Soldiers, surgeons and the campaigns to combat sexually transmitted diseases in colonial India, 1805-1860

Medical History

Volumn 42, Issue 2, 1998, Pages 137-160

  Peers, Douglas M ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALGARY   (Canada)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; HISTORY; HUMAN; INDIA; MILITARY MEDICINE; SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASE; SOLDIER; UNITED KINGDOM;

GREAT BRITAIN; HISTORY, 19TH CENTURY; HUMANS; INDIA; MILITARY MEDICINE; MILITARY PERSONNEL; SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES;

EID: 0032041377     PISSN: 00257273     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0025727300063651     Document Type: Review

References (148)

1. Data compiled from charts in the 'The health of the army', Q. J. Calcutta med. phys. Soc., 1837, 4: 684-93.
2. Oriental and India Office Collections [hereafter OIOC], 'Health of European troops in Bengal, 1848', E/4/808.
3. The dynamic interplay between medical thought and imperial imperatives in India has been the subject of several recent works. David Arnold, Colonizing the body: state medicine and epidemic disease in nineteenth-century India, Berkeley, University of California Press, 1993; Poonam Bala, Imperialism and medicine in Bengal: a sociohistorical perspective. New Delhi, Sage, 1991; Philip Curtin, Death by migration, Cambridge University Press, 1989; and Mark Harrison, Public health in British India: Anglo-Indian preventive medicine, 1859-1914, Cambridge University Press, 1994. However, much more is known about late nineteenth-century imperial medicine than its early nineteenth-century counterparts, a point acknowledged in David Arnold, 'Social crisis and epidemic disease in the famines of nineteenth-century India', Soc. Hist. Med., 1993, 6: 385-404, p. 385. Arnold has also assessed in broad terms the history of venereal diseases in India in 'Sexually transmitted diseases in nineteenth and twentieth century India', Genitourin. Med., 1993, 69: 3-8.
4. The dynamic interplay between medical thought and imperial imperatives in India has been the subject of several recent works. David Arnold, Colonizing the body: state medicine and epidemic disease in nineteenth-century India, Berkeley, University of California Press, 1993; Poonam Bala, Imperialism and medicine in Bengal: a sociohistorical perspective. New Delhi, Sage, 1991; Philip Curtin, Death by migration, Cambridge University Press, 1989; and Mark Harrison, Public health in British India: Anglo-Indian preventive medicine, 1859-1914, Cambridge University Press, 1994. However, much more is known about late nineteenth-century imperial medicine than its early nineteenth-century counterparts, a point acknowledged in David Arnold, 'Social crisis and epidemic disease in the famines of nineteenth-century India', Soc. Hist. Med., 1993, 6: 385-404, p. 385. Arnold has also assessed in broad terms the history of venereal diseases in India in 'Sexually transmitted diseases in nineteenth and twentieth century India', Genitourin. Med., 1993, 69: 3-8.
5. The dynamic interplay between medical thought and imperial imperatives in India has been the subject of several recent works. David Arnold, Colonizing the body: state medicine and epidemic disease in nineteenth-century India, Berkeley, University of California Press, 1993; Poonam Bala, Imperialism and medicine in Bengal: a sociohistorical perspective. New Delhi, Sage, 1991; Philip Curtin, Death by migration, Cambridge University Press, 1989; and Mark Harrison, Public health in British India: Anglo-Indian preventive medicine, 1859-1914, Cambridge University Press, 1994. However, much more is known about late nineteenth-century imperial medicine than its early nineteenth-century counterparts, a point acknowledged in David Arnold, 'Social crisis and epidemic disease in the famines of nineteenth-century India', Soc. Hist. Med., 1993, 6: 385-404, p. 385. Arnold has also assessed in broad terms the history of venereal diseases in India in 'Sexually transmitted diseases in nineteenth and twentieth century India', Genitourin. Med., 1993, 69: 3-8.
6. The dynamic interplay between medical thought and imperial imperatives in India has been the subject of several recent works. David Arnold, Colonizing the body: state medicine and epidemic disease in nineteenth-century India, Berkeley, University of California Press, 1993; Poonam Bala, Imperialism and medicine in Bengal: a sociohistorical perspective. New Delhi, Sage, 1991; Philip Curtin, Death by migration, Cambridge University Press, 1989; and Mark Harrison, Public health in British India: Anglo-Indian preventive medicine, 1859-1914, Cambridge University Press, 1994. However, much more is known about late nineteenth-century imperial medicine than its early nineteenth-century counterparts, a point acknowledged in David Arnold, 'Social crisis and epidemic disease in the famines of nineteenth-century India', Soc. Hist. Med., 1993, 6: 385-404, p. 385. Arnold has also assessed in broad terms the history of venereal diseases in India in 'Sexually transmitted diseases in nineteenth and twentieth century India', Genitourin. Med., 1993, 69: 3-8.
7. The dynamic interplay between medical thought and imperial imperatives in India has been the subject of several recent works. David Arnold, Colonizing the body: state medicine and epidemic disease in nineteenth-century India, Berkeley, University of California Press, 1993; Poonam Bala, Imperialism and medicine in Bengal: a sociohistorical perspective. New Delhi, Sage, 1991; Philip Curtin, Death by migration, Cambridge University Press, 1989; and Mark Harrison, Public health in British India: Anglo-Indian preventive medicine, 1859-1914, Cambridge University Press, 1994. However, much more is known about late nineteenth-century imperial medicine than its early nineteenth-century counterparts, a point acknowledged in David Arnold, 'Social crisis and epidemic disease in the famines of nineteenth-century India', Soc. Hist. Med., 1993, 6: 385-404, p. 385. Arnold has also assessed in broad terms the history of venereal diseases in India in 'Sexually transmitted diseases in nineteenth and twentieth century India', Genitourin. Med., 1993, 69: 3-8.
8. The dynamic interplay between medical thought and imperial imperatives in India has been the subject of several recent works. David Arnold, Colonizing the body: state medicine and epidemic disease in nineteenth-century India, Berkeley, University of California Press, 1993; Poonam Bala, Imperialism and medicine in Bengal: a sociohistorical perspective. New Delhi, Sage, 1991; Philip Curtin, Death by migration, Cambridge University Press, 1989; and Mark Harrison, Public health in British India: Anglo-Indian preventive medicine, 1859-1914, Cambridge University Press, 1994. However, much more is known about late nineteenth-century imperial medicine than its early nineteenth-century counterparts, a point acknowledged in David Arnold, 'Social crisis and epidemic disease in the famines of nineteenth-century India', Soc. Hist. Med., 1993, 6: 385-404, p. 385. Arnold has also assessed in broad terms the history of venereal diseases in India in 'Sexually transmitted diseases in nineteenth and twentieth century India', Genitourin. Med., 1993, 69: 3-8.
