Psychiatry's Holy Grail: The Search for the Mechanisms of Mental Diseases

Bulletin of the History of Medicine

Volumn 72, Issue 2, 1998, Pages 189-219

  Grob, Gerald N ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; HISTORY; HUMAN; MENTAL DISEASE; PSYCHIATRY; UNITED STATES;

HISTORY, 19TH CENTURY; HISTORY, 20TH CENTURY; HUMANS; MENTAL DISORDERS; PSYCHIATRY; UNITED STATES;

EID: 0032090202     PISSN: 00075140     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/bhm.1998.0094     Document Type: Conference Paper

References (144)

1. Oliver Wendell Holmes, Medical Essays, 1842-1882 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1891), p. 177.
2. For a fascinating analysis of clinical practice and the disjuncture between theory and practice, see Joel Braslow, Mental Ills and Bodily Cures: Psychiatric Treatment in the First Half of the Twentieth Century (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997).
3. Nancy Tomes describes in a sensitive and penetrating manner Thomas S. Kirkbride's emphasis on the need to foster public confidence in mental hospitals, in A Generous Confidence: Thomas Story Kirkbride and the Art of Asylum-Keeping, 1840-1883 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1984).
4. For an analysis of nineteenth-century concepts of health and disease see Charles E. Rosenberg, Explaining Epidemics and Other Studies in the History of Medicine (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1992); and John H. Warner, The Therapeutic Perspective: Medical Practice, Knowledge, and Identity in America, 1820-1885 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1986).
5. For an analysis of nineteenth-century concepts of health and disease see Charles E. Rosenberg, Explaining Epidemics and Other Studies in the History of Medicine (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1992); and John H. Warner, The Therapeutic Perspective: Medical Practice, Knowledge, and Identity in America, 1820-1885 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1986).
6. See Isaac Ray, Mental Hygiene (Boston: Ticknor and Fields, 1863), pp. 1-2.
7. Amariah Brigham, An Inquiry Concerning the Diseases and Functions of the Brain, the Spinal Cord, and the Nerves (New York: George Adlard, 1840), p. 14.
8. Isaac Ray, A Treatise on the Medical Jurisprudence of Insanity (1838; reissued Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1962), p. 60. See also Gerald N. Grob, "Origins of DSM-I: A Study in Appearance and Reality," Amer. J. Psychiatry, 1991, 148: 421-31.
9. Isaac Ray, A Treatise on the Medical Jurisprudence of Insanity (1838; reissued Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1962), p. 60. See also Gerald N. Grob, "Origins of DSM-I: A Study in Appearance and Reality," Amer. J. Psychiatry, 1991, 148: 421-31.
10. Utica State Lunatic Asylum, Annual Report, 1843, 1: 36.
11. Worcester State Lunatic Hospital, Annual Report, 1839, 7: 72. See also ibid., 1841, 9: 40-41; 1842, 10: 39; 1845, 13: 50-51; and Samuel B. Woodward, "Observations on the Medical Treatment of Insanity," Amer. J. Insan., 1850, 7: 1-34.
12. Worcester State Lunatic Hospital, Annual Report, 1839, 7: 72. See also ibid., 1841, 9: 40-41; 1842, 10: 39; 1845, 13: 50-51; and Samuel B. Woodward, "Observations on the Medical Treatment of Insanity," Amer. J. Insan., 1850, 7: 1-34.
13. Worcester State Lunatic Hospital, Annual Report, 1839, 7: 72. See also ibid., 1841, 9: 40-41; 1842, 10: 39; 1845, 13: 50-51; and Samuel B. Woodward, "Observations on the Medical Treatment of Insanity," Amer. J. Insan., 1850, 7: 1-34.
14. Worcester State Lunatic Hospital, Annual Report, 1839, 7: 72. See also ibid., 1841, 9: 40-41; 1842, 10: 39; 1845, 13: 50-51; and Samuel B. Woodward, "Observations on the Medical Treatment of Insanity," Amer. J. Insan., 1850, 7: 1-34.
15. Worcester State Lunatic Hospital, Annual Report, 1839, 7: 72. See also ibid., 1841, 9: 40-41; 1842, 10: 39; 1845, 13: 50-51; and Samuel B. Woodward, "Observations on the Medical Treatment of Insanity," Amer. J. Insan., 1850, 7: 1-34.
16. Pliny Earle to Clark Bell (copy), 16 April 1886, Earle Papers, American Antiquarian Society, Worcester, Mass. (emphasis in original).
17. For typical examples of etiological thinking, see Edward Jarvis, "On the Supposed Increase of Insanity," Amer. J. Insan., 1852, 8: 333-64; and idem, "The Production of Vital Force," Med. Commun. Massachusetts Med. Soc., 2d ser., 1854, 4: 1-40. A general discussion can be found in Gerald N. Grob, Mental Institutions in America: Social Policy to 1875 (New York: Free Press, 1973), pp. 155-65.
18. For typical examples of etiological thinking, see Edward Jarvis, "On the Supposed Increase of Insanity," Amer. J. Insan., 1852, 8: 333-64; and idem, "The Production of Vital Force," Med. Commun. Massachusetts Med. Soc., 2d ser., 1854, 4: 1-40. A general discussion can be found in Gerald N. Grob, Mental Institutions in America: Social Policy to 1875 (New York: Free Press, 1973), pp. 155-65.
19. For typical examples of etiological thinking, see Edward Jarvis, "On the Supposed Increase of Insanity," Amer. J. Insan., 1852, 8: 333-64; and idem, "The Production of Vital Force," Med. Commun. Massachusetts Med. Soc., 2d ser., 1854, 4: 1-40. A general discussion can be found in Gerald N. Grob, Mental Institutions in America: Social Policy to 1875 (New York: Free Press, 1973), pp. 155-65.
20. Brigham, Inquiry (n. 6), p. 288; Worcester State Lunatic Hospital, Annual Report, 1840, 8: 71-72.
21. Brigham, Inquiry (n. 6), p. 288; Worcester State Lunatic Hospital, Annual Report, 1840, 8: 71-72.
22. Ray, Treatise (n. 7), p. 109.
23. Ray, Mental Hygiene (n. 5), p. 285.
24. Ibid., pp. 285-86.
25. [Edward Jarvis], Report on Insanity and Idiocy in Massachusetts by the Commission on Lunacy . . . 1854, Massachusetts House Document 144 (Boston: William White, 1855), pp. 61-62.
