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Volumn 23, Issue 2, 1998, Pages 136-158

The princess of Monaco's hair: The revolutionary tribunal and the pregnancy plea

(1)  Brown, Stephanie a  

a NONE

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EID: 0032040525     PISSN: 03631990     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/036319909802300203     Document Type: Article
Times cited : (5)

References (132)
  • 1
    • 85033529013 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Archives nationales, Series W (hereafter A.N. W), carton 432, plaquette 971, pièce 47. Born in 1767, the Princess of Monaco was the younger daughter of Jacques Philippe, comte de Stainville, and Thérèse de Clermont d'Amboise. Her eldest uncle, the duc de Choiseul, former minister and secretary of state, had died the year before she was born; her aunt Béatrix de Choiseul, duchesse de Grammont, had been executed by the same tribunal three months earlier. The fifteen-year-old mademoiselle de Stainville had married Joseph Grimaldi, Prince of Monaco, in 1782. After Monaco was annexed to France in 1793, Madame de Monaco journeyed to Paris to establish residency to protect her property. She was arrested there in the winter of 1793-94. See Jean-Joël Brégeon, Les Grimaldi de Monaco (Paris: Criterion, 1991), 197, 285, and Gaston Maugras, La Disgrace du duc et de la duchesse de Choiseul (Paris: Librairie Plon, 1903), 453-55.
  • 2
    • 85033515667 scopus 로고
    • Paris: Criterion
    • Archives nationales, Series W (hereafter A.N. W), carton 432, plaquette 971, pièce 47. Born in 1767, the Princess of Monaco was the younger daughter of Jacques Philippe, comte de Stainville, and Thérèse de Clermont d'Amboise. Her eldest uncle, the duc de Choiseul, former minister and secretary of state, had died the year before she was born; her aunt Béatrix de Choiseul, duchesse de Grammont, had been executed by the same tribunal three months earlier. The fifteen-year-old mademoiselle de Stainville had married Joseph Grimaldi, Prince of Monaco, in 1782. After Monaco was annexed to France in 1793, Madame de Monaco journeyed to Paris to establish residency to protect her property. She was arrested there in the winter of 1793-94. See Jean-Joël Brégeon, Les Grimaldi de Monaco (Paris: Criterion, 1991), 197, 285, and Gaston Maugras, La Disgrace du duc et de la duchesse de Choiseul (Paris: Librairie Plon, 1903), 453-55.
    • (1991) Les Grimaldi de Monaco , pp. 197
    • Brégeon, J.-J.1
  • 3
    • 85033507979 scopus 로고
    • Paris: Librairie Plon
    • Archives nationales, Series W (hereafter A.N. W), carton 432, plaquette 971, pièce 47. Born in 1767, the Princess of Monaco was the younger daughter of Jacques Philippe, comte de Stainville, and Thérèse de Clermont d'Amboise. Her eldest uncle, the duc de Choiseul, former minister and secretary of state, had died the year before she was born; her aunt Béatrix de Choiseul, duchesse de Grammont, had been executed by the same tribunal three months earlier. The fifteen-year-old mademoiselle de Stainville had married Joseph Grimaldi, Prince of Monaco, in 1782. After Monaco was annexed to France in 1793, Madame de Monaco journeyed to Paris to establish residency to protect her property. She was arrested there in the winter of 1793-94. See Jean-Joël Brégeon, Les Grimaldi de Monaco (Paris: Criterion, 1991), 197, 285, and Gaston Maugras, La Disgrace du duc et de la duchesse de Choiseul (Paris: Librairie Plon, 1903), 453-55.
    • (1903) La Disgrace du Duc et de la Duchesse de Choiseul , pp. 453-455
    • Maugras, G.1
  • 4
    • 85033541479 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • A.N. W 431, plaq. 968, 11.
    • A.N. W 431, plaq. 968, 11.
  • 5
    • 85033511215 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Ibid., 9.
    • Ibid., 9.
  • 6
    • 85033534517 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Ibid., 8.
    • Ibid., 8.
  • 8
    • 85033519357 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Blanc, 228, n. 113.
    • Blanc, 228, n. 113.
  • 9
    • 85033538707 scopus 로고
    • Paris: Henri Pion
    • On the creation of the tribunal, see Emile Campardon, Le Tribunal révolutionnaire de Paris (Paris: Henri Pion, 1866), I: 5-23; James Logan Godfrey, Revolutionary Justice: A Study of the Organization, Personnel, and Procedure of the Paris Tribunal, 1793-1795 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1951), 3-24; and Henri Wallon, Histoire du Tribunal révolutionnaire de Paris (Paris: Librairie Hachette, 1880-1882), I: 41-79.