9. I need at this point to make an important disclaimer. Venereal diseases will be used here in its nineteenth-century sense, that is as a generic term for those diseases which contemporaries primarily identified on the grounds of their being sexually transmitted. These would include what today we would identify as syphilis, gonorrhoea and a range of penile chancres. By way of comparison, rates of venereal diseases in the United States army at this time were much lower, averaging around 6 per cent between 1829 and 1838 and only rising to 7 per cent in the 1840s. Edward M Coffman, The old army: a portrait of the American army in peacetime, 1784-1898, New York, Oxford University Press, 1986, p. 191.
10. The relationship between masculinity and imperialism in India is the subject of Mrinalini Sinha, Colonial masculinity: the 'manly Englishman' and the 'effeminate Bengali' in the late nineteenth century, Manchester University Press, 1995.
11. It is much to be regretted that all my diggings in the archives have failed so far to recover the voices of those Indian women affected by policies aimed at combating venereal disease, at least for the first half of the nineteenth century. I can only hope that further research will fill in this lacunae.
12. There is extensive literature available on the Contagious Diseases Acts, particularly on their origins in and impact on Britain itself. See, for example, F B Smith, 'Ethics and disease in the later nineteenth century: the Contagious Diseases Acts', Hist. Stud., 1971,15: 118-35; Idem, 'The Contagious Diseases Acts reconsidered', Soc. Hist. Med., 1990, 3: 197-215; Judith R Walkowitz, Prostitution and Victorian society: women, class, and the state, Cambridge University Press, 1980; Paul Werth, 'Through the prism of prostitution: state, society and power', Soc. Hist., 1993, 19: 1-15. Some of the more noteworthy studies that deal with India, though most treat the period after 1860, include: Philippa Levine, 'Venereal disease, prostitution, and the politics of empire: the case of British India', J. Hist. Sexuality, 1993-4, 4: 579-602; Idem, 'Re-reading the eighteen-nineties: venereal disease as "constitutional crisis" in Britain and British India', J. Asian Stud., 1996, 55: 585-612; Miles Ogborn, 'Law and discipline in nineteenth century English state formation: the Contagious Diseases Acts of 1864, 1866, and 1869', J. hist. Sociol., 1993, 6: 28-55; Kenneth Ballhatchet, Race, sex and class under the Raj: imperial attitudes and policies and their critics, 1793-1905, London, Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1980; Antoinette Burton, Burdens of history: British feminists, Indian women, and imperial culture, 1865-1915, Chapel Hill, University of North Carolina Press, 1994; Arnold P Kaminsky, 'Morality legislation and British troops in late nineteenth-century India', Mil. Aff., 1979, 43: 78-83; and Judy Whitehead, 'Bodies clean and unclean: prostitution, sanitary legislation, and respectable femininity in colonial North India', Gender Hist., 1995, 7: 41-63.
13. There is extensive literature available on the Contagious Diseases Acts, particularly on their origins in and impact on Britain itself. See, for example, F B Smith, 'Ethics and disease in the later nineteenth century: the Contagious Diseases Acts', Hist. Stud., 1971,15: 118-35; Idem, 'The Contagious Diseases Acts reconsidered', Soc. Hist. Med., 1990, 3: 197-215; Judith R Walkowitz, Prostitution and Victorian society: women, class, and the state, Cambridge University Press, 1980; Paul Werth, 'Through the prism of prostitution: state, society and power', Soc. Hist., 1993, 19: 1-15. Some of the more noteworthy studies that deal with India, though most treat the period after 1860, include: Philippa Levine, 'Venereal disease, prostitution, and the politics of empire: the case of British India', J. Hist. Sexuality, 1993-4, 4: 579-602; Idem, 'Re-reading the eighteen-nineties: venereal disease as "constitutional crisis" in Britain and British India', J. Asian Stud., 1996, 55: 585-612; Miles Ogborn, 'Law and discipline in nineteenth century English state formation: the Contagious Diseases Acts of 1864, 1866, and 1869', J. hist. Sociol., 1993, 6: 28-55; Kenneth Ballhatchet, Race, sex and class under the Raj: imperial attitudes and policies and their critics, 1793-1905, London, Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1980; Antoinette Burton, Burdens of history: British feminists, Indian women, and imperial culture, 1865-1915, Chapel Hill, University of North Carolina Press, 1994; Arnold P Kaminsky, 'Morality legislation and British troops in late nineteenth-century India', Mil. Aff., 1979, 43: 78-83; and Judy Whitehead, 'Bodies clean and unclean: prostitution, sanitary legislation, and respectable femininity in colonial North India', Gender Hist., 1995, 7: 41-63.
14. There is extensive literature available on the Contagious Diseases Acts, particularly on their origins in and impact on Britain itself. See, for example, F B Smith, 'Ethics and disease in the later nineteenth century: the Contagious Diseases Acts', Hist. Stud., 1971,15: 118-35; Idem, 'The Contagious Diseases Acts reconsidered', Soc. Hist. Med., 1990, 3: 197-215; Judith R Walkowitz, Prostitution and Victorian society: women, class, and the state, Cambridge University Press, 1980; Paul Werth, 'Through the prism of prostitution: state, society and power', Soc. Hist., 1993, 19: 1-15. Some of the more noteworthy studies that deal with India, though most treat the period after 1860, include: Philippa Levine, 'Venereal disease, prostitution, and the politics of empire: the case of British India', J. Hist. Sexuality, 1993-4, 4: 579-602; Idem, 'Re-reading the eighteen-nineties: venereal disease as "constitutional crisis" in Britain and British India', J. Asian Stud., 1996, 55: 585-612; Miles Ogborn, 'Law and discipline in nineteenth century English state formation: the Contagious Diseases Acts of 1864, 1866, and 1869', J. hist. Sociol., 1993, 6: 28-55; Kenneth Ballhatchet, Race, sex and class under the Raj: imperial attitudes and policies and their critics, 1793-1905, London, Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1980; Antoinette Burton, Burdens of history: British feminists, Indian women, and imperial culture, 1865-1915, Chapel Hill, University of North Carolina Press, 1994; Arnold P Kaminsky, 'Morality legislation and British troops in late nineteenth-century India', Mil. Aff., 1979, 43: 78-83; and Judy Whitehead, 'Bodies clean and unclean: prostitution, sanitary legislation, and respectable femininity in colonial North India', Gender Hist., 1995, 7: 41-63.