26. Henry P. Stearns, Insanity: Its Causes and Prevention (New York: Putnam, 1883), pp. 135-41, quotation on p. 141.
27. William A. Hammond, A Treatise on Insanity and Its Medical Relations (New York: Appleton, 1883), p. 77.
28. Grob, Mental Institutions (n. 11), pp. 243-55; Gerald N. Grob, Mental Illness and American Society, 1875-1940 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1983), pp. 38, 220-21; Peter McCandless, Moonlight, Magnolias, and Madness: Insanity in South Carolina from the Colonial Period to the Progressive Era (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996), pp. 151-59; John S. Hughes, "Labeling and Treating Black Mental Illness in Alabama, 1861-1910," J. Southern Hist., 1992, 58: 435-60.
29. Grob, Mental Institutions (n. 11), pp. 243-55; Gerald N. Grob, Mental Illness and American Society, 1875-1940 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1983), pp. 38, 220-21; Peter McCandless, Moonlight, Magnolias, and Madness: Insanity in South Carolina from the Colonial Period to the Progressive Era (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996), pp. 151-59; John S. Hughes, "Labeling and Treating Black Mental Illness in Alabama, 1861-1910," J. Southern Hist., 1992, 58: 435-60.
30. Grob, Mental Institutions (n. 11), pp. 243-55; Gerald N. Grob, Mental Illness and American Society, 1875-1940 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1983), pp. 38, 220-21; Peter McCandless, Moonlight, Magnolias, and Madness: Insanity in South Carolina from the Colonial Period to the Progressive Era (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996), pp. 151-59; John S. Hughes, "Labeling and Treating Black Mental Illness in Alabama, 1861-1910," J. Southern Hist., 1992, 58: 435-60.
31. Grob, Mental Institutions (n. 11), pp. 243-55; Gerald N. Grob, Mental Illness and American Society, 1875-1940 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1983), pp. 38, 220-21; Peter McCandless, Moonlight, Magnolias, and Madness: Insanity in South Carolina from the Colonial Period to the Progressive Era (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996), pp. 151-59; John S. Hughes, "Labeling and Treating Black Mental Illness in Alabama, 1861-1910," J. Southern Hist., 1992, 58: 435-60.
32. See E. Y. Williams, "The Incidence of Mental Disease in the Negro," J. Negro Educ., 1937, 6: 377-92; Philip S. Wagner, "A Comparative Study of Negro and White Admissions to the Psychiatric Pavilion of the Cincinnati General Hospital," Amer. J. Psychiatry, 1938, 95: 167-83; J. E. Greene, "Analysis of Racial Differences within Seven Clinical Categories of White and Negro Mental Patients in the Georgia State Hospital, 1923-32," Soc. Forces, 1938, 17: 201-11; and J. E. Greene and W. S. Phillips, "Racial and Regional Differences in Standard Therapy Rates among White and Negro Mental Patients," Hum. Biol., 1939, 11: 513-28. The rise of psychiatric epidemiology tended to create more interest in racial and ethnic categories. Benjamin Malzberg, a pioneer in the field, found higher rates of mental disorders among blacks than among whites. He speculated that higher rates of general paresis and alcoholic psychoses might be explained in historical terms. It was difficult, however, to account for dementia praecox (i.e., schizophrenia) and manic-depressive psychosis in terms of environment. He noted that blacks had a "more emotional make-up," as was evidenced by their music (Benjamin Malzberg, "Mental Disease among Negroes in New York State," Hum. Biol., 1935, 7: 471-513, quotation on p. 510). "Given such emotional instability," he added, "it is likely that there is a fruitful ground for functional mental disorders" (ibid.).
33. See E. Y. Williams, "The Incidence of Mental Disease in the Negro," J. Negro Educ., 1937, 6: 377-92; Philip S. Wagner, "A Comparative Study of Negro and White Admissions to the Psychiatric Pavilion of the Cincinnati General Hospital," Amer. J. Psychiatry, 1938, 95: 167-83; J. E. Greene, "Analysis of Racial Differences within Seven Clinical Categories of White and Negro Mental Patients in the Georgia State Hospital, 1923-32," Soc. Forces, 1938, 17: 201-11; and J. E. Greene and W. S. Phillips, "Racial and Regional Differences in Standard Therapy Rates among White and Negro Mental Patients," Hum. Biol., 1939, 11: 513-28. The rise of psychiatric epidemiology tended to create more interest in racial and ethnic categories. Benjamin Malzberg, a pioneer in the field, found higher rates of mental disorders among blacks than among whites. He speculated that higher rates of general paresis and alcoholic psychoses might be explained in historical terms. It was difficult, however, to account for dementia praecox (i.e., schizophrenia) and manic-depressive psychosis in terms of environment. He noted that blacks had a "more emotional make-up," as was evidenced by their music (Benjamin Malzberg, "Mental Disease among Negroes in New York State," Hum. Biol., 1935, 7: 471-513, quotation on p. 510). "Given such emotional instability," he added, "it is likely that there is a fruitful ground for functional mental disorders" (ibid.).
34. See E. Y. Williams, "The Incidence of Mental Disease in the Negro," J. Negro Educ., 1937, 6: 377-92; Philip S. Wagner, "A Comparative Study of Negro and White Admissions to the Psychiatric Pavilion of the Cincinnati General Hospital," Amer. J. Psychiatry, 1938, 95: 167-83; J. E. Greene, "Analysis of Racial Differences within Seven Clinical Categories of White and Negro Mental Patients in the Georgia State Hospital, 1923-32," Soc. Forces, 1938, 17: 201-11; and J. E. Greene and W. S. Phillips, "Racial and Regional Differences in Standard Therapy Rates among White and Negro Mental Patients," Hum. Biol., 1939, 11: 513-28. The rise of psychiatric epidemiology tended to create more interest in racial and ethnic categories. Benjamin Malzberg, a pioneer in the field, found higher rates of mental disorders among blacks than among whites. He speculated that higher rates of general paresis and alcoholic psychoses might be explained in historical terms. It was difficult, however, to account for dementia praecox (i.e., schizophrenia) and manic-depressive psychosis in terms of environment. He noted that blacks had a "more emotional make-up," as was evidenced by their music (Benjamin Malzberg, "Mental Disease among Negroes in New York State," Hum. Biol., 1935, 7: 471-513, quotation on p. 510). "Given such emotional instability," he added, "it is likely that there is a fruitful ground for functional mental disorders" (ibid.).