    • (1866) Le Tribunal Révolutionnaire de Paris , vol.1 , pp. 5-23
    • Campardon, E.1
  • 10
    • 0010088845 scopus 로고
    • Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press
    • On the creation of the tribunal, see Emile Campardon, Le Tribunal révolutionnaire de Paris (Paris: Henri Pion, 1866), I: 5-23; James Logan Godfrey, Revolutionary Justice: A Study of the Organization, Personnel, and Procedure of the Paris Tribunal, 1793-1795 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1951), 3-24; and Henri Wallon, Histoire du Tribunal révolutionnaire de Paris (Paris: Librairie Hachette, 1880-1882), I: 41-79.
    • (1951) Revolutionary Justice: A Study of the Organization, Personnel, and Procedure of the Paris Tribunal, 1793-1795 , pp. 3-24
    • Godfrey, J.L.1
  • 11
    • 85033541218 scopus 로고
    • Paris: Librairie Hachette
    • On the creation of the tribunal, see Emile Campardon, Le Tribunal révolutionnaire de Paris (Paris: Henri Pion, 1866), I: 5-23; James Logan Godfrey, Revolutionary Justice: A Study of the Organization, Personnel, and Procedure of the Paris Tribunal, 1793-1795 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1951), 3-24; and Henri Wallon, Histoire du Tribunal révolutionnaire de Paris (Paris: Librairie Hachette, 1880-1882), I: 41-79.
    • (1880) Histoire du Tribunal Révolutionnaire de Paris , vol.1 , pp. 41-79
    • Wallon, H.1
  • 14
    • 0010097775 scopus 로고
    • Paris: Imprimerie Nationale
    • See, for example, the case of Catherine-Elisabeth Durand, the widow Pasdeloup, who was imprisoned in the Bastille for selling patriotic pamphlets on the street in the summer of 1771; that of Elisabeth Fleury, the shop girl of one M. Simon, publisher to the Parlement, who was imprisoned in July 1771, also for trafficking in patriotic pamphlets; and of Louise-Charlotte Pestrelle and her daughter, who were imprisoned the following summer for their part in the "Affaire des libelles contre le Parlement Maupeou." See Frantz Funck-Brentano, Les Lettres de Cachet àParis, étude suivie d'une liste des prisonniers de la Bastille (1650-1789) (Paris: Imprimerie Nationale, 1903), 386, 389. On women's involvement in the Maupeou crisis, see particularly Dale van Kley, "The Religious Origins of the Patriot and Ministerial Parties in Pre-Revolutionary France: Controversy over the Chancellor's Constitutional Coup, 1771-1775," Historical Reflections 18, no. 2 (1992): 17-63, esp. 41-48.
    • (1903) Les Lettres de Cachet Àparis, Étude Suivie D'une Liste des Prisonniers de la Bastille (1650-1789) , pp. 386
    • Funck-Brentano, F.1
  • 15
    • 0010140239 scopus 로고
    • The religious origins of the patriot and ministerial parties in pre-revolutionary france: Controversy over the chancellor's constitutional coup, 1771-1775,"
    • esp. 41-48
    • See, for example, the case of Catherine-Elisabeth Durand, the widow Pasdeloup, who was imprisoned in the Bastille for selling patriotic pamphlets on the street in the summer of 1771; that of Elisabeth Fleury, the shop girl of one M. Simon, publisher to the Parlement, who was imprisoned in July 1771, also for trafficking in patriotic pamphlets; and of Louise-Charlotte Pestrelle and her daughter, who were imprisoned the following summer for their part in the "Affaire des libelles contre le Parlement Maupeou." See Frantz Funck-Brentano, Les Lettres de Cachet àParis, étude suivie d'une liste des prisonniers de la Bastille (1650-1789) (Paris: Imprimerie Nationale, 1903), 386, 389. On women's involvement in the Maupeou crisis, see particularly Dale van Kley, "The Religious Origins of the Patriot and Ministerial Parties in Pre-Revolutionary France: Controversy over the Chancellor's Constitutional Coup, 1771-1775," Historical Reflections 18, no. 2 (1992): 17-63, esp. 41-48.
    • (1992) Historical Reflections , vol.18 , Issue.2 , pp. 17-63
    • Van Kley, D.1
  • 18
    • 85033531635 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • A.N. W 268, plaq. 10, 1 bis. My thanks to Carla Hesse for sharing her notes on this dossier with me
    • A.N. W 268, plaq. 10, 1 bis. My thanks to Carla Hesse for sharing her notes on this dossier with me.
  • 23
    • 84879109160 scopus 로고
    • Paris: Librairie Académique Perrin, Although Anchel does not cite an archivai source for this story, his position as archivist at the National Archives and his assertion that he has taken his work "exclusively from archival documents, that it owes almost nothing to previous authors and nothing at all to imagination, of which he has none" (vii) seem adequate reasons for trusting Madame Lescombat's tale
    • Robert Anchel, Crimes et châtiments au XVIIIe siècle (Paris: Librairie Académique Perrin, 1933), 69-70. Although Anchel does not cite an archivai source for this story, his position as archivist at the National Archives and his assertion that he has taken his work "exclusively from archival documents, that it owes almost nothing to previous authors and nothing at all to imagination, of which he has none" (vii) seem adequate reasons for trusting Madame Lescombat's tale.