15. There is extensive literature available on the Contagious Diseases Acts, particularly on their origins in and impact on Britain itself. See, for example, F B Smith, 'Ethics and disease in the later nineteenth century: the Contagious Diseases Acts', Hist. Stud., 1971,15: 118-35; Idem, 'The Contagious Diseases Acts reconsidered', Soc. Hist. Med., 1990, 3: 197-215; Judith R Walkowitz, Prostitution and Victorian society: women, class, and the state, Cambridge University Press, 1980; Paul Werth, 'Through the prism of prostitution: state, society and power', Soc. Hist., 1993, 19: 1-15. Some of the more noteworthy studies that deal with India, though most treat the period after 1860, include: Philippa Levine, 'Venereal disease, prostitution, and the politics of empire: the case of British India', J. Hist. Sexuality, 1993-4, 4: 579-602; Idem, 'Re-reading the eighteen-nineties: venereal disease as "constitutional crisis" in Britain and British India', J. Asian Stud., 1996, 55: 585-612; Miles Ogborn, 'Law and discipline in nineteenth century English state formation: the Contagious Diseases Acts of 1864, 1866, and 1869', J. hist. Sociol., 1993, 6: 28-55; Kenneth Ballhatchet, Race, sex and class under the Raj: imperial attitudes and policies and their critics, 1793-1905, London, Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1980; Antoinette Burton, Burdens of history: British feminists, Indian women, and imperial culture, 1865-1915, Chapel Hill, University of North Carolina Press, 1994; Arnold P Kaminsky, 'Morality legislation and British troops in late nineteenth-century India', Mil. Aff., 1979, 43: 78-83; and Judy Whitehead, 'Bodies clean and unclean: prostitution, sanitary legislation, and respectable femininity in colonial North India', Gender Hist., 1995, 7: 41-63.
16. There is extensive literature available on the Contagious Diseases Acts, particularly on their origins in and impact on Britain itself. See, for example, F B Smith, 'Ethics and disease in the later nineteenth century: the Contagious Diseases Acts', Hist. Stud., 1971,15: 118-35; Idem, 'The Contagious Diseases Acts reconsidered', Soc. Hist. Med., 1990, 3: 197-215; Judith R Walkowitz, Prostitution and Victorian society: women, class, and the state, Cambridge University Press, 1980; Paul Werth, 'Through the prism of prostitution: state, society and power', Soc. Hist., 1993, 19: 1-15. Some of the more noteworthy studies that deal with India, though most treat the period after 1860, include: Philippa Levine, 'Venereal disease, prostitution, and the politics of empire: the case of British India', J. Hist. Sexuality, 1993-4, 4: 579-602; Idem, 'Re-reading the eighteen-nineties: venereal disease as "constitutional crisis" in Britain and British India', J. Asian Stud., 1996, 55: 585-612; Miles Ogborn, 'Law and discipline in nineteenth century English state formation: the Contagious Diseases Acts of 1864, 1866, and 1869', J. hist. Sociol., 1993, 6: 28-55; Kenneth Ballhatchet, Race, sex and class under the Raj: imperial attitudes and policies and their critics, 1793-1905, London, Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1980; Antoinette Burton, Burdens of history: British feminists, Indian women, and imperial culture, 1865-1915, Chapel Hill, University of North Carolina Press, 1994; Arnold P Kaminsky, 'Morality legislation and British troops in late nineteenth-century India', Mil. Aff., 1979, 43: 78-83; and Judy Whitehead, 'Bodies clean and unclean: prostitution, sanitary legislation, and respectable femininity in colonial North India', Gender Hist., 1995, 7: 41-63.
17. There is extensive literature available on the Contagious Diseases Acts, particularly on their origins in and impact on Britain itself. See, for example, F B Smith, 'Ethics and disease in the later nineteenth century: the Contagious Diseases Acts', Hist. Stud., 1971,15: 118-35; Idem, 'The Contagious Diseases Acts reconsidered', Soc. Hist. Med., 1990, 3: 197-215; Judith R Walkowitz, Prostitution and Victorian society: women, class, and the state, Cambridge University Press, 1980; Paul Werth, 'Through the prism of prostitution: state, society and power', Soc. Hist., 1993, 19: 1-15. Some of the more noteworthy studies that deal with India, though most treat the period after 1860, include: Philippa Levine, 'Venereal disease, prostitution, and the politics of empire: the case of British India', J. Hist. Sexuality, 1993-4, 4: 579-602; Idem, 'Re-reading the eighteen-nineties: venereal disease as "constitutional crisis" in Britain and British India', J. Asian Stud., 1996, 55: 585-612; Miles Ogborn, 'Law and discipline in nineteenth century English state formation: the Contagious Diseases Acts of 1864, 1866, and 1869', J. hist. Sociol., 1993, 6: 28-55; Kenneth Ballhatchet, Race, sex and class under the Raj: imperial attitudes and policies and their critics, 1793-1905, London, Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1980; Antoinette Burton, Burdens of history: British feminists, Indian women, and imperial culture, 1865-1915, Chapel Hill, University of North Carolina Press, 1994; Arnold P Kaminsky, 'Morality legislation and British troops in late nineteenth-century India', Mil. Aff., 1979, 43: 78-83; and Judy Whitehead, 'Bodies clean and unclean: prostitution, sanitary legislation, and respectable femininity in colonial North India', Gender Hist., 1995, 7: 41-63.
18. There is extensive literature available on the Contagious Diseases Acts, particularly on their origins in and impact on Britain itself. See, for example, F B Smith, 'Ethics and disease in the later nineteenth century: the Contagious Diseases Acts', Hist. Stud., 1971,15: 118-35; Idem, 'The Contagious Diseases Acts reconsidered', Soc. Hist. Med., 1990, 3: 197-215; Judith R Walkowitz, Prostitution and Victorian society: women, class, and the state, Cambridge University Press, 1980; Paul Werth, 'Through the prism of prostitution: state, society and power', Soc. Hist., 1993, 19: 1-15. Some of the more noteworthy studies that deal with India, though most treat the period after 1860, include: Philippa Levine, 'Venereal disease, prostitution, and the politics of empire: the case of British India', J. Hist. Sexuality, 1993-4, 4: 579-602; Idem, 'Re-reading the eighteen-nineties: venereal disease as "constitutional crisis" in Britain and British India', J. Asian Stud., 1996, 55: 585-612; Miles Ogborn, 'Law and discipline in nineteenth century English state formation: the Contagious Diseases Acts of 1864, 1866, and 1869', J. hist. Sociol., 1993, 6: 28-55; Kenneth Ballhatchet, Race, sex and class under the Raj: imperial attitudes and policies and their critics, 1793-1905, London, Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1980; Antoinette Burton, Burdens of history: British feminists, Indian women, and imperial culture, 1865-1915, Chapel Hill, University of North Carolina Press, 1994; Arnold P Kaminsky, 'Morality legislation and British troops in late nineteenth-century India', Mil. Aff., 1979, 43: 78-83; and Judy Whitehead, 'Bodies clean and unclean: prostitution, sanitary legislation, and respectable femininity in colonial North India', Gender Hist., 1995, 7: 41-63.
