How far the sword? Militia tactics and politics in the Commonwealth of Oceana

History of Political Thought

Volumn 19, Issue 2, 1998, Pages 187-212

  Kubik, T R W ^a  

^a Wubben Hall and Science Center 232   (United States)

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EID: 0032089317     PISSN: 0143781X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (143)

1. 2 James Harrington, The Commonwealth of Oceana and A System of Politics, ed. J.G.A. Pocock (Cambridge, 1992), p. 56.
2. 3 Ibid., p. xix.
3. 4 Ibid., pp. xix, xx; also J.G.A. Pocock, 'A Discourse of Sovereignty', in Political Discourse in Early Modern Britain, ed. Nicholas Phillipson and Quentin Skinner
4. 4 Ibid., pp. xix, xx; also J.G.A. Pocock, 'A Discourse of Sovereignty', in Political Discourse in Early Modern Britain, ed. Nicholas Phillipson and Quentin Skinner
5. 5 Pocock, 'Discourse', p. 407. Interpreting these two 'personae', the eighth chapter of J.C. Davis, Utopia and the Ideal Society: A Study of English Utopian Writings, 1516-1700 (Cambridge, 1981), contrasts Harrington's 'utopianism' with his self-identified 'republicanism'; Jonathan Scott, 'The Rapture of Motion: James Harrington's Republicanism', in Discourse, ed. Phillipson and Skinner, pp. 139-63, opposes the innocence of 'utopianism' in Harrington to the spectre of 'totalitarianism'; W. Craig Diamond, 'Natural Philosophy in Harrington's Political Thought', The Journal of the History of Philosophy, 16(4) (1978), pp. 387-98, compares this 'utopianism' favourably with a 'cosmic spiritualism'; and even The Political Works of James Harrington, ed. J.G.A. Pocock (Cambridge, 1977), pp. 15-76, and Oceana, ed. Pocock, pp. xxi-xxiv, has contrasted Harrington's 'political satirism' with the possibility of 'millenarianism' or 'Platonism'.
6. 5 Pocock, 'Discourse', p. 407. Interpreting these two 'personae', the eighth chapter of J.C. Davis, Utopia and the Ideal Society: A Study of English Utopian Writings, 1516-1700 (Cambridge, 1981), contrasts Harrington's 'utopianism' with his self-identified 'republicanism'; Jonathan Scott, 'The Rapture of Motion: James Harrington's Republicanism', in Discourse, ed. Phillipson and Skinner, pp. 139-63, opposes the innocence of 'utopianism' in Harrington to the spectre of 'totalitarianism'; W. Craig Diamond, 'Natural Philosophy in Harrington's Political Thought', The Journal of the History of Philosophy, 16(4) (1978), pp. 387-98, compares this 'utopianism' favourably with a 'cosmic spiritualism'; and even The Political Works of James Harrington, ed. J.G.A. Pocock (Cambridge, 1977), pp. 15-76, and Oceana, ed. Pocock, pp. xxi-xxiv, has contrasted Harrington's 'political satirism' with the possibility of 'millenarianism' or 'Platonism'.
7. 5 Pocock, 'Discourse', p. 407. Interpreting these two 'personae', the eighth chapter of J.C. Davis, Utopia and the Ideal Society: A Study of English Utopian Writings, 1516-1700 (Cambridge, 1981), contrasts Harrington's 'utopianism' with his self-identified 'republicanism'; Jonathan Scott, 'The Rapture of Motion: James Harrington's Republicanism', in Discourse, ed. Phillipson and Skinner, pp. 139-63, opposes the innocence of 'utopianism' in Harrington to the spectre of 'totalitarianism'; W. Craig Diamond, 'Natural Philosophy in Harrington's Political Thought', The Journal of the History of Philosophy, 16(4) (1978), pp. 387-98, compares this 'utopianism' favourably with a 'cosmic spiritualism'; and even The Political Works of James Harrington, ed. J.G.A. Pocock (Cambridge, 1977), pp. 15-76, and Oceana, ed. Pocock, pp. xxi-xxiv, has contrasted Harrington's 'political satirism' with the possibility of 'millenarianism' or 'Platonism'.
8. 5 Pocock, 'Discourse', p. 407. Interpreting these two 'personae', the eighth chapter of J.C. Davis, Utopia and the Ideal Society: A Study of English Utopian Writings, 1516-1700 (Cambridge, 1981), contrasts Harrington's 'utopianism' with his self-identified 'republicanism'; Jonathan Scott, 'The Rapture of Motion: James Harrington's Republicanism', in Discourse, ed. Phillipson and Skinner, pp. 139-63, opposes the innocence of 'utopianism' in Harrington to the spectre of 'totalitarianism'; W. Craig Diamond, 'Natural Philosophy in Harrington's Political Thought', The Journal of the History of Philosophy, 16(4) (1978), pp. 387-98, compares this 'utopianism' favourably with a 'cosmic spiritualism'; and even The Political Works of James Harrington, ed. J.G.A. Pocock (Cambridge, 1977), pp. 15-76, and Oceana, ed. Pocock, pp. xxi-xxiv, has contrasted Harrington's 'political satirism' with the possibility of 'millenarianism' or 'Platonism'.