    • (1933) Crimes et Châtiments Au Xviiie Siècle , pp. 69-70
    • Anchel, R.1
  • 24
    • 84925911714 scopus 로고
    • Female sexual attitudes and the rise of illegitimacy: A case study
    • Cissie Fairchilds, "Female Sexual Attitudes and the Rise of Illegitimacy: A Case Study," Journal of Interdisciplinary History 8, no. 4 (1978), 630 and n. 8.
    • (1978) Journal of Interdisciplinary History , vol.8 , Issue.4 , pp. 630
    • Fairchilds, C.1
  • 25
    • 85033529381 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • In Fairchilds's study of déclarations de grossesse in Aix-en-Provence between 1727 and 1789, she found only 57 cases (out of 3,001 in the sample) in which upper-class women made declarations
    • Ibid., 634, n. 15. In Fairchilds's study of déclarations de grossesse in Aix-en-Provence between 1727 and 1789, she found only 57 cases (out of 3,001 in the sample) in which upper-class women made declarations.
    • Journal of Interdisciplinary History , Issue.15 , pp. 634
  • 26
    • 0347995568 scopus 로고
    • On pleading the belly: A history of the jury of matrons
    • James C. Oldham, "On Pleading the Belly: A History of the Jury of Matrons," Criminal Justice History 6 (1985): 3.
    • (1985) Criminal Justice History , vol.6 , pp. 3
    • Oldham, J.C.1
  • 28
  • 29
    • 0010143290 scopus 로고
    • ed. Edgar Roberts London: E. Arnold
    • See Daniel Defoe, The Fortunes and Misfortunes of the Famous Moll Flanders (1722; London: Penguin Library, 1978), 260, and John Gay, The Beggar's Opera, ed. Edgar Roberts (London: E. Arnold, 1969), 7, 62.
    • (1969) The Beggar's Opera , vol.7 , pp. 62
    • John, G.1
  • 32
    • 85033533121 scopus 로고
    • The administration of the english criminal law in the eighteenth century: Trial jury verdicts and pardons in surrey
    • Legal Research Institute of the School of Law, University of Warwick, 15-18 Sept. 22, cited in Oldham, "On Pleading the Belly," 19
    • J. M. Beattie, "The Administration of the English Criminal Law in the Eighteenth Century: Trial Jury Verdicts and Pardons in Surrey" (paper presented at the History of Law, Labour and Crime Conference, Legal Research Institute of the School of Law, University of Warwick, 15-18 Sept. 1983), 22, cited in Oldham, "On Pleading the Belly," 19.
    • (1983) History of Law, Labour and Crime Conference
    • Beattie, J.M.1
  • 33
    • 85033535456 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Oldham, 21.
    • Oldham, 21.
  • 34
    • 0010158556 scopus 로고
    • Paris: Société de l'Histoire de la Révolution française
    • A lawyer from Calvados, Henri-Larivière (1761-1838), had ties to the Girondins. In early June 1793, he was placed under arrest and fled Paris; he remained in hiding until May 1795, when he resumed his place in the convention. See August Kuscinski, Dictionnaire des conventionnels (Paris: Société de l'Histoire de la Révolution française, 1916), 328; Colin Jones, The Longman Companion to the French Revolution (London: Longman, 1988), 362.
    • (1916) Dictionnaire des Conventionnels , pp. 328
    • Kuscinski, A.1
  • 35
    • 0004305144 scopus 로고
    • London: Longman
    • A lawyer from Calvados, Henri-Larivière (1761-1838), had ties to the Girondins. In early June 1793, he was placed under arrest and fled Paris; he remained in hiding until May 1795, when he resumed his place in the convention. See August Kuscinski, Dictionnaire des conventionnels (Paris: Société de l'Histoire de la Révolution française, 1916), 328; Colin Jones, The Longman Companion to the French Revolution (London: Longman, 1988), 362.
    • (1988) The Longman Companion to the French Revolution , pp. 362
    • Jones, C.1
  • 39
    • 85033513290 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • I have defined childbearing age as being between fifteen and forty-five
    • I have defined childbearing age as being between fifteen and forty-five.
  • 40
    • 85033505298 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Eighteen of those who claimed pregnancy did so during germinal year two and after, with ten of the claims being made during the first nine days of Thermidor
    • Eighteen of those who claimed pregnancy did so during germinal year two and after, with ten of the claims being made during the first nine days of Thermidor.