19. There is extensive literature available on the Contagious Diseases Acts, particularly on their origins in and impact on Britain itself. See, for example, F B Smith, 'Ethics and disease in the later nineteenth century: the Contagious Diseases Acts', Hist. Stud., 1971,15: 118-35; Idem, 'The Contagious Diseases Acts reconsidered', Soc. Hist. Med., 1990, 3: 197-215; Judith R Walkowitz, Prostitution and Victorian society: women, class, and the state, Cambridge University Press, 1980; Paul Werth, 'Through the prism of prostitution: state, society and power', Soc. Hist., 1993, 19: 1-15. Some of the more noteworthy studies that deal with India, though most treat the period after 1860, include: Philippa Levine, 'Venereal disease, prostitution, and the politics of empire: the case of British India', J. Hist. Sexuality, 1993-4, 4: 579-602; Idem, 'Re-reading the eighteen-nineties: venereal disease as "constitutional crisis" in Britain and British India', J. Asian Stud., 1996, 55: 585-612; Miles Ogborn, 'Law and discipline in nineteenth century English state formation: the Contagious Diseases Acts of 1864, 1866, and 1869', J. hist. Sociol., 1993, 6: 28-55; Kenneth Ballhatchet, Race, sex and class under the Raj: imperial attitudes and policies and their critics, 1793-1905, London, Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1980; Antoinette Burton, Burdens of history: British feminists, Indian women, and imperial culture, 1865-1915, Chapel Hill, University of North Carolina Press, 1994; Arnold P Kaminsky, 'Morality legislation and British troops in late nineteenth-century India', Mil. Aff., 1979, 43: 78-83; and Judy Whitehead, 'Bodies clean and unclean: prostitution, sanitary legislation, and respectable femininity in colonial North India', Gender Hist., 1995, 7: 41-63.
20. There is extensive literature available on the Contagious Diseases Acts, particularly on their origins in and impact on Britain itself. See, for example, F B Smith, 'Ethics and disease in the later nineteenth century: the Contagious Diseases Acts', Hist. Stud., 1971,15: 118-35; Idem, 'The Contagious Diseases Acts reconsidered', Soc. Hist. Med., 1990, 3: 197-215; Judith R Walkowitz, Prostitution and Victorian society: women, class, and the state, Cambridge University Press, 1980; Paul Werth, 'Through the prism of prostitution: state, society and power', Soc. Hist., 1993, 19: 1-15. Some of the more noteworthy studies that deal with India, though most treat the period after 1860, include: Philippa Levine, 'Venereal disease, prostitution, and the politics of empire: the case of British India', J. Hist. Sexuality, 1993-4, 4: 579-602; Idem, 'Re-reading the eighteen-nineties: venereal disease as "constitutional crisis" in Britain and British India', J. Asian Stud., 1996, 55: 585-612; Miles Ogborn, 'Law and discipline in nineteenth century English state formation: the Contagious Diseases Acts of 1864, 1866, and 1869', J. hist. Sociol., 1993, 6: 28-55; Kenneth Ballhatchet, Race, sex and class under the Raj: imperial attitudes and policies and their critics, 1793-1905, London, Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1980; Antoinette Burton, Burdens of history: British feminists, Indian women, and imperial culture, 1865-1915, Chapel Hill, University of North Carolina Press, 1994; Arnold P Kaminsky, 'Morality legislation and British troops in late nineteenth-century India', Mil. Aff., 1979, 43: 78-83; and Judy Whitehead, 'Bodies clean and unclean: prostitution, sanitary legislation, and respectable femininity in colonial North India', Gender Hist., 1995, 7: 41-63.
21. There is extensive literature available on the Contagious Diseases Acts, particularly on their origins in and impact on Britain itself. See, for example, F B Smith, 'Ethics and disease in the later nineteenth century: the Contagious Diseases Acts', Hist. Stud., 1971,15: 118-35; Idem, 'The Contagious Diseases Acts reconsidered', Soc. Hist. Med., 1990, 3: 197-215; Judith R Walkowitz, Prostitution and Victorian society: women, class, and the state, Cambridge University Press, 1980; Paul Werth, 'Through the prism of prostitution: state, society and power', Soc. Hist., 1993, 19: 1-15. Some of the more noteworthy studies that deal with India, though most treat the period after 1860, include: Philippa Levine, 'Venereal disease, prostitution, and the politics of empire: the case of British India', J. Hist. Sexuality, 1993-4, 4: 579-602; Idem, 'Re-reading the eighteen-nineties: venereal disease as "constitutional crisis" in Britain and British India', J. Asian Stud., 1996, 55: 585-612; Miles Ogborn, 'Law and discipline in nineteenth century English state formation: the Contagious Diseases Acts of 1864, 1866, and 1869', J. hist. Sociol., 1993, 6: 28-55; Kenneth Ballhatchet, Race, sex and class under the Raj: imperial attitudes and policies and their critics, 1793-1905, London, Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1980; Antoinette Burton, Burdens of history: British feminists, Indian women, and imperial culture, 1865-1915, Chapel Hill, University of North Carolina Press, 1994; Arnold P Kaminsky, 'Morality legislation and British troops in late nineteenth-century India', Mil. Aff., 1979, 43: 78-83; and Judy Whitehead, 'Bodies clean and unclean: prostitution, sanitary legislation, and respectable femininity in colonial North India', Gender Hist., 1995, 7: 41-63.