9. 5 Pocock, 'Discourse', p. 407. Interpreting these two 'personae', the eighth chapter of J.C. Davis, Utopia and the Ideal Society: A Study of English Utopian Writings, 1516-1700 (Cambridge, 1981), contrasts Harrington's 'utopianism' with his self-identified 'republicanism'; Jonathan Scott, 'The Rapture of Motion: James Harrington's Republicanism', in Discourse, ed. Phillipson and Skinner, pp. 139-63, opposes the innocence of 'utopianism' in Harrington to the spectre of 'totalitarianism'; W. Craig Diamond, 'Natural Philosophy in Harrington's Political Thought', The Journal of the History of Philosophy, 16(4) (1978), pp. 387-98, compares this 'utopianism' favourably with a 'cosmic spiritualism'; and even The Political Works of James Harrington, ed. J.G.A. Pocock (Cambridge, 1977), pp. 15-76, and Oceana, ed. Pocock, pp. xxi-xxiv, has contrasted Harrington's 'political satirism' with the possibility of 'millenarianism' or 'Platonism'.
10. 5 Pocock, 'Discourse', p. 407. Interpreting these two 'personae', the eighth chapter of J.C. Davis, Utopia and the Ideal Society: A Study of English Utopian Writings, 1516-1700 (Cambridge, 1981), contrasts Harrington's 'utopianism' with his self-identified 'republicanism'; Jonathan Scott, 'The Rapture of Motion: James Harrington's Republicanism', in Discourse, ed. Phillipson and Skinner, pp. 139-63, opposes the innocence of 'utopianism' in Harrington to the spectre of 'totalitarianism'; W. Craig Diamond, 'Natural Philosophy in Harrington's Political Thought', The Journal of the History of Philosophy, 16(4) (1978), pp. 387-98, compares this 'utopianism' favourably with a 'cosmic spiritualism'; and even The Political Works of James Harrington, ed. J.G.A. Pocock (Cambridge, 1977), pp. 15-76, and Oceana, ed. Pocock, pp. xxi-xxiv, has contrasted Harrington's 'political satirism' with the possibility of 'millenarianism' or 'Platonism'.
11. 6 Pocock, 'Discourse', p. 407.
12. 7 Harrington, Oceana, ed. Pocock, p. xvii.
13. 8 Davis, Utopia, p. 206.
14. 9 Harrington, Oceana, ed. Pocock, p. 265: '(seeing by men wholly ignorant of antiquity, I am accused of writing romance)', is but one example.
15. 10 Harrington, Oceana, ed. Pocock, pp. 55-6. Pocock has also considered Harrington's writings in the context of the 'Good Old Cause' of the army in the Civil War, a context which is closer, though not identical, to that of my own. See J.G.A. Pocock, 'James Harrington and the Good Old Cause: A Study of the Ideological Context of his Writings', Journal of British Studies, X, 1 (November 1970), pp. 30-48.
16. 10 Harrington, Oceana, ed. Pocock, pp. 55-6. Pocock has also considered Harrington's writings in the context of the 'Good Old Cause' of the army in the Civil War, a context which is closer, though not identical, to that of my own. See J.G.A. Pocock, 'James Harrington and the Good Old Cause: A Study of the Ideological Context of his Writings', Journal of British Studies, X, 1 (November 1970), pp. 30-48.
17. 11 Harrington, Oceana, ed. Pocock, p. 57.
18. 12 Ibid., pp. 8-9.
19. 13 Ibid., p. xvii.
20. 14 Ibid., p. 7.
21. 15 James Harrington, 'A Discourse Upon this Saying: The Spirit of the Nation is not yet to be trusted with Liberty; lest it introduce Monarchy, or invade the Liberty of Conscience', in The Oceana and other works of James Harrington, with an Account of his Life by John Toland (London, 1700; enlarged by T. Birch, 1747) (hereafter, Oceana, ed. Toland), p. 608.
22. 15 James Harrington, 'A Discourse Upon this Saying: The Spirit of the Nation is not yet to be trusted with Liberty; lest it introduce Monarchy, or invade the Liberty of Conscience', in The Oceana and other works of James Harrington, with an Account of his Life by John Toland (London, 1700; enlarged by T. Birch, 1747) (hereafter, Oceana, ed. Toland), p. 608.
23. 16 Pocock, 'Discourse', p. 406.
24. 17 Harrington, 'Seven Models of a Commonwealth - or - Brief Directions Shewing how a fit and Perfect Model of Popular Government May be made, found, or understood' (1658). Appearing in Oceana, ed. Toland, and as 'Brief Directions' in Political Works of James Harrington, ed. Pocock. Harrington's comedic reply to Matthew Wren entitled, 'Politicaster' (1656/7), appears in both the Toland and Pocock editions of Harrington's works.
25. 17 Harrington, 'Seven Models of a Commonwealth - or - Brief Directions Shewing how a fit and Perfect Model of Popular Government May be made, found, or understood' (1658). Appearing in Oceana, ed. Toland, and as 'Brief Directions' in Political Works of James Harrington, ed. Pocock. Harrington's comedic reply to Matthew Wren entitled, 'Politicaster' (1656/7), appears in both the Toland and Pocock editions of Harrington's works.
26. 17 Harrington, 'Seven Models of a Commonwealth - or - Brief Directions Shewing how a fit and Perfect Model of Popular Government May be made, found, or understood' (1658). Appearing in Oceana, ed. Toland, and as 'Brief Directions' in Political Works of James Harrington, ed. Pocock. Harrington's comedic reply to Matthew Wren entitled, 'Politicaster' (1656/7), appears in both the Toland and Pocock editions of Harrington's works.