  • 41
    • 0010927223 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • for the text of the law, see the Archives parlementaires 91: 484; for a discussion of the law
    • The Law of 10 June (22 prairial year II) eliminated the public cross-examination of defendants, the office of defense counsel, and the need to call defense witnesses; allowed "moral" as well as material evidence to be heard in court; and permitted the tribunal to pronounce only verdicts of acquittal or death. This law set in motion the "Great Terror," during which the abbreviated court procedure produced a tremendous increase in sentences, most of them to death. For a brief summary of the law, see Jones, The Longman Companion, 113; for the text of the law, see the Archives parlementaires 91: 484; for a discussion of the law, see Georges Lefebvre, "Sur la loi du 22 prairial," in Etudes sur la Révolution française, ed. Georges Lefebvre (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1963), 110.
    • The Longman Companion , pp. 113
    • Jones1
  • 42
    • 85033526863 scopus 로고
    • Sur la loi du 22 prairial
    • ed. Georges Lefebvre Paris: Presses Universitaires de France
    • The Law of 10 June (22 prairial year II) eliminated the public cross-examination of defendants, the office of defense counsel, and the need to call defense witnesses; allowed "moral" as well as material evidence to be heard in court; and permitted the tribunal to pronounce only verdicts of acquittal or death. This law set in motion the "Great Terror," during which the abbreviated court procedure produced a tremendous increase in sentences, most of them to death. For a brief summary of the law, see Jones, The Longman Companion, 113; for the text of the law, see the Archives parlementaires 91: 484; for a discussion of the law, see Georges Lefebvre, "Sur la loi du 22 prairial," in Etudes sur la Révolution française, ed. Georges Lefebvre (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1963), 110.
    • (1963) Etudes Sur la Révolution Française , pp. 110
    • Lefebvre, G.1
  • 43
    • 0004336303 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • and A.N. W 263-433
    • In July, the tribunal condemned 935 individuals (129 of them women) to death, 35 percent of the total number it condemned throughout the entire period. See Godfrey, Revolutionary Justice, 137, and A.N. W 263-433.
    • Revolutionary Justice , pp. 137
    • Godfrey1
  • 44
    • 85033513379 scopus 로고
    • Un témoin de la révolution française à paris: Jean-gabriel-philippe morice
    • Paris
    • 36. A.N. W 431, plaq. 968. Their indictment was for having left France "the better to conspire against the people," for corresponding with the "enemies of the Republic," and displaying clearly their "hope and desire for the counter-revolution." For the record, Joly de Fleury appears to have been quite a character. She had been separated from her husband for most of their marriage. In 1778, her father had her incarcerated in a convent because of her "scandalous conduct"; after leaving the convent, Madame de Fleury journeyed to Italy, where she seems to have taken up with a manservant named Joseph Tosi. The two returned together to France. During the Revolution, Tosi served on the Revolutionary Committee for the Bonnet-Rouge Section in Paris. When Madame de Fleury was arrested, she wrote to Tosi to ask for his help and he responded, "I have not forgotten, citoyenne, the time when I had the honor to offer you my hand to enter your carriage. The only service I would offer you presently is to give you my hand to mount to the guillotine." H. de Broc, "Un témoin de la Révolution française à Paris: Jean-Gabriel-Philippe Morice," in Revue des questions historiques (Paris, 1892), VIII: 472, quoted in Paul Bisson de Barthélemy, Les Joly de Fleury: Procureurs généraux au parlement de Paris au XVIIIe siècle (Paris: Société d'Edition d'Enseignement Supérieur, 1964), 45. On Tosi, see also Albert Soboul and Raymonde Monnier, Répertoire du personnel sectionnaire parisien en l'an II (Paris: Publications de la Sorbonne, 1985), 472
    • (1892) Revue des Questions Historiques , vol.8 , pp. 472
    • De Broc, H.1
  • 45
    • 0010177160 scopus 로고
    • Paris: Société d'Edition d'Enseignement Supérieur
    • A.N. W 431, plaq. 968. Their indictment was for having left France "the better to conspire against the people," for corresponding with the "enemies of the Republic," and displaying clearly their "hope and desire for the counter-revolution." For the record, Joly de Fleury appears to have been quite a character. She had been separated from her husband for most of their marriage. In 1778, her father had her incarcerated in a convent because of her "scandalous conduct"; after leaving the convent, Madame de Fleury journeyed to Italy, where she seems to have taken up with a manservant named Joseph Tosi. The two returned together to France. During the Revolution, Tosi served on the Revolutionary Committee for the Bonnet-Rouge Section in Paris. When Madame de Fleury was arrested, she wrote to Tosi to ask for his help and he responded, "I have not forgotten, citoyenne, the time when I had the honor to offer you my hand to enter your carriage. The only service I would offer you presently is to give you my hand to mount to the guillotine." H. de Broc, "Un témoin de la Révolution française à Paris: Jean-Gabriel-Philippe Morice," in Revue des questions historiques (Paris, 1892), VIII: 472, quoted in Paul Bisson de Barthélemy, Les Joly de Fleury: Procureurs généraux au parlement de Paris au XVIIIe siècle (Paris: Société d'Edition d'Enseignement Supérieur, 1964), 45. On Tosi, see also Albert Soboul and Raymonde Monnier, Répertoire du personnel sectionnaire parisien en l'an II (Paris: Publications de la Sorbonne, 1985), 472