35. See E. Y. Williams, "The Incidence of Mental Disease in the Negro," J. Negro Educ., 1937, 6: 377-92; Philip S. Wagner, "A Comparative Study of Negro and White Admissions to the Psychiatric Pavilion of the Cincinnati General Hospital," Amer. J. Psychiatry, 1938, 95: 167-83; J. E. Greene, "Analysis of Racial Differences within Seven Clinical Categories of White and Negro Mental Patients in the Georgia State Hospital, 1923-32," Soc. Forces, 1938, 17: 201-11; and J. E. Greene and W. S. Phillips, "Racial and Regional Differences in Standard Therapy Rates among White and Negro Mental Patients," Hum. Biol., 1939, 11: 513-28. The rise of psychiatric epidemiology tended to create more interest in racial and ethnic categories. Benjamin Malzberg, a pioneer in the field, found higher rates of mental disorders among blacks than among whites. He speculated that higher rates of general paresis and alcoholic psychoses might be explained in historical terms. It was difficult, however, to account for dementia praecox (i.e., schizophrenia) and manic-depressive psychosis in terms of environment. He noted that blacks had a "more emotional make-up," as was evidenced by their music (Benjamin Malzberg, "Mental Disease among Negroes in New York State," Hum. Biol., 1935, 7: 471-513, quotation on p. 510). "Given such emotional instability," he added, "it is likely that there is a fruitful ground for functional mental disorders" (ibid.).
36. See E. Y. Williams, "The Incidence of Mental Disease in the Negro," J. Negro Educ., 1937, 6: 377-92; Philip S. Wagner, "A Comparative Study of Negro and White Admissions to the Psychiatric Pavilion of the Cincinnati General Hospital," Amer. J. Psychiatry, 1938, 95: 167-83; J. E. Greene, "Analysis of Racial Differences within Seven Clinical Categories of White and Negro Mental Patients in the Georgia State Hospital, 1923-32," Soc. Forces, 1938, 17: 201-11; and J. E. Greene and W. S. Phillips, "Racial and Regional Differences in Standard Therapy Rates among White and Negro Mental Patients," Hum. Biol., 1939, 11: 513-28. The rise of psychiatric epidemiology tended to create more interest in racial and ethnic categories. Benjamin Malzberg, a pioneer in the field, found higher rates of mental disorders among blacks than among whites. He speculated that higher rates of general paresis and alcoholic psychoses might be explained in historical terms. It was difficult, however, to account for dementia praecox (i.e., schizophrenia) and manic-depressive psychosis in terms of environment. He noted that blacks had a "more emotional make-up," as was evidenced by their music (Benjamin Malzberg, "Mental Disease among Negroes in New York State," Hum. Biol., 1935, 7: 471-513, quotation on p. 510). "Given such emotional instability," he added, "it is likely that there is a fruitful ground for functional mental disorders" (ibid.).
37. Pliny Earle, The Curability of Insanity: A Series of Studies (Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1887).
38. Amer. J. Insan. 1853, 10: 85; 1871, 20: 205-8, 212; Trans. Amer. Med. Assoc., 1866, 17: 124-27; 1871, 22: 101-9.
39. Amer. J. Insan. 1853, 10: 85; 1871, 20: 205-8, 212; Trans. Amer. Med. Assoc., 1866, 17: 124-27; 1871, 22: 101-9.
40. Amer. J. Insan. 1853, 10: 85; 1871, 20: 205-8, 212; Trans. Amer. Med. Assoc., 1866, 17: 124-27; 1871, 22: 101-9.
41. Amer. J. Insan. 1853, 10: 85; 1871, 20: 205-8, 212; Trans. Amer. Med. Assoc., 1866, 17: 124-27; 1871, 22: 101-9.
42. See especially S. Weir Mitchell, "Address before the Fiftieth Annual Meeting of the American Medico-Psychological Association . . . 1894," Proc. Amer. Medico-Psychol. Assoc., 1894, 1: 101-21.
43. For an outstanding study of this case, see Charles E. Rosenberg, The Trial of the Assassin Guiteau: Psychiatry and Law in the Gilded Age (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1968).
44. John P. Gray's thinking is revealed in a number of his articles, including "Insanity and Its Relation to Medicine," Amer. J. Insan., 1868, 25: 145-72; "The Dependence of Insanity on Physical Disease," ibid., 1871, 27: 377-408; "Pathology of Insanity," ibid., 1874, 31: 1-29; "General View of Insanity," ibid., 1875, 31: 443-65; and "Heredity," ibid., 1884, 41: 1-21. For secondary accounts see Rosenberg, Trial (n. 24); and Robert J. Waldinger, "Sleep of Reason: John P. Gray and the Challenge of Moral Insanity," J. Hist. Med. Allied Sci., 1979, 34: 163-79. Also useful is Gary S. Belkin, "Moral Insanity, Science and Religion in Nineteenth-Century America: The Gray-Ray Debate," Hist. Psychiatry, 1996, 7: 591-613.
45. John P. Gray's thinking is revealed in a number of his articles, including "Insanity and Its Relation to Medicine," Amer. J. Insan., 1868, 25: 145-72; "The Dependence of Insanity on Physical Disease," ibid., 1871, 27: 377-408; "Pathology of Insanity," ibid., 1874, 31: 1-29; "General View of Insanity," ibid., 1875, 31: 443-65; and "Heredity," ibid., 1884, 41: 1-21. For secondary accounts see Rosenberg, Trial (n. 24); and Robert J. Waldinger, "Sleep of Reason: John P. Gray and the Challenge of Moral Insanity," J. Hist. Med. Allied Sci., 1979, 34: 163-79. Also useful is Gary S. Belkin, "Moral Insanity, Science and Religion in Nineteenth-Century America: The Gray-Ray Debate," Hist. Psychiatry, 1996, 7: 591-613.
46. John P. Gray's thinking is revealed in a number of his articles, including "Insanity and Its Relation to Medicine," Amer. J. Insan., 1868, 25: 145-72; "The Dependence of Insanity on Physical Disease," ibid., 1871, 27: 377-408; "Pathology of Insanity," ibid., 1874, 31: 1-29; "General View of Insanity," ibid., 1875, 31: 443-65; and "Heredity," ibid., 1884, 41: 1-21. For secondary accounts see Rosenberg, Trial (n. 24); and Robert J. Waldinger, "Sleep of Reason: John P. Gray and the Challenge of Moral Insanity," J. Hist. Med. Allied Sci., 1979, 34: 163-79. Also useful is Gary S. Belkin, "Moral Insanity, Science and Religion in Nineteenth-Century America: The Gray-Ray Debate," Hist. Psychiatry, 1996, 7: 591-613.