22. There is extensive literature available on the Contagious Diseases Acts, particularly on their origins in and impact on Britain itself. See, for example, F B Smith, 'Ethics and disease in the later nineteenth century: the Contagious Diseases Acts', Hist. Stud., 1971,15: 118-35; Idem, 'The Contagious Diseases Acts reconsidered', Soc. Hist. Med., 1990, 3: 197-215; Judith R Walkowitz, Prostitution and Victorian society: women, class, and the state, Cambridge University Press, 1980; Paul Werth, 'Through the prism of prostitution: state, society and power', Soc. Hist., 1993, 19: 1-15. Some of the more noteworthy studies that deal with India, though most treat the period after 1860, include: Philippa Levine, 'Venereal disease, prostitution, and the politics of empire: the case of British India', J. Hist. Sexuality, 1993-4, 4: 579-602; Idem, 'Re-reading the eighteen-nineties: venereal disease as "constitutional crisis" in Britain and British India', J. Asian Stud., 1996, 55: 585-612; Miles Ogborn, 'Law and discipline in nineteenth century English state formation: the Contagious Diseases Acts of 1864, 1866, and 1869', J. hist. Sociol., 1993, 6: 28-55; Kenneth Ballhatchet, Race, sex and class under the Raj: imperial attitudes and policies and their critics, 1793-1905, London, Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1980; Antoinette Burton, Burdens of history: British feminists, Indian women, and imperial culture, 1865-1915, Chapel Hill, University of North Carolina Press, 1994; Arnold P Kaminsky, 'Morality legislation and British troops in late nineteenth-century India', Mil. Aff., 1979, 43: 78-83; and Judy Whitehead, 'Bodies clean and unclean: prostitution, sanitary legislation, and respectable femininity in colonial North India', Gender Hist., 1995, 7: 41-63.
23. John Clark, 'Report on syphilis in H.M. Light Dragoons', Madras q. med. J., 1839, 1: 370-410, p. 385.
24. George Ballingall, Practical observations on fever, dysentery, and liver complaints . . . to which is annexed an essay on syphilis, 2nd ed., Edinburgh, Adam Black, 1823, p. 127.
25. Kenneth MacKinnon, A treatise on public health, climate, hygiene and prevailing diseases of Bengal and the North-West Provinces, Cawnpore, Cawnpore Press, 1848, appendix.
26. Clark, op. cit., note 8 above, p. 389.
27. MacKinnon, op. cit., note 10 above, p. 8.
28. Dr Archibald Shanks, 'Report of H.M. 55th Foot', Madras q. med. J., 1839, 1: 237-68, p. 263.
29. National Library of Scotland (hereafter NLS), Diary of Private John Charles Brown, endpapers, MS 15393.
30. F B Smith, The people's health, 1830-1910, London, Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1990, p. 294.
31. Walkowitz, op. cit., note 7 above, p. 50.
32. Clark, op. cit., note 8 above, p. 388. See also the exchange in: (anon.), 'Identity of syphilis and gonorrhea', Q. J. Calcutta med. phys. Soc., 1837, 1: 207-8.
33. Clark, op. cit., note 8 above, p. 388. See also the exchange in: (anon.), 'Identity of syphilis and gonorrhea', Q. J. Calcutta med. phys. Soc., 1837, 1: 207-8.
34. Ibid., p. 207.
35. T J Wyke, 'Hospital facilities for, and diagnosis and treatment of, venereal disease in England, 1800-1870', Br. J. venereal Dis., 1973, 49: 78-85, p. 84.
36. Dane Kennedy, The magic mountains: hill stations and the British Raj, Berkeley, University of California Press, 1996, p. 26.
37. Scottish Record Office, Lieut. Col. Congreve to Quartermaster General's Office, 17 Nov. 1847, GD45/6/378.
38. John Murray, On the topography of Meerutt, Calcutta, Huttmann, 1839, p. 17.
39. 'Report on the sickness and mortality of troops in the Madras presidency', J. statist. Soc. Lond., 1840, 3: 113-12, p. 140.
40. J R Miller, 'Annual report of the 23rd Regt. N.L.I.', Trans. med. phys. Soc. Bombay, 1857/58, 4: 275.
41. Malcolm Nicolson, 'Medicine and racial politics: changing images of the New Zealand Maori in the nineteenth century', in David Arnold (ed.), Imperial medicine and indigenous societies, Manchester University Press, 1988, pp. 79-80.
42. Seema Alavi, The sepoys and the Company: tradition and transition in northern India, 1770-1830, Delhi, Oxford University Press, 1995, pp. 146, 150.
43. NLS, Diary of Assistant Surgeon Henry Oswald, 1 Feb. 1851, MS 9005.
44. A Campbell, 'On native medical education', Indian J. med. Sci., 1834, 1: 320-1. The relative status of western medical practices and Indian medical practices is discussed in C A Bayly, 'British orientalism and the Indian "rational tradition", c.1780-1820', South Asia Res., 1994, 14: 1-10.
45. A Campbell, 'On native medical education', Indian J. med. Sci., 1834, 1: 320-1. The relative status of western medical practices and Indian medical practices is discussed in C A Bayly, 'British orientalism and the Indian "rational tradition", c.1780-1820', South Asia Res., 1994, 14: 1-10.
46. OIOC, Prevalence of venereal disease in the detachment under Colonel East, April 1817, F/4/63.
47. Wellcome Institute for the History of Medicine (hereafter WIHM), Report on the medical topography and statistics of the presidency division of the Madras army, Madras, 1842, RAMC 2046.
48. Wyke, op. cit., note 19 above, pp. 81-2.
49. George Ballingall, Outlines of the course of lectures on military surgery, delivered in the University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, Adam Black, 1833. See also his papers in the library of the Wellcome Institute for the History of Medicine, London.
50. Between 1816 and 1818, a circular issued by the army revealed that 1,940 cases were treated without mercury, and 2,827 were treated with mercury. WIHM, Army Medical Department, circular on syphilis, 2 April 1819, WMS 6905/7. For the popularity of mercury in India, see Arnold, Colonizing the body, op. cit., note 3 above, ch. 1. There were however surgeons like William Twining who were switching from mercury to quinine in treating fevers. I am grateful to an anonymous referee for drawing my attention to the latter point.
51. Clark, op. cit., note 8 above, p. 409.
52. This argument is developed in Mark Harrison, 'Tropical medicine in nineteenth-century India', Br. J. Hist. Sci., 1992, 25: 299-318. See also idem, '"The tender frame of man": disease, climate, and racial difference in India and the West Indies, 1760-1860', Bull. Hist. Med., 1996, 70: 68-93.
53. This argument is developed in Mark Harrison, 'Tropical medicine in nineteenth-century India', Br. J. Hist. Sci., 1992, 25: 299-318. See also idem, '"The tender frame of man": disease, climate, and racial difference in India and the West Indies, 1760-1860', Bull. Hist. Med., 1996, 70: 68-93.
54. Clark, op. cit., note 8 above, p. 405.
55. François Bernier, Travels in the Mogul empire (first pubished in 1670), Delhi, Chand and Co., 1972 ed., p. 253.I thank one of my reviewers for pointing this out to me.