    • (1964) Les Joly de Fleury: Procureurs Généraux Au Parlement de Paris Au XVIIIe Siècle , pp. 45
    • De Barthélemy, P.B.1
  • 46
    • 0010205685 scopus 로고
    • Paris: Publications de la Sorbonne
    • A.N. W 431, plaq. 968. Their indictment was for having left France "the better to conspire against the people," for corresponding with the "enemies of the Republic," and displaying clearly their "hope and desire for the counter-revolution." For the record, Joly de Fleury appears to have been quite a character. She had been separated from her husband for most of their marriage. In 1778, her father had her incarcerated in a convent because of her "scandalous conduct"; after leaving the convent, Madame de Fleury journeyed to Italy, where she seems to have taken up with a manservant named Joseph Tosi. The two returned together to France. During the Revolution, Tosi served on the Revolutionary Committee for the Bonnet-Rouge Section in Paris. When Madame de Fleury was arrested, she wrote to Tosi to ask for his help and he responded, "I have not forgotten, citoyenne, the time when I had the honor to offer you my hand to enter your carriage. The only service I would offer you presently is to give you my hand to mount to the guillotine." H. de Broc, "Un témoin de la Révolution française à Paris: Jean-Gabriel-Philippe Morice," in Revue des questions historiques (Paris, 1892), VIII: 472, quoted in Paul Bisson de Barthélemy, Les Joly de Fleury: Procureurs généraux au parlement de Paris au XVIIIe siècle (Paris: Société d'Edition d'Enseignement Supérieur, 1964), 45. On Tosi, see also Albert Soboul and Raymonde Monnier, Répertoire du personnel sectionnaire parisien en l'an II (Paris: Publications de la Sorbonne, 1985), 472
    • (1985) Répertoire du Personnel Sectionnaire Parisien en L'an II , pp. 472
    • Soboul, A.1    Monnier, R.2
  • 47
    • 85033518939 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • A. N. W 431, plaq. 968, 41
    • A. N. W 431, plaq. 968, 41.
  • 48
    • 85033543175 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Ibid., 13.
    • Ibid., 13.
  • 49
    • 85033536916 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Ibid., 12.
    • Ibid., 12.
  • 50
    • 85033521597 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Ibid., 14.
    • Ibid., 14.
  • 51
    • 85033544689 scopus 로고
    • L'Hospice national du tribunal révolutionnaire
    • July
    • Léon le Grand, "L'Hospice national du Tribunal révolutionnaire," in Revue des Questions historiques (July 1890), 135-38.
    • (1890) Revue des Questions Historiques , pp. 135-138
    • Grand, L.L.1
  • 52
    • 85033522808 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • According to Le Grand, this Théry is not the same individual as the Thiéry who was employed as a doctor at the Conciergerie in November 1792. This Théry was appointed to the position with the tribunal in June 1793 on Robespierre's recommendation. See Le Grand, 145-46, n. 5
    • According to Le Grand, this Théry is not the same individual as the Thiéry who was employed as a doctor at the Conciergerie in November 1792. This Théry was appointed to the position with the tribunal in June 1793 on Robespierre's recommendation. See Le Grand, 145-46, n. 5.
  • 53
    • 85033518115 scopus 로고
    • Paris: Perrin, note
    • Souberbeille, born in 1754 in Pontacq (Basses-Pyrénées), had tended to the wounded during the taking of the Bastille. He served as a surgeon in the prisons, attending to Marie-Antoinette among others. Outside prison, he was Robespierre's own physician. See Max Billard, Les Femmes enceintes devant le Tribunal révolutionnaire (Paris: Perrin, 1911), 90, n. 1. Billard's book relies both on archival work and on undocumented, anecdotal evidence; he described his book as "touching on the greatest crimes of the Revolution, crime which will remain a stain on the honor of the Republic" (p. 12). His analysis, although it is the only work on this problem that I have found, romanticizes the issue to the point of being of limited use.
    • (1911) Les Femmes Enceintes Devant le Tribunal Révolutionnaire , Issue.1 , pp. 90
    • Billard, M.1
  • 54
    • 4244118412 scopus 로고
    • Paris: Librairie Jouaust, 1889; New York: AMS Press, 1: lxv; 5: 453, 491; 6: 166. Aulard lists Naury as a member of the Jacobin club from 1790 and Souberbielle as having joined in October 1793
    • Françoise-Alphonse Aulard. La Société des Jacobins, receuil de documents (Paris: Librairie Jouaust, 1889; New York: AMS Press, 1973), 1: lxv; 5: 453, 491; 6: 166. Aulard lists Naury as a member of the Jacobin club from 1790 and Souberbielle as having joined in October 1793.