47. John P. Gray's thinking is revealed in a number of his articles, including "Insanity and Its Relation to Medicine," Amer. J. Insan., 1868, 25: 145-72; "The Dependence of Insanity on Physical Disease," ibid., 1871, 27: 377-408; "Pathology of Insanity," ibid., 1874, 31: 1-29; "General View of Insanity," ibid., 1875, 31: 443-65; and "Heredity," ibid., 1884, 41: 1-21. For secondary accounts see Rosenberg, Trial (n. 24); and Robert J. Waldinger, "Sleep of Reason: John P. Gray and the Challenge of Moral Insanity," J. Hist. Med. Allied Sci., 1979, 34: 163-79. Also useful is Gary S. Belkin, "Moral Insanity, Science and Religion in Nineteenth-Century America: The Gray-Ray Debate," Hist. Psychiatry, 1996, 7: 591-613.
48. John P. Gray's thinking is revealed in a number of his articles, including "Insanity and Its Relation to Medicine," Amer. J. Insan., 1868, 25: 145-72; "The Dependence of Insanity on Physical Disease," ibid., 1871, 27: 377-408; "Pathology of Insanity," ibid., 1874, 31: 1-29; "General View of Insanity," ibid., 1875, 31: 443-65; and "Heredity," ibid., 1884, 41: 1-21. For secondary accounts see Rosenberg, Trial (n. 24); and Robert J. Waldinger, "Sleep of Reason: John P. Gray and the Challenge of Moral Insanity," J. Hist. Med. Allied Sci., 1979, 34: 163-79. Also useful is Gary S. Belkin, "Moral Insanity, Science and Religion in Nineteenth-Century America: The Gray-Ray Debate," Hist. Psychiatry, 1996, 7: 591-613.
49. John P. Gray's thinking is revealed in a number of his articles, including "Insanity and Its Relation to Medicine," Amer. J. Insan., 1868, 25: 145-72; "The Dependence of Insanity on Physical Disease," ibid., 1871, 27: 377-408; "Pathology of Insanity," ibid., 1874, 31: 1-29; "General View of Insanity," ibid., 1875, 31: 443-65; and "Heredity," ibid., 1884, 41: 1-21. For secondary accounts see Rosenberg, Trial (n. 24); and Robert J. Waldinger, "Sleep of Reason: John P. Gray and the Challenge of Moral Insanity," J. Hist. Med. Allied Sci., 1979, 34: 163-79. Also useful is Gary S. Belkin, "Moral Insanity, Science and Religion in Nineteenth-Century America: The Gray-Ray Debate," Hist. Psychiatry, 1996, 7: 591-613.
50. John P. Gray's thinking is revealed in a number of his articles, including "Insanity and Its Relation to Medicine," Amer. J. Insan., 1868, 25: 145-72; "The Dependence of Insanity on Physical Disease," ibid., 1871, 27: 377-408; "Pathology of Insanity," ibid., 1874, 31: 1-29; "General View of Insanity," ibid., 1875, 31: 443-65; and "Heredity," ibid., 1884, 41: 1-21. For secondary accounts see Rosenberg, Trial (n. 24); and Robert J. Waldinger, "Sleep of Reason: John P. Gray and the Challenge of Moral Insanity," J. Hist. Med. Allied Sci., 1979, 34: 163-79. Also useful is Gary S. Belkin, "Moral Insanity, Science and Religion in Nineteenth-Century America: The Gray-Ray Debate," Hist. Psychiatry, 1996, 7: 591-613.
51. John P. Gray's thinking is revealed in a number of his articles, including "Insanity and Its Relation to Medicine," Amer. J. Insan., 1868, 25: 145-72; "The Dependence of Insanity on Physical Disease," ibid., 1871, 27: 377-408; "Pathology of Insanity," ibid., 1874, 31: 1-29; "General View of Insanity," ibid., 1875, 31: 443-65; and "Heredity," ibid., 1884, 41: 1-21. For secondary accounts see Rosenberg, Trial (n. 24); and Robert J. Waldinger, "Sleep of Reason: John P. Gray and the Challenge of Moral Insanity," J. Hist. Med. Allied Sci., 1979, 34: 163-79. Also useful is Gary S. Belkin, "Moral Insanity, Science and Religion in Nineteenth-Century America: The Gray-Ray Debate," Hist. Psychiatry, 1996, 7: 591-613.
52. The United States vs. Charles J. Guiteau, 2 vols. (Washington, D.C.: n.p., 1882), 2: 1593.
53. See also ibid., pp. 1593, 1629-30, et passim.
54. Edward C. Spitzka, Insanity: Its Classification, Diagnosis and Treatment: A Manual for Students and Practitioners of Medicine (New York: E. B. Treat, 1887), p. 81.
55. Edward Cowles, "The Advancement of the Work of the Association, and the Advantages of a Better Organization," Amer. J. Insan., 1891, 48: 118-24.
56. Edward Cowles, "The Advancement of Psychiatry in America," ibid., 1896, 52: 364-86, quotation on p. 376.
57. Ibid. See also Edward Cowles, "The Relation of Mental Diseases to General Medicine," Boston Med. Surg. J., 1897, 137: 277-82.
58. Peter M. Wise, "Presidential Address," Amer. J. Insan., 1901, 58: 79.
59. Henry J. Berkley, A Treatise on Mental Diseases (New York: Appleton, 1900), pp. 53, 105-6, quotation on p. 53.
60. Stewart Paton, Psychiatry: A Text-Book for Students and Physicians (Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1905), pp. 147-48.
61. Ibid., p. 147; see also pp. 179-81.
62. Ibid., p. 147; see also pp. 179-81.
63. Ian R. Dowbiggin, Keeping America Sane: Psychiatry and Eugenics in the United States and Canada, 1880-1940 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1997), p. 223.
64. For an elaboration of the "psychiatry of the normal" see Elizabeth Lunbeck, The Psychiatric Persuasion: Knowledge, Gender, and Power in Modern America (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994).
65. Adolf Meyer, "A Short Sketch of the Problems of Psychiatry," Amer. J. Insan., 1896-97, 53, reprinted in The Collected Papers of Adolf Meyer, ed. Eunice Winters, 4 vols. (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1950-52), 2: 273-82, quotation on p. 274.
66. Adolf Meyer, "A Short Sketch of the Problems of Psychiatry," Amer. J. Insan., 1896- 97, 53, reprinted in The Collected Papers of Adolf Meyer, ed. Eunice Winters, 4 vols. (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1950-52), 2: 273-82, quotation on p. 274.
67. Adolf Meyer, "Objective Psychology or Psychobiology with Subordination of the Medically Useless Contrast of Mental and Physical," JAMA, 1915, 65: 860-63, reprinted in Collected Papers (n. 38), 3: 38-43, quotation on p. 41.
68. Adolf Meyer, "Objective Psychology or Psychobiology with Subordination of the Medically Useless Contrast of Mental and Physical," JAMA, 1915, 65: 860-63, reprinted in Collected Papers (n. 38), 3: 38-43, quotation on p. 41.