56. WIHM, John Hall, Deputy General's Report for 1851-52, RAMC 397/ERM 1/1.
57. Clark, op. cit., note 8 above, p. 390.
58. WIHM, Army Medical Office, Dublin, report on venereal disease, 26 Oct. 1831, WMS 6905/22.
59. An important new study of this relationship between sexuality and racism is Ann Laura Stoler, Race and the education of desire: Foucault's History of sexuality and the colonial order of things, Durham, N.C., Duke University Press, 1995. Ashis Nandy also explores the question of how sexuality informed ideas and modes of power, but he works from the premise that sexuality did not become complicit in colonial discourses until after 1830. This position seems to rest on a traditional periodization of Indian history which assumes that a decisive rupture occurred in the 1830s. As is evident from the arguments here, I maintain that such traditional watersheds need to be rethought. Ashis Nandy, The intimate enemy: loss and recovery of self under colonialism, New Delhi, Oxford University Press, 1983, pp. 5-6.
60. An important new study of this relationship between sexuality and racism is Ann Laura Stoler, Race and the education of desire: Foucault's History of sexuality and the colonial order of things, Durham, N.C., Duke University Press, 1995. Ashis Nandy also explores the question of how sexuality informed ideas and modes of power, but he works from the premise that sexuality did not become complicit in colonial discourses until after 1830. This position seems to rest on a traditional periodization of Indian history which assumes that a decisive rupture occurred in the 1830s. As is evident from the arguments here, I maintain that such traditional watersheds need to be rethought. Ashis Nandy, The intimate enemy: loss and recovery of self under colonialism, New Delhi, Oxford University Press, 1983, pp. 5-6.
61. Whitehead, op. cit., note 7 above, p. 48.
62. Sander L Gilman, Sexuality: an illustrated history, New York, Wiley, 1989, p. 238.
63. The emergence of this mentality is explored in more depth in Roy Porter and Lesley Hall, The facts of life: the creation of sexual knowledge in Britain, 1650-1950, New Haven, Yale University Press, 1995.
64. T J Wyke, 'The Manchester and Salford Lock Hospital, 1818-1917', Med. Hist., 1975, 19: 73-86, p. 73.
65. Ibid. Paul Werth sees this coupling of plans to reform and remake the "fallen woman" with advocacy of the Contagious Diseases Acts as indicative of the appropriateness of a Foucauldian paradigm in understanding the micro-level operation of discipline. However, the fact that in the 1830s and 1840s it was the opponents and not the proponents of lock hospitals who pitched their campaigns in the language of reform illustrates just how important is the colonial context. Werth, op. cit., note 7 above.
66. Ibid. Paul Werth sees this coupling of plans to reform and remake the "fallen woman" with advocacy of the Contagious Diseases Acts as indicative of the appropriateness of a Foucauldian paradigm in understanding the micro-level operation of discipline. However, the fact that in the 1830s and 1840s it was the opponents and not the proponents of lock hospitals who pitched their campaigns in the language of reform illustrates just how important is the colonial context. Werth, op. cit., note 7 above.
67. It is significant that prosecutions for homosexuality were the only ones that were held in a closed court, and their rulings were rarely circulated to the army. The army was determined that homosexuality should never be publicly acknowledged, not even to condemn it. See my 'Sepoys, soldiers and the lash: race, caste and army discipline in India, 1820-1850', J. imp. Commonw. Hist., 1995, 23: 211-47.
68. Dr F J Mouat, 'The British soldier in India', J. R. United Serv. Inst., 1866, 10: 347-86, p. 363.
69. Idem, The British soldier in India, London, Lepage, 1859, p. 63.
70. Stoler, op. cit., note 41 above, p. 182.
71. Michael Mason, The making of Victorian sexuality, Oxford University Press, 1994, p. 58.
72. R M Martin, Statistical report on the district of Cawnpore. Calcutta, Bengal Military Orphan Press, 1849, appendices. The targeting of the prostitute as the site for official intervention was not unique to India as Quétel's work on France has amply demonstrated. Claude Quétel, History of syphilis, Cambridge, Polity Press, 1990.
73. R M Martin, Statistical report on the district of Cawnpore. Calcutta, Bengal Military Orphan Press, 1849, appendices. The targeting of the prostitute as the site for official intervention was not unique to India as Quétel's work on France has amply demonstrated. Claude Quétel, History of syphilis, Cambridge, Polity Press, 1990.
74. Captain Thomas Williamson, East India VadeMecum, London, Black, Parry and Kingsbury, 1810, vol. 2, p. 423. Whitehead, op. cit., note 7 above, looks more closely into how prostitutes fit into colonial constructions of Indian femininity. Much more work however needs to be done on identifying these prostitutes. Recent works on prostitution in Madras and Bengal argue that many prostitutes were widows forced into selling sex to support themselves, but this is neither backed up with much evidence, nor developed further. See B Joarder, Prostitution in nineteenth and early twentieth century Calcutta, New Delhi, Inter-India Publications, 1985, p. 19, and M Sundara Raj, Prostitution in Madras: a study in historical perspective, New Delhi, Konark, 1993, p.15.
75. Captain Thomas Williamson, East India VadeMecum, London, Black, Parry and Kingsbury, 1810, vol. 2, p. 423. Whitehead, op. cit., note 7 above, looks more closely into how prostitutes fit into colonial constructions of Indian femininity. Much more work however needs to be done on identifying these prostitutes. Recent works on prostitution in Madras and Bengal argue that many prostitutes were widows forced into selling sex to support themselves, but this is neither backed up with much evidence, nor developed further. See B Joarder, Prostitution in nineteenth and early twentieth century Calcutta, New Delhi, Inter-India Publications, 1985, p. 19, and M Sundara Raj, Prostitution in Madras: a study in historical perspective, New Delhi, Konark, 1993, p.15.
76. Captain Thomas Williamson, East India VadeMecum, London, Black, Parry and Kingsbury, 1810, vol. 2, p. 423. Whitehead, op. cit., note 7 above, looks more closely into how prostitutes fit into colonial constructions of Indian femininity. Much more work however needs to be done on identifying these prostitutes. Recent works on prostitution in Madras and Bengal argue that many prostitutes were widows forced into selling sex to support themselves, but this is neither backed up with much evidence, nor developed further. See B Joarder, Prostitution in nineteenth and early twentieth century Calcutta, New Delhi, Inter-India Publications, 1985, p. 19, and M Sundara Raj, Prostitution in Madras: a study in historical perspective, New Delhi, Konark, 1993, p.15.