    • (1973) La Société des Jacobins, Receuil de Documents
    • Aulard, F.-A.1
  • 55
    • 3442878282 scopus 로고
    • Paris: Payot
    • Jean-Charles Sournia, La médecine révolutionnaire (1789-1799) (Paris: Payot, 1989), 217; Billard, Les Femmes enceintes, ibid. On doctors, see also Godfrey, Revolutionary Justice, 14, 35; Campardon, Le Tribunal, 1: 25, 121, 158; Soboul and Monnier, Répertoire, 351.
    • (1989) La Médecine Révolutionnaire (1789-1799) , pp. 217
    • Sournia, J.-C.1
  • 56
    • 85033507313 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ibid
    • Jean-Charles Sournia, La médecine révolutionnaire (1789-1799) (Paris: Payot, 1989), 217; Billard, Les Femmes enceintes, ibid. On doctors, see also Godfrey, Revolutionary Justice, 14, 35; Campardon, Le Tribunal, 1: 25, 121, 158; Soboul and Monnier, Répertoire, 351.
    • Les Femmes Enceintes
    • Billard1
  • 57
    • 85033524995 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Jean-Charles Sournia, La médecine révolutionnaire (1789-1799) (Paris: Payot, 1989), 217; Billard, Les Femmes enceintes, ibid. On doctors, see also Godfrey, Revolutionary Justice, 14, 35; Campardon, Le Tribunal, 1: 25, 121, 158; Soboul and Monnier, Répertoire, 351.
    • Revolutionary Justice , vol.14 , pp. 35
    • Godfrey1
  • 58
    • 85033509283 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Jean-Charles Sournia, La médecine révolutionnaire (1789-1799) (Paris: Payot, 1989), 217; Billard, Les Femmes enceintes, ibid. On doctors, see also Godfrey, Revolutionary Justice, 14, 35; Campardon, Le Tribunal, 1: 25, 121, 158; Soboul and Monnier, Répertoire, 351.
    • Le Tribunal , vol.1 , pp. 25
    • Campardon1
  • 59
    • 85033509071 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Jean-Charles Sournia, La médecine révolutionnaire (1789-1799) (Paris: Payot, 1989), 217; Billard, Les Femmes enceintes, ibid. On doctors, see also Godfrey, Revolutionary Justice, 14, 35; Campardon, Le Tribunal, 1: 25, 121, 158; Soboul and Monnier, Répertoire, 351.
    • Soboul and Monnier, Répertoire , pp. 351
  • 62
    • 85033504908 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • A. N. W 339, plaq. 345, 347
    • A. N. W 339, plaq. 345, 347.
  • 64
    • 85033505855 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • A. N. AE I, carton 5, no. 20
    • A. N. AE I, carton 5, no. 20.
  • 65
    • 85033523594 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Ibid.
    • Ibid.
  • 66
    • 85033530608 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Ibid.
    • Ibid.
  • 68
    • 85033528500 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • A.N. W 293, plaq. 210, 41.
    • A.N. W 293, plaq. 210, 41.
  • 69
    • 85033532612 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Ibid., 42.
    • Ibid., 42.
  • 70
    • 85033518401 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Ibid., 43.
    • Ibid., 43.
  • 71
    • 85033507313 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • A.N. W 431, plaq. 968; A.N. W 411, plaq. 945. See also Billard, Les Femmes enceintes, 66-67.
    • Les Femmes Enceintes , pp. 66-67
    • Billard1
  • 72
    • 85033526239 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For a sample of these assurances, see A.N. W 431, plaq. 968, 5: "It is impossible for men to communicate with women in the Lazare prison." See also A.N. W 269, plaq. 23, 2e partie, 5.
    • Sournia, La médecine révolutionnaire, 220. For a sample of these assurances, see A.N. W 431, plaq. 968, 5: "It is impossible for men to communicate with women in the Lazare prison." See also A.N. W 269, plaq. 23, 2e partie, 5.
    • La Médecine Révolutionnaire , pp. 220
    • Sournia1
  • 73
    • 85033539085 scopus 로고
    • Paris, year V
    • Nougaret, Histoire des Prisons (Paris, year V [1797]), I: 280, quoted in Le Grand, "L'Hospice national," 153, n. 2.
    • (1797) Histoire des Prisons , vol.1 , pp. 280
    • Nougaret1
  • 74
    • 85033532777 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Nougaret, Histoire des Prisons (Paris, year V [1797]), I: 280, quoted in Le Grand, "L'Hospice national," 153, n. 2.
    • L'Hospice National , Issue.2 , pp. 153
    • Le Grand1
  • 75
    • 0010151305 scopus 로고
    • Finding solace in eighteenth-century newgate
    • ed. J. S. Cockburn Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press
    • It is interesting to recall that the same prison culture evidently existed in England, as demonstrated above and in the following: "in 1702 a group from the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge visited the gaol several times and was scandalized to see female prisoners openly soliciting in hope of becoming pregnant so that they could 'plead their belly' and be pardoned." W. J. Sheehan, "Finding Solace in Eighteenth-Century Newgate," in Crime in England 1550-1800, ed. J. S. Cockburn (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1977), 243.