69. Adolf Meyer, "Organization of Eugenics Investigation," Eugen. News, 1917, 2, in Collected Papers (n. 38), 4: 304.
70. Adolf Meyer, "Organization of Eugenics Investigation," Eugen. News, 1917, 2, in Collected Papers (n. 38), 4: 304.
71. Adolf Meyer, "A Review of the Signs of Degeneration and of Methods of Registration," Amer. J. Insan., 1895-96, 52, in Collected Papers, 2: 257. See also idem, "Short Sketch" (n. 38), p. 279.
72. Adolf Meyer, "A Review of the Signs of Degeneration and of Methods of Registration," Amer. J. Insan., 1895-96, 52, in Collected Papers, 2: 257. See also idem, "Short Sketch" (n. 38), p. 279.
73. Adolf Meyer, "A Review of the Signs of Degeneration and of Methods of Registration," Amer. J. Insan., 1895-96, 52, in Collected Papers, 2: 257. See also idem, "Short Sketch" (n. 38), p. 279.
74. Charles G. Wagner, "Recent Trends in Psychiatry," Amer. J. Insan., 1917, 74: 14.
75. Flexner's observations were cited in a letter from E. E. Southard to Thomas W. Salmon, 24 July 1919, Salmon Boxes in American Foundation for Mental Hygiene Papers, Archives of Psychiatry, New York Hospital-Cornell Medical Center, New York, N.Y. See also Salmon to Southard, 21 July 1919, ibid.
76. Henry A. Cotton, The Defective, Delinquent, and Insane: The Relation of Focal Infections to Their Causation, Treatment and Prevention (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1921).
77. George M. Beard, A Practical Treatise on Nervous Exhaustion (Neurasthenia): Its Symptoms, Nature, Sequences, Treatment (New York: William Wood, 1880); idem, American Nervousness: Its Causes and Consequences (New York: Putnam, 1881). See also Charles E. Rosenberg, "The Place of George M. Beard in Nineteenth-Century Psychiatry," Bull. Hist. Med., 1962, 36: 245-59; and F. G. Gosling, Before Freud: Neurasthenia and the American Medical Community, 1870-1910 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1987).
78. George M. Beard, A Practical Treatise on Nervous Exhaustion (Neurasthenia): Its Symptoms, Nature, Sequences, Treatment (New York: William Wood, 1880); idem, American Nervousness: Its Causes and Consequences (New York: Putnam, 1881). See also Charles E. Rosenberg, "The Place of George M. Beard in Nineteenth-Century Psychiatry," Bull. Hist. Med., 1962, 36: 245-59; and F. G. Gosling, Before Freud: Neurasthenia and the American Medical Community, 1870-1910 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1987).
79. George M. Beard, A Practical Treatise on Nervous Exhaustion (Neurasthenia): Its Symptoms, Nature, Sequences, Treatment (New York: William Wood, 1880); idem, American Nervousness: Its Causes and Consequences (New York: Putnam, 1881). See also Charles E. Rosenberg, "The Place of George M. Beard in Nineteenth-Century Psychiatry," Bull. Hist. Med., 1962, 36: 245-59; and F. G. Gosling, Before Freud: Neurasthenia and the American Medical Community, 1870-1910 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1987).
80. George M. Beard, A Practical Treatise on Nervous Exhaustion (Neurasthenia): Its Symptoms, Nature, Sequences, Treatment (New York: William Wood, 1880); idem, American Nervousness: Its Causes and Consequences (New York: Putnam, 1881). See also Charles E. Rosenberg, "The Place of George M. Beard in Nineteenth-Century Psychiatry," Bull. Hist. Med., 1962, 36: 245-59; and F. G. Gosling, Before Freud: Neurasthenia and the American Medical Community, 1870-1910 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1987).
81. Richard L. Dugdale, The Jukes: A Study in Crime, Pauperism, Disease, and Heredity (New York: Putnam, 1877).
82. The literature on eugenics is large, and includes Mark H. Haller, Eugenics: Hereditarian Attitudes in American Thought (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1963); Donald K. Pickens, Eugenics and the Progressives (Nashville: Vanderbilt Press, 1968); Daniel J. Kevles, In the Name of Eugenics: Genetics and the Uses of Human Heredity (New York: Knoft, 1985); Philip P. Reilly, The Surgical Solution: A History of Involuntary Sterilization in the United States (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991); Edward J. Larson, Sex, Race, and Science: Eugenics in the Deep South (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995); and Dobiggin, Keeping America Sane (n. 36).
83. The literature on eugenics is large, and includes Mark H. Haller, Eugenics: Hereditarian Attitudes in American Thought (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1963); Donald K. Pickens, Eugenics and the Progressives (Nashville: Vanderbilt Press, 1968); Daniel J. Kevles, In the Name of Eugenics: Genetics and the Uses of Human Heredity (New York: Knoft, 1985); Philip P. Reilly, The Surgical Solution: A History of Involuntary Sterilization in the United States (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991); Edward J. Larson, Sex, Race, and Science: Eugenics in the Deep South (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995); and Dobiggin, Keeping America Sane (n. 36).
84. The literature on eugenics is large, and includes Mark H. Haller, Eugenics: Hereditarian Attitudes in American Thought (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1963); Donald K. Pickens, Eugenics and the Progressives (Nashville: Vanderbilt Press, 1968); Daniel J. Kevles, In the Name of Eugenics: Genetics and the Uses of Human Heredity (New York: Knoft, 1985); Philip P. Reilly, The Surgical Solution: A History of Involuntary Sterilization in the United States (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991); Edward J. Larson, Sex, Race, and Science: Eugenics in the Deep South (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995); and Dobiggin, Keeping America Sane (n. 36).
85. The literature on eugenics is large, and includes Mark H. Haller, Eugenics: Hereditarian Attitudes in American Thought (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1963); Donald K. Pickens, Eugenics and the Progressives (Nashville: Vanderbilt Press, 1968); Daniel J. Kevles, In the Name of Eugenics: Genetics and the Uses of Human Heredity (New York: Knoft, 1985); Philip P. Reilly, The Surgical Solution: A History of Involuntary Sterilization in the United States (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991); Edward J. Larson, Sex, Race, and Science: Eugenics in the Deep South (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995); and Dobiggin, Keeping America Sane (n. 36).
86. The literature on eugenics is large, and includes Mark H. Haller, Eugenics: Hereditarian Attitudes in American Thought (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1963); Donald K. Pickens, Eugenics and the Progressives (Nashville: Vanderbilt Press, 1968); Daniel J. Kevles, In the Name of Eugenics: Genetics and the Uses of Human Heredity (New York: Knoft, 1985); Philip P. Reilly, The Surgical Solution: A History of Involuntary Sterilization in the United States (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991); Edward J. Larson, Sex, Race, and Science: Eugenics in the Deep South (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995); and Dobiggin, Keeping America Sane (n. 36).