27. 17 Harrington, 'Seven Models of a Commonwealth - or - Brief Directions Shewing how a fit and Perfect Model of Popular Government May be made, found, or understood' (1658). Appearing in Oceana, ed. Toland, and as 'Brief Directions' in Political Works of James Harrington, ed. Pocock. Harrington's comedic reply to Matthew Wren entitled, 'Politicaster' (1656/7), appears in both the Toland and Pocock editions of Harrington's works.
28. 18 I take this distinction in Harrington's verbiage to be crucial to understanding his historical as opposed to rational project. Models in history are found, whereas a model is most often founded upon rational principles.
29. 19 Harrington, 'Brief Directions', in Oceana, ed. Toland, p. 526. This model is very nearly a parody of itself: an absolutely sovereign king who is so only in his palace, and may be justly killed by any subject when once he leaves it! Perhaps understandably, it has no model in history, even though it may perhaps serve here as satire of the Sultan in Turkey.
30. 20 Harrington, 'Brief Directions', in Oceana, ed. Toland, p. 524.
31. 21 Harrington, 'Politicaster', in Oceana, ed. Toland, pp. 581-2: 'Again, the Testimony of Machiavel throughout his Works is that he intendeth not carelessly to start some Philosophical Opinion, but applieth everything home and expressly unto Italy, though not without some Despair, yet with Ardour, or if you will have it so, with the Heat and Passion belonging unto so noble a Design. Wherefore for you to adoperate this Testimony quite contrary to the Truth of it, as a Proof that my way of writing hath no Affinity with this Author's, is Subordination of Witness . . . the whole Ability of modeling a Commonwealth, lyeth in two things: the one, in being well versed in ancient Prudence; the other in being disengaged from all Parties: neither of which Qualifications is common with Ministers of State.' (Italics in the original.)
32. 22 These devices are among several discussed by G.W. Pigman III, 'Versions of Imitation in the Renaissance', Renaissance Quarterly, 33(1) (1980), pp. 1-32. According to Pigman' s terms, aemulatio and eristic are forms of imitation designed to go one better than their original example, inventio, a form which combines several original examples to a new effect. Such a suggestion that Harrington is involved in a rhetorical endeavour would place him in strong opposition to the philosophical projects of schoolmen, or for that matter, utopians so understood. See George H. Nadel, 'The Philosophy of History before Historicism', History and Theory, 3 (1964), pp. 291-315; Giambatista Vico, On the Study Methods of our Time, trans. with an introduction and notes by Elio Gianturco (Ithaca, 1990).
33. 22 These devices are among several discussed by G.W. Pigman III, 'Versions of Imitation in the Renaissance', Renaissance Quarterly, 33(1) (1980), pp. 1-32. According to Pigman' s terms, aemulatio and eristic are forms of imitation designed to go one better than their original example, inventio, a form which combines several original examples to a new effect. Such a suggestion that Harrington is involved in a rhetorical endeavour would place him in strong opposition to the philosophical projects of schoolmen, or for that matter, utopians so understood. See George H. Nadel, 'The Philosophy of History before Historicism', History and Theory, 3 (1964), pp. 291-315; Giambatista Vico, On the Study Methods of our Time, trans. with an introduction and notes by Elio Gianturco (Ithaca, 1990).
34. 22 These devices are among several discussed by G.W. Pigman III, 'Versions of Imitation in the Renaissance', Renaissance Quarterly, 33(1) (1980), pp. 1-32. According to Pigman' s terms, aemulatio and eristic are forms of imitation designed to go one better than their original example, inventio, a form which combines several original examples to a new effect. Such a suggestion that Harrington is involved in a rhetorical endeavour would place him in strong opposition to the philosophical projects of schoolmen, or for that matter, utopians so understood. See George H. Nadel, 'The Philosophy of History before Historicism', History and Theory, 3 (1964), pp. 291-315; Giambatista Vico, On the Study Methods of our Time, trans. with an introduction and notes by Elio Gianturco (Ithaca, 1990).
35. 23 Harrington, Oceana, ed. Pocock, p. xvii.
36. 24 'Verses Written on the Muster That Was Made by the Pensioners Before the Queen', from A Pleasaunte Laborinth Called Churchyardes Chance, a selection reprinted in G. Geoffrey Langsam, Martial Books and Tudor Verse (New York, 1951), pp. 129-30.
37. 24 'Verses Written on the Muster That Was Made by the Pensioners Before the Queen', from A Pleasaunte Laborinth Called Churchyardes Chance, a selection reprinted in G. Geoffrey Langsam, Martial Books and Tudor Verse (New York, 1951), pp. 129-30.
38. 25 While this brief account is designed only to be suggestive of how Harrington's Orders might be read, those wishing a fuller development of the history of the militia in the century prior to Oceana's publication may wish to consult the following more comprehensive works: Ian F.W. Beckett, The Amateur Military Tradition, 1558-1945 (Manchester, 1991), pp. 1-60; War and Government in Britain, 1598-1650, ed. Mark Charles Fissel (Manchester, 1991), pp. 58-109; Lindsay Boynton, The Elizabethan Militia, 1558-1638 (London, 1967); and also A. Hassell Smith, 'Militia Rates and Militia Statutes, 1558-1663', in The English Commonwealth, 1547-1640, Essays in Politics and Society, ed, P.N. Clark et al. (New York, 1979), pp. 93-110.
