador: Posicion del Indio," Filosof a y Letras [Quito] 8 [1950], 75-88.)
84. Po Jaramillo Alvarado, "La Psicolog a del Indio," Educacion (Loja) 1 (1924), 10.
85. Clark, "Racial Ideologies and the Quest for National Development."
86. See A. Kim Clark, The Redemptive Work: Railway and Nation in Ecuador, 1895-1930 (Wilmington: Scholarly Resources, 1998), chapters five and six.
87. Suarez, Contribucion al Estudio... del Indio de Otavalo. For another author, this took on clear gender dimensions. Thus male Indians 'spend most of the year sitting around their chozas and carrying out domestic tasks that correspond to women: taking care of children, preparing food, washing clothes, and so on.' (Rafael Quevedo Coronel, El Indio en la Region Interandina del Ecuador: Estudio Biologico, Ps quico y Sociologico [Quito: Talleres Graficos de Educacion, 1938], 22).
88. Suarez, Contribucion al Estudio... del Indio de Otavalo. For another author, this took on clear gender dimensions. Thus male Indians 'spend most of the year sitting around their chozas and carrying out domestic tasks that correspond to women: taking care of children, preparing food, washing clothes, and so on.' (Rafael Quevedo Coronel, El Indio en la Region Interandina del Ecuador: Estudio Biologico, Ps quico y Sociologico [Quito: Talleres Graficos de Educacion, 1938], 22).
89. Anonymous, "El problema del indio considerado desde el aspecto economico," Bolet n del Ministerio de Prevision Social, Trabajo, Agricultura y Industrias 1 (1936), 14.
90. Cited in Milton Luna Tamayo, Modernizacion? Ambigua Experiencia en el Ecuador: Industriales y Fiesta Popular (Quito: IADAP, 1993), 115.
91. Carol A. Smith, "Myths, Intellectuals, and Race/Class/Gender Distinctions in Latin American Nations," Journal of Latin American Anthropology 2:1 (1996), 148-69.
92. Florencia E. Mallon, "Constructing Mestizaje in Latin America: Authenticity, Marginality, and Gender in the Claiming of Ethnic Identities," Journal of Latin American Anthropology 2:1 (1996), 170-81.
93. For a later period, see Ronald Stutzman, "El Mestizaje: An All-inclusive Ideology of Exclusion," in Norman E. Whitten Jr., ed., Cultural Transformations and Ethnicity in Modern Ecuador (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1981), 45-94.