77. Captain Thomas Williamson, East India VadeMecum, London, Black, Parry and Kingsbury, 1810, vol. 2, p. 423. Whitehead, op. cit., note 7 above, looks more closely into how prostitutes fit into colonial constructions of Indian femininity. Much more work however needs to be done on identifying these prostitutes. Recent works on prostitution in Madras and Bengal argue that many prostitutes were widows forced into selling sex to support themselves, but this is neither backed up with much evidence, nor developed further. See B Joarder, Prostitution in nineteenth and early twentieth century Calcutta, New Delhi, Inter-India Publications, 1985, p. 19, and M Sundara Raj, Prostitution in Madras: a study in historical perspective, New Delhi, Konark, 1993, p.15.
78. Levine, 1993-4, op. cit., note 7 above, pp. 585-6.
79. MacKinnon, op. cit., note 10 above, p. 35.
80. Levine, 1993-4, op. cit., note 7 above, pp. 585-6.
81. OIOC, Report on the lock hospital established at Bangalore, July 1855, Madras Military Consultations, 30 July-26 Aug. 1856, P/273/41, no. 55. I am grateful to Philippa Levine for sharing this nugget with me.
82. Clark, op. cit., note 8 above, p. 386.
83. OIOC, Samuel Hickson to his cousin, 24 Dec. 1781, MS Eur B296/1, p. 79.
84. Williamson, op. cit., note 53 above, vol. 2, p. 425.
85. Ballingall, op. cit., note 32 above, p. 462.
86. OIOC, General Order of the Governor General, 21 Sept. 1807, Bengal Military Consultations, 21 Sept. 1807, P/22/35, no. 145.
87. Whether Bentinck did contract a venereal infection cannot be established beyond a doubt. However, his biographer has found in Bentinck's papers some interesting references to chancres at a time in Bentinck's life when he was living a high life and consorting with dancers and actresses. "Un maudit chancre me tient prisonnier". See John Rosselli, Lord William Bentinck: the making of a liberal imperialist, 1774-1839, Berkeley, University of California Press, 1974, p. 57.
88. OIOC, Statement on military lock hospitals in Madras, 1808, F/4/345.
89. OIOC, Military letter to Bombay, 5 Jan. 1810, F/4/563, collection 13819.
90. The term medical police appeared quite early in India. In 1806, Surgeon Ainslie of the Madras establishment proposed the use of "military police of health" or "medical police" to maintain a cordon sanitaire around European cantonments. OIOC, Military letter from Madras, 12 Feb. 1806, F/4/226, collection 4903. Variants on this idea appeared in the medical press of the 1830s. See for example John Murray, 'Reports of the deputy inspector of hospitals to the director general of the army medical department', Madras q. med. J., 1839, 1: 435-44. For the French, see Quétel, op. cit., note 52 above, p. 217.
91. The term medical police appeared quite early in India. In 1806, Surgeon Ainslie of the Madras establishment proposed the use of "military police of health" or "medical police" to maintain a cordon sanitaire around European cantonments. OIOC, Military letter from Madras, 12 Feb. 1806, F/4/226, collection 4903. Variants on this idea appeared in the medical press of the 1830s. See for example John Murray, 'Reports of the deputy inspector of hospitals to the director general of the army medical department', Madras q. med. J., 1839, 1: 435-44. For the French, see Quétel, op. cit., note 52 above, p. 217.
92. OIOC, Bombay Medical Board Consultations, 2 Sept. 1808, F/4/563, collection 13819.
93. OIOC, Military letter from Bengal, 31 Jan. 1824, F/4/835, no. 22,253.
94. OIOC, Lock hospital returns for 1828, Bengal Military Consultations, 31 July 1829, P/33/31. no. 81.
95. OIOC, Dr McLeod to Adjutant General of the Bombay army, 24 Oct. 1831, F/4/1338, collection 53031.
96. WIHM, Surgeon John Francis Smet, remarks and observations on the health of the troops, RAMC 204/Box 19/5.
97. OIOC, Military letter from Madras, 6 March 1835, F/4/1532.
98. See Douglas M Peers, 'War and public finance in early nineteenth-century British India: the first Burma war', Int. Hist. Rev., 1989, 11: 628-47.
99. OIOC, Military letter from Bengal, 29 May 1832, F/4/1338, collection 53031.
100. The term "administrative generalship" was coined by John Rosselli in his Lord William Bentinck. Bentinck's intense suspicions of the military establishment, even when he himself held the rank of general, can be traced back to the Vellore mutiny in 1806. Bentinck was recalled from the office of Governor of Madras following this mutiny of Indian sepoys. It was provoked by the remarkably insensitive handling of religious traditions in the Madras army, and Bentinck not only never recovered from the ignominy of recall, he also thereafter harboured suspicions that military officers were doing things behind his back. See Rosselli, op. cit., note 63 above, pp. 139-45, and Douglas M. Peers, Between Mars and Mammon: colonial armies and the garrison state in India, 1819-1835, London, Tauris, 1995, ch. 8.
101. The term "administrative generalship" was coined by John Rosselli in his Lord William Bentinck. Bentinck's intense suspicions of the military establishment, even when he himself held the rank of general, can be traced back to the Vellore mutiny in 1806. Bentinck was recalled from the office of Governor of Madras following this mutiny of Indian sepoys. It was provoked by the remarkably insensitive handling of religious traditions in the Madras army, and Bentinck not only never recovered from the ignominy of recall, he also thereafter harboured suspicions that military officers were doing things behind his back. See Rosselli, op. cit., note 63 above, pp. 139-45, and Douglas M. Peers, Between Mars and Mammon: colonial armies and the garrison state in India, 1819-1835, London, Tauris, 1995, ch. 8.
102. The term "administrative generalship" was coined by John Rosselli in his Lord William Bentinck. Bentinck's intense suspicions of the military establishment, even when he himself held the rank of general, can be traced back to the Vellore mutiny in 1806. Bentinck was recalled from the office of Governor of Madras following this mutiny of Indian sepoys. It was provoked by the remarkably insensitive handling of religious traditions in the Madras army, and Bentinck not only never recovered from the ignominy of recall, he also thereafter harboured suspicions that military officers were doing things behind his back. See Rosselli, op. cit., note 63 above, pp. 139-45, and Douglas M. Peers, Between Mars and Mammon: colonial armies and the garrison state in India, 1819-1835, London, Tauris, 1995, ch. 8.
103. Peers, op. cit., note 47 above, pp. 211-47.
104. OIOC, Inspector General William Burke, memorandum on the health of Europeans, 7 June 1827, F/4/1079, collection 29310.
105. Ibid.
106. OIOC, Dr William Burke to Military Department, 21 April 1832, FM/1338.
107. Ibid. This point was reiterated in a report from the officer commanding the Mysore division in 1855. OIOC, Officer commanding Mysore division to Quartermaster General's Office, 3 July 1855, Madras Military Consultations, 30 July-26 Aug. 1856, P/273/41, no. 55. I am grateful to Philippa Levine who forwarded a copy of this document to me.