39. 25 While this brief account is designed only to be suggestive of how Harrington's Orders might be read, those wishing a fuller development of the history of the militia in the century prior to Oceana's publication may wish to consult the following more comprehensive works: Ian F.W. Beckett, The Amateur Military Tradition, 1558-1945 (Manchester, 1991), pp. 1-60; War and Government in Britain, 1598-1650, ed. Mark Charles Fissel (Manchester, 1991), pp. 58-109; Lindsay Boynton, The Elizabethan Militia, 1558-1638 (London, 1967); and also A. Hassell Smith, 'Militia Rates and Militia Statutes, 1558-1663', in The English Commonwealth, 1547-1640, Essays in Politics and Society, ed, P.N. Clark et al. (New York, 1979), pp. 93-110.
40. 25 While this brief account is designed only to be suggestive of how Harrington's Orders might be read, those wishing a fuller development of the history of the militia in the century prior to Oceana's publication may wish to consult the following more comprehensive works: Ian F.W. Beckett, The Amateur Military Tradition, 1558-1945 (Manchester, 1991), pp. 1-60; War and Government in Britain, 1598-1650, ed. Mark Charles Fissel (Manchester, 1991), pp. 58-109; Lindsay Boynton, The Elizabethan Militia, 1558-1638 (London, 1967); and also A. Hassell Smith, 'Militia Rates and Militia Statutes, 1558-1663', in The English Commonwealth, 1547-1640, Essays in Politics and Society, ed, P.N. Clark et al. (New York, 1979), pp. 93-110.
41. 25 While this brief account is designed only to be suggestive of how Harrington's Orders might be read, those wishing a fuller development of the history of the militia in the century prior to Oceana's publication may wish to consult the following more comprehensive works: Ian F.W. Beckett, The Amateur Military Tradition, 1558-1945 (Manchester, 1991), pp. 1-60; War and Government in Britain, 1598-1650, ed. Mark Charles Fissel (Manchester, 1991), pp. 58-109; Lindsay Boynton, The Elizabethan Militia, 1558-1638 (London, 1967); and also A. Hassell Smith, 'Militia Rates and Militia Statutes, 1558-1663', in The English Commonwealth, 1547-1640, Essays in Politics and Society, ed, P.N. Clark et al. (New York, 1979), pp. 93-110.
42. 26 Boynton, Elizabethan Militia, p. 20.
43. 27 Beckett, Amateur Military, pp. 9-11.
44. 28 It is quite interesting, though not directly related to this project, to compare the history of Harrington, Oceana, ed. Pocock, pp. 48-55, with the more current work of Beckett, Amateur Military, pp. 9-20. While Harrington makes no reference to statutes in his history of this period, he clearly describes the effects of two: the 1181 Assize of Arms, which divided the population into four classes and taxed according to wealth rather than land rates; and the 1285 Statute of Westminster, which introduced military obligation to indentured men on behalf of their landlords. Each author depicts not a continuous narrative of long tradition, but one of radical disjunctures arising from circumstances of political imbalance. As such, for each, the militia while being a result of historical necessity is also something quite new.
45. 28 It is quite interesting, though not directly related to this project, to compare the history of Harrington, Oceana, ed. Pocock, pp. 48-55, with the more current work of Beckett, Amateur Military, pp. 9-20. While Harrington makes no reference to statutes in his history of this period, he clearly describes the effects of two: the 1181 Assize of Arms, which divided the population into four classes and taxed according to wealth rather than land rates; and the 1285 Statute of Westminster, which introduced military obligation to indentured men on behalf of their landlords. Each author depicts not a continuous narrative of long tradition, but one of radical disjunctures arising from circumstances of political imbalance. As such, for each, the militia while being a result of historical necessity is also something quite new.
46. 29 Beckett, Amateur Military, p. 19.
47. 30 Ibid., p. 20.
48. 31 Ibid.
49. 32 The structure of this chain of command is detailed in Boynton, Elizabethan Militia, pp. 15-16.
50. 33 Beckett, Amateur Military, p. 21; Boynton, Elizabethan Militia, pp. 17, 27. As to the 8.00 a.m. starting time, Boynton notes this was a particularly kind appointment as the average sixteenth-century worker's day began around 5.00 a.m.
51. 33 Beckett, Amateur Military, p. 21; Boynton, Elizabethan Militia, pp. 17, 27. As to the 8.00 a.m. starting time, Boynton notes this was a particularly kind appointment as the average sixteenth-century worker's day began around 5.00 a.m.
52. 34 Boynton, Elizabethan Militia, pp. 18, 27-8.
53. 35 Ibid., p. 16.
54. 36 Beckett, Amateur Military, p. 21.
55. 37 Boynton, Elizabethan Militia, pp. 20-3.
56. 38 Ibid., p. 27. After 1570 the distinction would unofficially be between Trained and Untrained Bands (ibid., p. 16). The distinction became official in 1577.
57. 38 Ibid., p. 27. After 1570 the distinction would unofficially be between Trained and Untrained Bands (ibid., p. 16). The distinction became official in 1577.
58. 39 Beckett, Amateur Military, p. 26.
59. 40 Ibid., p. 25.
60. 41 Ibid., p. 23.
61. 42 Boynton, Elizabethan Militia, pp. 250, 288.
62. 43 Beckett, Amateur Military, p. 33.
63. 44 Several excellent accounts of such proceedings can be found in Thomas Garden Barnes, 'Deputies not Principals, Lieutenants not Captains: The Institutional Failure of the Lieutenancy in the 1620s', appearing in War and Government in Britain, ed. Fissel, pp. 58-86.
64. 45 Smith, 'Militia Rates', p. 102, from which Coke's comment is cited; and also Beckett, Amateur Military, p. 33.