87. The literature on eugenics is large, and includes Mark H. Haller, Eugenics: Hereditarian Attitudes in American Thought (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1963); Donald K. Pickens, Eugenics and the Progressives (Nashville: Vanderbilt Press, 1968); Daniel J. Kevles, In the Name of Eugenics: Genetics and the Uses of Human Heredity (New York: Knoft, 1985); Philip P. Reilly, The Surgical Solution: A History of Involuntary Sterilization in the United States (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991); Edward J. Larson, Sex, Race, and Science: Eugenics in the Deep South (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995); and Dobiggin, Keeping America Sane (n. 36).
88. G. Alder Blumer, "Presidential Address," Amer. J. Insan., 1903, 60: 1-18.
89. See Dowbiggin, Keeping America Sane (n. 36).
90. William A. White, The Mental Hygiene of Childhood (Boston: Little, Brown, 1919), pp. 10, 52.
91. William A. White, Twentieth-Century Psychiatry: Its Contribution to Man's Knowledge of Himself (New York: Norton, 1936), pp. 54-55.
92. Edward A. Strecker and Franklin G. Ebaugh, Practical Clinical Psychiatry for Students and Practitioners, 4th ed. (Philadelphia: Blakiston, 1935), p. 35.
93. Abraham Myerson, The Inheritance of Mental Diseases (Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins, 1925), pp. 25-26.
94. Ibid., pp. 31-32 (emphasis in original).
95. Ibid., p. 270 (emphasis in original). See also pp. 278-82, 295-98, 309-11, 316-20.
96. Ibid., p. 270 (emphasis in original). See also pp. 278-82, 295-98, 309-11, 316-20.
97. Ibid., p. 316.
98. Ibid.
99. National Research Council, Committee on Psychiatric Investigations, The Problem of Mental Disorder (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1934).
100. Committee of the American Neurological Association for the Investigation of Eugenical Sterilization (Abraham Myerson et al.), Eugenical Sterilization: A Reorientation of the Problem (New York: Macmillan, 1936). See also Abraham Myerson, "A Critique of Proposed 'Ideal' Sterilization Legislation," Arch. Neurol. Psychiatry, 1935, 33: 453-66.
101. Committee of the American Neurological Association for the Investigation of Eugenical Sterilization (Abraham Myerson et al.), Eugenical Sterilization: A Reorientation of the Problem (New York: Macmillan, 1936). See also Abraham Myerson, "A Critique of Proposed 'Ideal' Sterilization Legislation," Arch. Neurol. Psychiatry, 1935, 33: 453-66.
102. A list of these studies can be found in Aaron J. Rosanoff, Leva M. Handy, Isabel Rosanoff Plesset, and Sandye Brush, "The Etiology of So-Called Schizophrenic Psychoses with Special Reference to Their Occurrence in Twins," Amer. J. Psychiatry, 1934, 91: 247-86.
103. Ibid., p. 270.
104. Aaron J. Rosanoff, Leva M. Handy, and Isabel Rosanoff Plesset, "The Etiology of Manic-Depressive Syndromes with Special Reference to Their Occurrence in Twins," Amer. J. Psychiatry, 1935, 91: 725-62.
105. Franz J. Kallmann, The Genetics of Schizophrenia: A Study of Heredity and Reproduction in the Families of 1,087 Schizophrenics (New York: Augustin, 1938); idem, Heredity in Health and Mental Disorder: Principles of Psychiatric Genetics in the Light of Comparative Twin Studies (New York: Norton, 1953). A convenient summary of Kallmann's findings, along with the statistical results of comparable studies, can be found in David Rosenthal, Genetic Theory and Abnormal Behavior (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1970). In The Genetics of Schizophrenia, Kallmann indicated that he was not averse to using the authority of the state to enforce eugenic prophylactic measures in certain cases.
106. Franz J. Kallmann, The Genetics of Schizophrenia: A Study of Heredity and Reproduction in the Families of 1,087 Schizophrenics (New York: Augustin, 1938); idem, Heredity in Health and Mental Disorder: Principles of Psychiatric Genetics in the Light of Comparative Twin Studies (New York: Norton, 1953). A convenient summary of Kallmann's findings, along with the statistical results of comparable studies, can be found in David Rosenthal, Genetic Theory and Abnormal Behavior (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1970). In The Genetics of Schizophrenia, Kallmann indicated that he was not averse to using the authority of the state to enforce eugenic prophylactic measures in certain cases.
107. Franz J. Kallmann, The Genetics of Schizophrenia: A Study of Heredity and Reproduction in the Families of 1,087 Schizophrenics (New York: Augustin, 1938); idem, Heredity in Health and Mental Disorder: Principles of Psychiatric Genetics in the Light of Comparative Twin Studies (New York: Norton, 1953). A convenient summary of Kallmann's findings, along with the statistical results of comparable studies, can be found in David Rosenthal, Genetic Theory and Abnormal Behavior (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1970). In The Genetics of Schizophrenia, Kallmann indicated that he was not averse to using the authority of the state to enforce eugenic prophylactic measures in certain cases.
108. Franz J. Kallmann, The Genetics of Schizophrenia: A Study of Heredity and Reproduction in the Families of 1,087 Schizophrenics (New York: Augustin, 1938); idem, Heredity in Health and Mental Disorder: Principles of Psychiatric Genetics in the Light of Comparative Twin Studies (New York: Norton, 1953). A convenient summary of Kallmann's findings, along with the statistical results of comparable studies, can be found in David Rosenthal, Genetic Theory and Abnormal Behavior (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1970). In The Genetics of Schizophrenia, Kallmann indicated that he was not averse to using the authority of the state to enforce eugenic prophylactic measures in certain cases.
109. Horatio M. Pollock, Mental Disease and Social Welfare (Utica, N.Y.: State Hospitals Press, 1941), pp. 117-33, quotation on p. 130. See also Horatio M. Pollock, Benjamin Malzberg, and Raymond G. Fuller, Hereditary and Environmental Factors in the Causation of Manic-Depressive Psychoses and Dementia Praecox (Utica, N.Y.: State Hospitals Press, 1939).
110. Horatio M. Pollock, Mental Disease and Social Welfare (Utica, N.Y.: State Hospitals Press, 1941), pp. 117-33, quotation on p. 130. See also Horatio M. Pollock, Benjamin Malzberg, and Raymond G. Fuller, Hereditary and Environmental Factors in the Causation of Manic-Depressive Psychoses and Dementia Praecox (Utica, N.Y.: State Hospitals Press, 1939).