    • (1977) Crime in England 1550-1800 , pp. 243
    • Sheehan, W.J.1
  • 78
    • 85033505668 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • A.N. W 269, plaq. 23, 1e p., 83
    • A.N. W 269, plaq. 23, 1e p., 83.
  • 80
    • 0003849596 scopus 로고
    • trans. Rosemary Morris Boston: Northeastern University Press
    • J. Primerose, Des Erreurs Vulgaires de la Médecine, avec des Additions de M. de Rostagny (Lyon, 1689), 222, cited in Jacques Gélis, History of Childbirth: Fertility, Pregnancy and Birth in Early Modern Europe, trans. Rosemary Morris (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1991), 52, 72.
    • (1991) History of Childbirth: Fertility, Pregnancy and Birth in Early Modern Europe , pp. 52
    • Gélis, J.1
  • 81
  • 82
    • 85033515526 scopus 로고
    • Paris: P. Ollendorff
    • Based on evidence from her husband's letters, her biographers agree that Madame de Kolly had only three sons. It seems likely, then, that she had been pregnant a total of seven times but that only three of her children had survived infancy. See Paul Gaulot, Amours d'autrefois, 3d ed. (Paris: P. Ollendorff, 1903), 323-24, 332; Blanc, Last Letters, 137.
    • (1903) Amours D'autrefois, 3d Ed. , pp. 323-324
    • Gaulot, P.1
  • 83
    • 84981559509 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Based on evidence from her husband's letters, her biographers agree that Madame de Kolly had only three sons. It seems likely, then, that she had been pregnant a total of seven times but that only three of her children had survived infancy. See Paul Gaulot, Amours d'autrefois, 3d ed. (Paris: P. Ollendorff, 1903), 323-24, 332; Blanc, Last Letters, 137.
    • Last Letters , pp. 137
    • Blanc1
  • 84
    • 85033520412 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • A.N. W 269, plaq. 23, 2e p., 6
    • A.N. W 269, plaq. 23, 2e p., 6.
  • 85
    • 0010156532 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The practice of delaying judgment for a period of months when women pled pregnancy was also followed in England. See Oldham, "On Pleading the Belly," 27-28.
    • On Pleading the Belly , pp. 27-28
  • 86
    • 85033505072 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • A.N. W. 269, plaq. 23, 1e p., 91.
    • A.N. W. 269, plaq. 23, 1e p., 91.
  • 87
    • 85033530274 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • A.N. W 269, plaq. 23, 89.
    • A.N. W 269, plaq. 23, 89.
  • 88
    • 85033508450 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Ibid., 90.
    • Ibid., 90.
  • 89
    • 85033509032 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Nicolas, De la Conservation, 27; J. Guillemeau, De l'Heureux Accouchement des Femmes (Paris, 1609), 45, quoted in Gélis, History of Childbirth 83.
    • De la Conservation , vol.27
  • 91
    • 85033543364 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Nicolas, De la Conservation, 27; J. Guillemeau, De l'Heureux Accouchement des Femmes (Paris, 1609), 45, quoted in Gélis, History of Childbirth 83.
    • History of Childbirth , pp. 83
  • 92
    • 85033534272 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • A.N. W 269, plaq. 23, 2e p., 2.
    • A.N. W 269, plaq. 23, 2e p., 2.
  • 93
    • 85033539050 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Ibid., 3.
    • Ibid., 3.
  • 94
    • 85033539669 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Ibid.
    • Ibid.
  • 95
    • 60949987361 scopus 로고
    • Paris: Syros/Alternatives
    • For summaries of Olympe de Gouges's trial, see Olivier Blanc, Une Femme de libertés: Olympe de Gouges (Paris: Syros/Alternatives, 1989), 153-200,
    • (1989) Une Femme de Libertés: Olympe de Gouges , pp. 153-200
    • Blanc, O.1
  • 96
    • 0010194503 scopus 로고
    • trans. Isabelle Duclos Paris: Editions de Fallois
    • and Paul Noack, Olympe de Gouges: Courtisane et militante des droits de la femme, 1748-1793, trans. Isabelle Duclos (Paris: Editions de Fallois, 1992), 163-80.
    • (1992) , pp. 163-180
  • 97
    • 85033530080 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • A.N. W 269, plaq. 23, 1e p., 94.
    • A.N. W 269, plaq. 23, 1e p., 94.
  • 98
    • 85033540816 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • for the convention's debates on women's clubs
    • For the Law of Suspects, see the Moniteur, 17: 680-81; for the convention's debates on women's clubs, see the Moniteur, 18: 219, 298-300.
    • Moniteur , vol.17 , pp. 680-681
  • 99
    • 85033514316 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For the Law of Suspects, see the Moniteur, 17: 680-81; for the convention's debates on women's clubs, see the Moniteur, 18: 219, 298-300.