65. 45 Smith, 'Militia Rates', p. 102, from which Coke's comment is cited; and also Beckett, Amateur Military, p. 33.
66. 46 Beckett, Amateur Military, p. 33; Boynton, Elizabethan Militia, pp. 270-1.
67. 46 Beckett, Amateur Military, p. 33; Boynton, Elizabethan Militia, pp. 270-1.
68. 47 Boynton, Elizabethan Militia, pp. 244-97; Beckett, Amateur Military, pp. 36-8.
69. 47 Boynton, Elizabethan Militia, pp. 244-97; Beckett, Amateur Military, pp. 36-8.
70. 48 Beckett, Amateur Military, p. 38.
71. 49 Boynton, Elizabethan Militia, p. 272.
72. 50 Petition of Right, 7. June. 1628, in Old South Leaflets, No. 23 (Boston, 1896), p. 2.
73. 51 Boynton, Elizabethan Militia, pp. 272, 288.
74. 52 Smith, 'Militia Rates', p. 110.
75. 53 Beckett, Amateur Military, pp. 39-44 for this and the discussion which follows. See also: Lois Schwoerer, '"The Fittest Subject for A King's Quarrel": An Essay on the Militia Controversy of 1641-1642', Journal of British Studies, XI (November 1971), pp. 45-76.
76. 53 Beckett, Amateur Military, pp. 39-44 for this and the discussion which follows. See also: Lois Schwoerer, '"The Fittest Subject for A King's Quarrel": An Essay on the Militia Controversy of 1641-1642', Journal of British Studies, XI (November 1971), pp. 45-76.
77. 54 Schwoerer, 'Fittest Subject', pp. 45-76.
78. 55 Beckett, Amateur Military, p. 46.
79. 56 Ibid., p. 47, states a figure of four days. This is contradicted in Acts and Ordinances of the Interregnum, 1642-1660, Vol. I, March 1642-January 1649, collected and ed. C.H. Firth and R.S. Rait (London, 1911), p. 1251, where the Bill is reportedly not repealed until 16 December 1648. I will follow the latter, as Beckett is unclear whether the Bill was repealed in four days, or that the move to repeal began four days later.
80. 56 Ibid., p. 47, states a figure of four days. This is contradicted in Acts and Ordinances of the Interregnum, 1642-1660, Vol. I, March 1642-January 1649, collected and ed. C.H. Firth and R.S. Rait (London, 1911), p. 1251, where the Bill is reportedly not repealed until 16 December 1648. I will follow the latter, as Beckett is unclear whether the Bill was repealed in four days, or that the move to repeal began four days later.
81. 57 Beckett, Amateur Military, p. 47.
82. 58 Ibid. On the Major-Generals, see also: S.R. Gardiner, History of the Commonwealth and Protectorate, 1649-1660, Vol. III, 1654-1656 (London, 1901), pp. 168-204, and for this figure, p. 172.
83. 58 Ibid. On the Major-Generals, see also: S.R. Gardiner, History of the Commonwealth and Protectorate, 1649-1660, Vol. III, 1654-1656 (London, 1901), pp. 168-204, and for this figure, p. 172.
84. 59 Gardiner, History, p. 175.
85. 60 Ibid., pp. 176-7; and Beckett, Amateur Military, pp. 47-8.
86. 60 Ibid., pp. 176-7; and Beckett, Amateur Military, pp. 47-8.
87. 61 Beckett, Amateur Military, p. 48. Italics added.
88. 62 Gardiner, History, pp. 179-80.
89. 63 Niccolò Machiavelli, The Art of War (1521), trans. E. Farneworth, revised with an introduction by Neal Wood (New York, 1965). The first English-language translation, the appendix of which is contained in the 1965 edition, pp. 3-4, was made by Peter Whitehorn in 1560.
90. 64 Harrington, Oceana, ed. Pocock, pp. 97-8.
91. 65 Ibid., pp. 97-9.
92. 66 For discussions of this 'explosion' see Henry J. Webb, Elizabethan Military Science; The Books and the Practice (Madison, 1965); Langsam, Martial Books; Geoffrey Parker, 'The "Military Revolution", 1560-1660 - a Myth?', Journal of Modern History, 48 (June 1976), pp. 195-214.
93. 66 For discussions of this 'explosion' see Henry J. Webb, Elizabethan Military Science; The Books and the Practice (Madison, 1965); Langsam, Martial Books; Geoffrey Parker, 'The "Military Revolution", 1560-1660 - a Myth?', Journal of Modern History, 48 (June 1976), pp. 195-214.
94. 66 For discussions of this 'explosion' see Henry J. Webb, Elizabethan Military Science; The Books and the Practice (Madison, 1965); Langsam, Martial Books; Geoffrey Parker, 'The "Military Revolution", 1560-1660 - a Myth?', Journal of Modern History, 48 (June 1976), pp. 195-214.
95. 67 Webb, Military Science, pp. 169-71; Langsam, Martial Books, pp. 1-3.
96. 67 Webb, Military Science, pp. 169-71; Langsam, Martial Books, pp. 1-3.
97. 68 The list is primarily taken from Webb, Military Science, pp. 3-16. Langsam's work, while beginning with technical treatises, spends the remainder of its effort in chronicling military elements of Elizabethan theatre and song as an additional source. As for the Bible, Harrington is wont to refer to the Israelite military example, as in: 'Behold the army of Israel become a commonwealth, and the commonwealth of Israel remaining an army' (Harrington, Oceana, ed. Pocock, p. 98). A reader interested in this connection might consider Gerhard von Rad's account of the Israelite military practices, Holy War in Ancient Israel (Grand Rapids, 1991).