111. Examples of this kind of thinking include John W. Appel and Gilbert M. Beebe, "Preventive Psychiatry: An Epidemiologic Approach," JAMA, 1946, 131: 1469-75; John W. Appel, "Incidence of Neuropsychiatric Disorders in the United States Army in World War II," Amer. J Psychiatry, 1945, 102: 433-36; Roy R. Grinker and John P. Spiegel, Men Under Stress (Philadelphia: Blakiston, 1945), pp. 427-60; Thomas A. C. Rennie and Luther E. Woodward, Mental Health in Modern Society (New York: Commonwealth Fund, 1948); and William C. Menninger, Psychiatry in a Troubled World: Yesterday's War and Today's Challenge (New York: Macmillan, 1948). A detailed history of post-World War II developments can be found in Gerald N. Grob, From Asylum to Community: Mental Health Policy in Modern America (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991).
112. Examples of this kind of thinking include John W. Appel and Gilbert M. Beebe, "Preventive Psychiatry: An Epidemiologic Approach," JAMA, 1946, 131: 1469-75; John W. Appel, "Incidence of Neuropsychiatric Disorders in the United States Army in World War II," Amer. J Psychiatry, 1945, 102: 433-36; Roy R. Grinker and John P. Spiegel, Men Under Stress (Philadelphia: Blakiston, 1945), pp. 427-60; Thomas A. C. Rennie and Luther E. Woodward, Mental Health in Modern Society (New York: Commonwealth Fund, 1948); and William C. Menninger, Psychiatry in a Troubled World: Yesterday's War and Today's Challenge (New York: Macmillan, 1948). A detailed history of post-World War II developments can be found in Gerald N. Grob, From Asylum to Community: Mental Health Policy in Modern America (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991).
113. Examples of this kind of thinking include John W. Appel and Gilbert M. Beebe, "Preventive Psychiatry: An Epidemiologic Approach," JAMA, 1946, 131: 1469-75; John W. Appel, "Incidence of Neuropsychiatric Disorders in the United States Army in World War II," Amer. J Psychiatry, 1945, 102: 433-36; Roy R. Grinker and John P. Spiegel, Men Under Stress (Philadelphia: Blakiston, 1945), pp. 427-60; Thomas A. C. Rennie and Luther E. Woodward, Mental Health in Modern Society (New York: Commonwealth Fund, 1948); and William C. Menninger, Psychiatry in a Troubled World: Yesterday's War and Today's Challenge (New York: Macmillan, 1948). A detailed history of post-World War II developments can be found in Gerald N. Grob, From Asylum to Community: Mental Health Policy in Modern America (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991).
114. Examples of this kind of thinking include John W. Appel and Gilbert M. Beebe, "Preventive Psychiatry: An Epidemiologic Approach," JAMA, 1946, 131: 1469-75; John W. Appel, "Incidence of Neuropsychiatric Disorders in the United States Army in World War II," Amer. J Psychiatry, 1945, 102: 433-36; Roy R. Grinker and John P. Spiegel, Men Under Stress (Philadelphia: Blakiston, 1945), pp. 427-60; Thomas A. C. Rennie and Luther E. Woodward, Mental Health in Modern Society (New York: Commonwealth Fund, 1948); and William C. Menninger, Psychiatry in a Troubled World: Yesterday's War and Today's Challenge (New York: Macmillan, 1948). A detailed history of post-World War II developments can be found in Gerald N. Grob, From Asylum to Community: Mental Health Policy in Modern America (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991).
115. Examples of this kind of thinking include John W. Appel and Gilbert M. Beebe, "Preventive Psychiatry: An Epidemiologic Approach," JAMA, 1946, 131: 1469-75; John W. Appel, "Incidence of Neuropsychiatric Disorders in the United States Army in World War II," Amer. J Psychiatry, 1945, 102: 433-36; Roy R. Grinker and John P. Spiegel, Men Under Stress (Philadelphia: Blakiston, 1945), pp. 427-60; Thomas A. C. Rennie and Luther E. Woodward, Mental Health in Modern Society (New York: Commonwealth Fund, 1948); and William C. Menninger, Psychiatry in a Troubled World: Yesterday's War and Today's Challenge (New York: Macmillan, 1948). A detailed history of post-World War II developments can be found in Gerald N. Grob, From Asylum to Community: Mental Health Policy in Modern America (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991).
116. Examples of this kind of thinking include John W. Appel and Gilbert M. Beebe, "Preventive Psychiatry: An Epidemiologic Approach," JAMA, 1946, 131: 1469-75; John W. Appel, "Incidence of Neuropsychiatric Disorders in the United States Army in World War II," Amer. J Psychiatry, 1945, 102: 433-36; Roy R. Grinker and John P. Spiegel, Men Under Stress (Philadelphia: Blakiston, 1945), pp. 427-60; Thomas A. C. Rennie and Luther E. Woodward, Mental Health in Modern Society (New York: Commonwealth Fund, 1948); and William C. Menninger, Psychiatry in a Troubled World: Yesterday's War and Today's Challenge (New York: Macmillan, 1948). A detailed history of post-World War II developments can be found in Gerald N. Grob, From Asylum to Community: Mental Health Policy in Modern America (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991).
117. See especially Lawrence Friedman, Menninger: The Family and the Clinic (New York: Knopf, 1990); and Nathan G. Hale, Jr., The Rise and Crisis of Psychoanalysis in the United States: Freud and the Americans, 1917-1985 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995).
118. See especially Lawrence Friedman, Menninger: The Family and the Clinic (New York: Knopf, 1990); and Nathan G. Hale, Jr., The Rise and Crisis of Psychoanalysis in the United States: Freud and the Americans, 1917-1985 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995).
119. Karl A. Menninger, Martin Mayman, and Paul Pruyser, The Vital Balance: The Life Process in Mental Health and Illness (New York: Viking Press, 1963), p. 5. See also Jack Ewalt, Edward A. Strecker, and Franklin G. Ebaugh, Practical Clinical Psychiatry for Students and Practitioners, 8th ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1957).
120. Karl A. Menninger, Martin Mayman, and Paul Pruyser, The Vital Balance: The Life Process in Mental Health and Illness (New York: Viking Press, 1963), p. 5. See also Jack Ewalt, Edward A. Strecker, and Franklin G. Ebaugh, Practical Clinical Psychiatry for Students and Practitioners, 8th ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1957).
121. Robert H. Felix and R. V. Bowers, "Mental Hygiene and Socio-Environmental Factors," Milbank Memorial Fund Quart., 1948, 26: 125-47, quotation on p. 125.