108. OIOC, Governor General's minute, 27 Dec. 1831, Bengal Military Consultations, 23 Jan. 1832, P/34/16, no. 23.
109. Ibid, f. 73.
110. Ibid, f. 79.
111. Quétel, op. cit., note 52 above, p. 103.
112. I have looked briefly at British attitudes towards Indian police officials in 'Torture, the police, and the colonial state in the Madras Presidency, 1816-1855', Crim. Justice Hist., 1991, 12: 29-56.
113. OIOC, Adjutant General to Madras Government, 10 July 1849, F/4/2341, collection 122,775.
114. OIOC, Dr William Burke to Bengal Military Department, 21 April 1832, F/4/1338, f. 80.
115. Ibid.
116. Dr Brown, 'Sick of H.M. 45th, 1 January 1832 to 14 November 1837', Madras q. med. J., 1839, 1: 101-50, p. 144.
117. WIHM, Report on the medical topography and statistics of the presidency division of the Madras army, Madras, 1842, RAMC 2046.
118. MacKinnon, op. cit., note 10 above.
119. WIHM, John Hall, medical returns for 1851/52, RAMC 397/ERM 1/2:45.
120. WIHM, John Hall, medical returns for 1853, RAMC 397/ERM1/1.
121. OIOC, Adjutant General to Madras Military Department, 1 March 1849, F/4/2341, collection 122,775.
122. OIOC, Madras Military Consultations, 12 July 1842, F/4/2341, collection 122,775. Attempts in Bombay to work around these legal obstacles are noted in OIOC, Letter from the Adjutant General, Bombay military consultations, 8 Nov. 1848, P/363/56, no. 4182.
123. OIOC, Adjutant General to Madras government, 10 July 1849, F/4/2341, collection 122,775.
124. OIOC, Registrar of the Faujdari Adalat to government, 7 Sept. 1839, Madras judicial proceedings, 7 Sept. 1839, P/325/65.
125. OIOC, Adjutant General to Madras government, 10 July 1849, F/4/2341, collection 122,775.
126. 'Report and general quarterly return of the sick of the Queen's troops', Madras q. med. J., 1839, 1: 444.
127. Among these can be numbered: the East India Uniled Service Journal (1833), the Transactions of the Medical and Physical Society of Calcutta (1825-), Transactions of the Bombay Medical and Physical Society (1838-), Indian Journal of Medical and Physical Science (1834-). Essays on medical and military topics could also be found in the more general literature of the day including the Calcutta Review (1844-). For more information on the many medical societies which emerged in nineteenth-century India, see A Neelameghan, Development of medical societies and medical periodicals in India, 1780-1920, Calcutta, Indian Association of Special Libraries and Information Centres, 1963.
128. James Ranald Martin's influence has been noted by many historians. See for example Radhika Ramasubban, 'Imperial health in British India, 1857-1900', in Roy Macleod and Milton Lewis (eds), Disease, medicine, and empire: perspectives on western medicine and the experience of European expansion, London, Routledge, 1988, p. 39, and David Arnold, Colonizing the body, op. cit., note 3 above, pp. 23-7 and passim. See also Surgeon General Sir Joseph Fayrer, Inspector-General Sir James Ranald Martin, London, A Innes, 1897.
129. James Ranald Martin's influence has been noted by many historians. See for example Radhika Ramasubban, 'Imperial health in British India, 1857-1900', in Roy Macleod and Milton Lewis (eds), Disease, medicine, and empire: perspectives on western medicine and the experience of European expansion, London, Routledge, 1988, p. 39, and David Arnold, Colonizing the body, op. cit., note 3 above, pp. 23-7 and passim. See also Surgeon General Sir Joseph Fayrer, Inspector-General Sir James Ranald Martin, London, A Innes, 1897.
130. James Ranald Martin's influence has been noted by many historians. See for example Radhika Ramasubban, 'Imperial health in British India, 1857-1900', in Roy Macleod and Milton Lewis (eds), Disease, medicine, and empire: perspectives on western medicine and the experience of European expansion, London, Routledge, 1988, p. 39, and David Arnold, Colonizing the body, op. cit., note 3 above, pp. 23-7 and passim. See also Surgeon General Sir Joseph Fayrer, Inspector-General Sir James Ranald Martin, London, A Innes, 1897.
131. OIOC, Reports on the venereal wards at Bellary and Trichinopoly, 9 July 1844, Madras public consultations, P/248/13, ff. 1443-1454. I am grateful to Philippa Levine for forwarding copies of these reports to me.
132. Ibid.
133. OIOC, Dr William Burke to Military Department, 21 April 1832, F/4/1338, f. 79.
134. Deepak Kumar, 'Problems in science administration: a study of the scientific surveys in British India, 1757-1900', in Patrick Petitjean and Catherine Jami (eds), Science and empires: historical studies about scientific development and European expansion, Dordrecht, Kluwer Academic, 1992, pp. 269-80.
135. 'Report and general quarterly return of the sick of the Queen's troops', op. cit., note 99 above, p. 440.
136. Murray, op. cit., note 66 above, p. 440.
137. 'Report and general quarterly return of the sick of the Queen's troops', op. cit., note 99 above, pp. 443-4.
138. Ibid.
139. OIOC, Dr William Burke to Military Department, 21 April 1832, F/4/1338, f. 83.
140. OIOC, Bombay to Bengal, 11 Nov. 1831, F/4/1338, collection 53031.
141. OIOC, Officer commanding at Secunderabad to Adjutant General of the Madras army, 17 June 1848, F/4/2341, collection 122,775. Secunderabad was reported to have 267 prostitutes living in or near the cantonments.
142. OIOC, Military letter from Madras, 10 Aug. 1849, F/4/2341, collection 122,775.
143. OIOC, Military letter to India, 27 Nov. 1850, E/4/807, no. 129.
144. Murray, op. cit., note 22 above, pp. 10, 47.
145. OIOC, Military Department to Adjutant General, 19 July 1844, Bengal Military Consultations, 19 July 1844, P/39/8, no. 58.
146. OIOC, Public letter to Madras, 28 April 1847, F/4/2341, collection 122,775.
147. OIOC, Superintending Surgeon, Mysore division to Deputy Assistant Adjutant General, 6 Sept. 1855, Madras Military Consultations, 2-9 Oct. 1855, P/273/26, no. 224.
148. OIOC, Brigadier Smith to Adjutant General, 19 May 1859, India Military Consultations, 6 Sept. 1859, P/191/29, no. 181.