98. 68 The list is primarily taken from Webb, Military Science, pp. 3-16. Langsam's work, while beginning with technical treatises, spends the remainder of its effort in chronicling military elements of Elizabethan theatre and song as an additional source. As for the Bible, Harrington is wont to refer to the Israelite military example, as in: 'Behold the army of Israel become a commonwealth, and the commonwealth of Israel remaining an army' (Harrington, Oceana, ed. Pocock, p. 98). A reader interested in this connection might consider Gerhard von Rad's account of the Israelite military practices, Holy War in Ancient Israel (Grand Rapids, 1991).
99. 68 The list is primarily taken from Webb, Military Science, pp. 3-16. Langsam's work, while beginning with technical treatises, spends the remainder of its effort in chronicling military elements of Elizabethan theatre and song as an additional source. As for the Bible, Harrington is wont to refer to the Israelite military example, as in: 'Behold the army of Israel become a commonwealth, and the commonwealth of Israel remaining an army' (Harrington, Oceana, ed. Pocock, p. 98). A reader interested in this connection might consider Gerhard von Rad's account of the Israelite military practices, Holy War in Ancient Israel (Grand Rapids, 1991).
100. 69 A reproduction of this work has been printed by Da Capo Press, The Foure Bookes of Flavius Vegetius Renatus, trans. John Sadler (New York, 1968). A more current version is Flavius Vegetius Renatus, The Military Institutions of the Romans, trans. Lt. John Clark (Harrisburg, 1944).
101. 69 A reproduction of this work has been printed by Da Capo Press, The Foure Bookes of Flavius Vegetius Renatus, trans. John Sadler (New York, 1968). A more current version is Flavius Vegetius Renatus, The Military Institutions of the Romans, trans. Lt. John Clark (Harrisburg, 1944).
102. 70 Giles Clayton, Approved Order of Martial Discipline (New York, 1973), pp. 53-72.
103. 71 Sir Charles Edmondes, Observations, upon the Five First Bookes of Caesar's Commentaries, Setting Fourth the Practice of the Art Military, in the Time of the Roman Empire (1600). The summary is presented in Webb, Military Science, p. 10.
104. 72 Machiavelli, Art of War, p. 41.
105. 73 Implicit in this argument is the view that soldiering is not to be a full time occupation, which in turn suggests that a militia is the best means of providing men at arms. See Machiavelli, Art of War, p. 19: 'Every well-governed commonwealth, therefore, should take care that this art of war should be practised in peace time only as an exercise, and in time of war, only out of necessity . . .'.
106. 74 The argument is obviously a parallel to Harrington's (Oceana, ed. Pocock, p. 4), and is so as well for all those who traced their military thought out of Vegetius, among whom at least we may count Machiavelli (Art of War, pp. 77-8) , but also most of the other writers mentioned above. See Vegetius, Military Institutions, pp. 12-17. Vegetius, writing to the Emperor Valentininan, does not call for a return to the Republic, and yet notes that what he wrote down were not the practices of the empire but those 'formerly observed by the founders thereof, being members of the Republic.
107. 74 The argument is obviously a parallel to Harrington's (Oceana, ed. Pocock, p. 4), and is so as well for all those who traced their military thought out of Vegetius, among whom at least we may count Machiavelli (Art of War, pp. 77-8) , but also most of the other writers mentioned above. See Vegetius, Military Institutions, pp. 12-17. Vegetius, writing to the Emperor Valentininan, does not call for a return to the Republic, and yet notes that what he wrote down were not the practices of the empire but those 'formerly observed by the founders thereof, being members of the Republic.
108. 74 The argument is obviously a parallel to Harrington's (Oceana, ed. Pocock, p. 4), and is so as well for all those who traced their military thought out of Vegetius, among whom at least we may count Machiavelli (Art of War, pp. 77-8) , but also most of the other writers mentioned above. See Vegetius, Military Institutions, pp. 12-17. Vegetius, writing to the Emperor Valentininan, does not call for a return to the Republic, and yet notes that what he wrote down were not the practices of the empire but those 'formerly observed by the founders thereof, being members of the Republic.
109. 75 Harrington, Oceana, ed. Pocock, p. 96.
110. 76 Ibid., pp. 97-8.
111. 77 Recall Machiavelli, Art of War, pp. 3-4, discussed above, pages 198-9.
112. 78 Harrington, Oceana, ed. Pocock, p. 60.
113. 79 Ibid., p. 64.
114. 80 Harrington, Seven Models, in Oceana, ed. Toland, p. 529.
115. 81 Harrington, Oceana, ed. Pocock, p. 100.
116. 82 Ibid., p. 78. The fifth order, begins witih a summons to the parish church at 8.00 a.m. in the morning, and Boynton (note 29, above), regarding militia musters has noted the particularity of this time. Further in this order, there is mention of the seating arrangement of officials, which resembles that of official musters according to Boynton, and is also recreated at the muster field of the seventh order (Harrington, Oceana, ed. Pocock, pp. 83-4).
117. 82 Ibid., p. 78. The fifth order, begins witih a summons to the parish church at 8.00 a.m. in the morning, and Boynton (note 29, above), regarding militia musters has noted the particularity of this time. Further in this order, there is mention of the seating arrangement of officials, which resembles that of official musters according to Boynton, and is also recreated at the muster field of the seventh order (Harrington, Oceana, ed. Pocock, pp. 83-4).