122. Ibid.
123. Robert H. Felix, "Mental Public Health: A Blueprint," presentation at St. Elizabeths Hospital, Washington, D.C., 21 April 1945, Felix Papers, National Library of Medicine, Bethesda, Md. See also Paul V. Lemkau, "The Future Organization of Psychiatric Care," Psychiatric Quart., 1951, 25: 201-12.
124. Robert H. Felix, "Mental Public Health: A Blueprint," presentation at St. Elizabeths Hospital, Washington, D.C., 21 April 1945, Felix Papers, National Library of Medicine, Bethesda, Md. See also Paul V. Lemkau, "The Future Organization of Psychiatric Care," Psychiatric Quart., 1951, 25: 201-12.
125. Gerald N. Grob, "The Origins of American Psychiatric Epidemiology," Amer. J. Pub. Health, 1985, 75: 229-36.
126. Edward A. Strecker, Basic Psychiatry (New York: Random House, 1952), pp. 16, 17.
127. Lawrence C. Kolb, Noyes' Modern Clinical Psychiatry, 7th ed. (Philadelphia: Saunders, 1968), p. 117.
128. Ibid., pp. 117-18.
129. The Menninger Foundation's Psychotherapy Research Project generated numerous publications, many of which dealt with the barriers that impeded scientific measurement of psychotherapy. The most detailed was Robert Wallerstein's Forty-Two Lives in Treatment: A Study of Psychoanalysis and Psychotherapy (New York: Guilford Press, 1986). For a history of the Project, see Friedman, Menninger (n. 66), pp. 287-89.
130. The Menninger Foundation's Psychotherapy Research Project generated numerous publications, many of which dealt with the barriers that impeded scientific measurement of psychotherapy. The most detailed was Robert Wallerstein's Forty-Two Lives in Treatment: A Study of Psychoanalysis and Psychotherapy (New York: Guilford Press, 1986). For a history of the Project, see Friedman, Menninger (n. 66), pp. 287-89.
131. George N. Thompson, "The Society of Biological Psychiatry," Amer. J. Psychiatry, 1954, 111: 389-91, quotation on p. 390. The persistence of the biological tradition even during a period in which psychodynamic concepts were dominant is reflected in the preoccupation with psychosurgery in the years from 1945 to 1950. For a fascinating account of psychosurgery see Jack D. Pressman, Last Resort: Psychosurgery and the Limits of Medicine (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998).
132. George N. Thompson, "The Society of Biological Psychiatry," Amer. J. Psychiatry, 1954, 111: 389-91, quotation on p. 390. The persistence of the biological tradition even during a period in which psychodynamic concepts were dominant is reflected in the preoccupation with psychosurgery in the years from 1945 to 1950. For a fascinating account of psychosurgery see Jack D. Pressman, Last Resort: Psychosurgery and the Limits of Medicine (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998).
133. National Institute of Mental Health Psychopharmacology Service Center Collaborative Study Group, "Phenothiazine Treatment in Acute Schizophrenia," Arch. Gen. Psychiatry, 1964, 10: 246-61.
134. Benjamin Pasamanick, Frank R. Scarpitti, and Simon Dinitz, Schizophrenics in the Community: An Experimental Study in the Prevention of Hospitalization (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1967), p. 271.
135. American Psychiatric Association, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders: DSM-III [DSM-III-R] [DSM-IV] (Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Association, 1980, 1987, 1994).
136. For a convenient (although one-sided) review of the literature see Colin A. Ross and Alvin Pam, Pseudoscience in Biological Psychiatry: Blaming the Body (New York: Wiley, 1995), pp. 7-84.
137. This theme is evident in Herbert Pardes, "Presidential Address: Defending Humanistic Values," Amer. J. Psychiatry, 1990, 147: 1113-1119, see esp. p. 1114. It is instructive to compare Pardes's address with those of his more psychodynamically oriented predecessors, which can be found in a collection of APA presidential addresses entitled New Directions in American Psychiatry 1944-1968 (Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Association, 1969). The latter were equally proud of the achievements of their specialty and looked forward to an even brighter future.
138. This theme is evident in Herbert Pardes, "Presidential Address: Defending Humanistic Values," Amer. J. Psychiatry, 1990, 147: 1113-1119, see esp. p. 1114. It is instructive to compare Pardes's address with those of his more psychodynamically oriented predecessors, which can be found in a collection of APA presidential addresses entitled New Directions in American Psychiatry 1944-1968 (Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Association, 1969). The latter were equally proud of the achievements of their specialty and looked forward to an even brighter future.
139. In suggesting that the proclaimed potential benefits of the Human Genome Project are unrealistic, I do not wish to imply that the pursuit of genetic knowledge is futile. Unfortunately, there is a prevailing belief that genetic findings will be both simple and deterministic. The most sophisticated work in this field, by contrast, suggests the very opposite. Single major gene diseases are the exception rather than the rule. More importantly, there is no simple correspondence between genotype and phenotype; multiple genes interact with each other as well as with the environment. The same genotype can give rise to a different phenotype; conversely, different genotypes can produce the same phenotype. In effect, the findings of modern genetics can only be stated in terms of probabilities, which hardly differs from the older concept of predisposition or diathesis.
140. René Dubos, Mirage of Health: Utopias, Progress, and Biological Change (New York: Harper, 1959), p. 1.
141. Leon Eisenberg, "The Social Construction of the Human Brain," Amer. J. Psychiatry, 1995, 152: 1563-75, quotation on p. 1563. See also idem, "Seed or Soil: How Does Our Garden Grow?" ibid., 1996, 153: 3-5; and "Medicine Molecular, Monetary, or More than Both?" JAMA, 1995, 274: 331-34.
142. Leon Eisenberg, "The Social Construction of the Human Brain," Amer. J. Psychiatry, 1995, 152: 1563-75, quotation on p. 1563. See also idem, "Seed or Soil: How Does Our Garden Grow?" ibid., 1996, 153: 3-5; and "Medicine Molecular, Monetary, or More than Both?" JAMA, 1995, 274: 331-34.
143. Leon Eisenberg, "The Social Construction of the Human Brain," Amer. J. Psychiatry, 1995, 152: 1563-75, quotation on p. 1563. See also idem, "Seed or Soil: How Does Our Garden Grow?" ibid., 1996, 153: 3-5; and "Medicine Molecular, Monetary, or More than Both?" JAMA, 1995, 274: 331-34.
144. For a general discussion that relates the health-care system to changing epidemiological patterns, see Daniel M. Fox, Power and Illness: The Failure and Future of American Health Policy (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993).