118. 83 Acts and Ordinances, ed. Firth and Rait, Vol. I, pp. 1-5, 1233-1251; Vol. II, pp. 397-402, respectively.
119. 83 Acts and Ordinances, ed. Firth and Rait, Vol. I, pp. 1-5, 1233-1251; Vol. II, pp. 397-402, respectively.
120. 84 The use of these terms is particularly difficult at this time, for while there is much debate surrounding fears of a 'standing army', there is more about what counts as such. While occasionally problematic in Harrington's texts, passages from a later work, The Art of Law Giving (1659), in Oceana, ed. Toland, pp. 452-5, suggest that his use of the term 'standing Army' is not to be equated with the military forces of the New Model Army. An armed force such as that of the New Model rather appears to fit most nearly under the description of an 'Army marching', but is more precisely only the militia mustered-out for duty. The 'standing Army', by contrast, would appear to be the militia in a state of readiness before the muster. It receives no pay, and is always refilled by reserves when the 'Army marching' takes to the field. At least in this work there is no sense of a permanent professional army in Harrington's model. Unfortunately, this raises more questions with regard to the important fourth order of The Corollary to Oceana, ed. Pocock, pp. 251, 255, in which the Protector is granted a 'standing army of twelve thousand men, defrayed upon a monthly tax for the term of three years for the protection of this commonwealth against dissenting parties, to be governed, directed and commanded by and with the advice of the council of war'. The force is far smaller than that of the New Model Army at the time (roughly 50,000 men in January 1655 according to Beckett, Amateur Military, p. 47); and to make matters worse, looks very much like that of the Major-Generals' Select Militia of 6000 horse and 200 foot. In The Corollary, however, it is nearly 100% larger! Has Harrington, sensing the trend of debates in the autumn of 1656, switched sides at the last moment against the arguments of his own model? The question, however crucial to my own argument, must unfortunately remain open. At best it can be noted that Harrington recounts that this force is disbanded at the end of the second year of the commonwealth, suggesting that it is not to be countenanced save in times of extreme emergency. Perhaps it is not too much to note that the Select Militia itself, passed on 9 October 1656, was weakened by repeal of the Decimation Tax in 1657, and finally disbanded two years later in September 1659. See Beckett, Amateur Military, p. 48.
121. 84 The use of these terms is particularly difficult at this time, for while there is much debate surrounding fears of a 'standing army', there is more about what counts as such. While occasionally problematic in Harrington's texts, passages from a later work, The Art of Law Giving (1659), in Oceana, ed. Toland, pp. 452-5, suggest that his use of the term 'standing Army' is not to be equated with the military forces of the New Model Army. An armed force such as that of the New Model rather appears to fit most nearly under the description of an 'Army marching', but is more precisely only the militia mustered-out for duty. The 'standing Army', by contrast, would appear to be the militia in a state of readiness before the muster. It receives no pay, and is always refilled by reserves when the 'Army marching' takes to the field. At least in this work there is no sense of a permanent professional army in Harrington's model. Unfortunately, this raises more questions with regard to the important fourth order of The Corollary to Oceana, ed. Pocock, pp. 251, 255, in which the Protector is granted a 'standing army of twelve thousand men, defrayed upon a monthly tax for the term of three years for the protection of this commonwealth against dissenting parties, to be governed, directed and commanded by and with the advice of the council of war'. The force is far smaller than that of the New Model Army at the time (roughly 50,000 men in January 1655 according to Beckett, Amateur Military, p. 47); and to make matters worse, looks very much like that of the Major-Generals' Select Militia of 6000 horse and 200 foot. In The Corollary, however, it is nearly 100% larger! Has Harrington, sensing the trend of debates in the autumn of 1656, switched sides at the last moment against the arguments of his own model? The question, however crucial to my own argument, must unfortunately remain open. At best it can be noted that Harrington recounts that this force is disbanded at the end of the second year of the commonwealth, suggesting that it is not to be countenanced save in times of extreme emergency. Perhaps it is not too much to note that the Select Militia itself, passed on 9 October 1656, was weakened by repeal of the Decimation Tax in 1657, and finally disbanded two years later in September 1659. See Beckett, Amateur Military, p. 48.
122. 84 The use of these terms is particularly difficult at this time, for while there is much debate surrounding fears of a 'standing army', there is more about what counts as such. While occasionally problematic in Harrington's texts, passages from a later work, The Art of Law Giving (1659), in Oceana, ed. Toland, pp. 452-5, suggest that his use of the term 'standing Army' is not to be equated with the military forces of the New Model Army. An armed force such as that of the New Model rather appears to fit most nearly under the description of an 'Army marching', but is more precisely only the militia mustered-out for duty. The 'standing Army', by contrast, would appear to be the militia in a state of readiness before the muster. It receives no pay, and is always refilled by reserves when the 'Army marching' takes to the field. At least in this work there is no sense of a permanent professional army in Harrington's model. Unfortunately, this raises more questions with regard to the important fourth order of The Corollary to Oceana, ed. Pocock, pp. 251, 255, in which the Protector is granted a 'standing army of twelve thousand men, defrayed upon a monthly tax for the term of three years for the protection of this commonwealth against dissenting parties, to be governed, directed and commanded by and with the advice of the council of war'. The force is far smaller than that of the New Model Army at the time (roughly 50,000 men in January 1655 according to Beckett, Amateur Military, p. 47); and to make matters worse, looks very much like that of the Major-Generals' Select Militia of 6000 horse and 200 foot. In The Corollary, however, it is nearly 100% larger! Has Harrington, sensing the trend of debates in the autumn of 1656, switched sides at the last moment against the arguments of his own model? The question, however crucial to my own argument, must unfortunately remain open. At best it can be noted that Harrington recounts that this force is disbanded at the end of the second year of the commonwealth, suggesting that it is not to be countenanced save in times of extreme emergency. Perhaps it is not too much to note that the Select Militia itself, passed on 9 October 1656, was weakened by repeal of the Decimation Tax in 1657, and finally disbanded two years later in September 1659. See Beckett, Amateur Military, p. 48.
123. 84 The use of these terms is particularly difficult at this time, for while there is much debate surrounding fears of a 'standing army', there is more about what counts as such. While occasionally problematic in Harrington's texts, passages from a later work, The Art of Law Giving (1659), in Oceana, ed. Toland, pp. 452-5, suggest that his use of the term 'standing Army' is not to be equated with the military forces of the New Model Army. An armed force such as that of the New Model rather appears to fit most nearly under the description of an 'Army marching', but is more precisely only the militia mustered-out for duty. The 'standing Army', by contrast, would appear to be the militia in a state of readiness before the muster. It receives no pay, and is always refilled by reserves when the 'Army marching' takes to the field. At least in this work there is no sense of a permanent professional army in Harrington's model. Unfortunately, this raises more questions with regard to the important fourth order of The Corollary to Oceana, ed. Pocock, pp. 251, 255, in which the Protector is granted a 'standing army of twelve thousand men, defrayed upon a monthly tax for the term of three years for the protection of this commonwealth against dissenting parties, to be governed, directed and commanded by and with the advice of the council of war'. The force is far smaller than that of the New Model Army at the time (roughly 50,000 men in January 1655 according to Beckett, Amateur Military, p. 47); and to make matters worse, looks very much like that of the Major-Generals' Select Militia of 6000 horse and 200 foot. In The Corollary, however, it is nearly 100% larger! Has Harrington, sensing the trend of debates in the autumn of 1656, switched sides at the last moment against the arguments of his own model? The question, however crucial to my own argument, must unfortunately remain open. At best it can be noted that Harrington recounts that this force is disbanded at the end of the second year of the commonwealth, suggesting that it is not to be countenanced save in times of extreme emergency. Perhaps it is not too much to note that the Select Militia itself, passed on 9 October 1656, was weakened by repeal of the Decimation Tax in 1657, and finally disbanded two years later in September 1659. See Beckett, Amateur Military, p. 48.
124. 85 Boynton, Elizabethan Militia, p. 16.
125. 86 Harrington, Oceana, ed. Pocock, p. 80.
126. 87 Ibid., p. 89.
127. 88 The Grand Remonstrance, 1. December. 1641, in Old South Leaflets, No. 24.
128. 89 On a final note regarding this order, what Harrington terms the 'Pillar of Nilus' is but a reintroduction of the muster certificates required under the 1558 Acts, but which had been so desirable and so easy to evade when there were not good orders.
129. 90 Acts and Ordinances, ed. Firth and Rait, Vol. II, p. 400. Harrington's numbers for pay-rates do, however, seem a bit more generous than those of the Act.
130. 91 There are those who would suggest that by the middle of the seventeenth century the militia had passed its tactical peak, giving way to forces more like that of the New Model Army. For an introduction to this debate see Parker, 'The "Military Revolution"', pp. 195-214.
131. 92 Harrington, 'Discourse Upon this Saying', in Oceana, ed. Toland, p. 603. Italics in the original.
132. 93 Harrington, Oceana, ed. Pocock, p. 33.
133. 94 Ibid., 96.
134. 95 Ibid., pp. 95, 101-14.
135. 98 Harrington, 'Seven Models' (1658), pp. 524-5. Italics added.
136. 99 The following discussions of martial law are informed by Charles Fairman, The Law of Martial Rule (Chicago, 1930), pp. 1-19; W.S. Holdsworth, 'Martial Law Historically Considered', The Law Quarterly Review (London), XVIII (1902), pp. 117-32; H. Erle Richards, 'Martial Law', The Law Quarterly Review (London), XVIII (1902), pp. 132-42.
137. 99 The following discussions of martial law are informed by Charles Fairman, The Law of Martial Rule (Chicago, 1930), pp. 1-19; W.S. Holdsworth, 'Martial Law Historically Considered', The Law Quarterly Review (London), XVIII (1902), pp. 117-32; H. Erle Richards, 'Martial Law', The Law Quarterly Review (London), XVIII (1902), pp. 132-42.
138. 99 The following discussions of martial law are informed by Charles Fairman, The Law of Martial Rule (Chicago, 1930), pp. 1-19; W.S. Holdsworth, 'Martial Law Historically Considered', The Law Quarterly Review (London), XVIII (1902), pp. 117-32; H. Erle Richards, 'Martial Law', The Law Quarterly Review (London), XVIII (1902), pp. 132-42.
139. 98 Harrington, 'Seven Models' (1658), p. 524.
140. 99 See note 77, above.
141. 100 Harrington, Seven Models, in Oceana, ed. Toland, p. 529.
142. 101 See for example, Maehiavelli, Art of War, p. 173, where the importance of dividing an enemy's command while preserving the unity of ones own, is stressed.
143. 102 Harrington, Oceana, ed. Pocock, p. 25.