    • Moniteur , vol.18 , pp. 219
  • 100
    • 85033514856 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • and A.N. W
    • Between March and October 1793, ten were condemned by the tribunal; in November alone, fourteen were. See Godfrey, Revolutionary Justice, 137, and A.N. W 263-433.
    • Revolutionary Justice , vol.137 , pp. 263-433
    • Godfrey1
  • 101
    • 85033543116 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • A.N. W 269, plaq. 23, 1e p., 94
    • A.N. W 269, plaq. 23, 1e p., 94.
  • 102
    • 85033524386 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • A. N. W 269, plaq. 23, 2e p., 5. If the doctors were correct in estimating the age of the fetus at four and a half months, then, according to the evidence with which Madame de Kolly presented them about her pregnancies, the fetus could not have been hers. Had she been three weeks pregnant at the beginning of August, as she had said, and then miscarried on 20 September, then the fetus would have been at most nine or ten weeks along and thus easily distinguishable from a fetus that was four and a half months along.
  • 103
    • 85033505892 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Ibid.
    • Ibid.
  • 105
    • 85033517345 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • A.N. W 269, plaq. 23, 2e p., 5
    • A.N. W 269, plaq. 23, 2e p., 5.
  • 106
    • 85033517913 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • A.N. W 269, plaq. 23, 1e p., 92
    • A.N. W 269, plaq. 23, 1e p., 92.
  • 107
    • 85033525860 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Moniteur, 18: 359.
    • Moniteur , vol.18 , pp. 359
  • 108
    • 85033516750 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • A.N. W 433, plaq. 972, 2e p., 94
    • A.N. W 433, plaq. 972, 2e p., 94.
  • 109
    • 85033540816 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Moniteur, 17: 680-81. The relevant passage from the Law of Suspects is this: "The following are deemed suspected persons: ... 6th, those who have emigrated during the interval between 1 July, 1789, and the publication of the decree of 30 March-8 April, 1792, even though they may have returned to France within the period established by said decree or prior thereto," trans. in The Old Regime and the French Revolution, Keith Michael Baker, ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987), 353.
    • Moniteur , vol.17 , pp. 680-681
  • 110
    • 85033537471 scopus 로고
    • ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press
    • Moniteur, 17: 680-81. The relevant passage from the Law of Suspects is this: "The following are deemed suspected persons: ... 6th, those who have emigrated during the interval between 1 July, 1789, and the publication of the decree of 30 March-8 April, 1792, even though they may have returned to France within the period established by said decree or prior thereto," trans. in The Old Regime and the French Revolution, Keith Michael Baker, ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987), 353.
    • (1987) The Old Regime and the French Revolution , pp. 353
    • Baker, K.M.1
  • 111
    • 85033513325 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • A.N. W 433, plaq. 972, 2e p., 94.
    • A.N. W 433, plaq. 972, 2e p., 94.
  • 112
    • 85033539052 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Ibid., 93.
    • Ibid., 93.
  • 113
    • 85033516095 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • A.N. W 431, 968, 11.
    • A.N. W 431, 968, 11.
  • 114
    • 85033522013 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • A.N. W 121, no. 100, quoted in Campardon, Le Tribunal, 1: 411.
    • Le Tribunal , vol.1 , pp. 411
    • Campardon1
  • 115
    • 85033518871 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Honorine-Camille-Athénaïs Grimaldi, born in Paris, 22 April 1784; Athénaïs-Euphrosine-Louise-Philippine Grimaldi, born in Paris, 6 June 1786. See Brégeon, 285-87
    • Honorine-Camille-Athénaïs Grimaldi, born in Paris, 22 April 1784; Athénaïs-Euphrosine-Louise-Philippine Grimaldi, born in Paris, 6 June 1786. See Brégeon, 285-87.
  • 116
    • 85033518799 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • A.N. W 148, (6), trans. in Blanc, Last Letters, 71.
    • Last Letters , vol.71
    • Blanc1
  • 117
    • 84981559509 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See her letter to her children's governess: "Let Louise know the reason why I postponed my death, that shy may not suspect me of weakness," quoted in Blanc, Last Letters, 71.
    • Last Letters , pp. 71
    • Blanc1
  • 119
    • 85033505510 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • A.N. W 431, plaq. 968, 7.
    • A.N. W 431, plaq. 968, 7.
  • 120
    • 0004158767 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • trans. Helen Weaver New York: Alfred A. Knopf
    • Philippe Ariès, The Hour of Our Death, trans. Helen Weaver (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1981), 381.
    • (1981) The Hour of Our Death , pp. 381
    • Ariès, P.1
  • 123
    • 85033507313 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, for example, Billard, Les Femmes enceintes, 39-47; Brégeon, 208-09; Blanc, Last Letters, 69-72; Campardon, Le Tribunal, 1: 410-12; Jacques Castelnau, Le Tribunal Révolutionnaire, 1792-1795 (Paris: SFELT, 1950), 218-19; Paris de l'Epinard, Mon retour àla vie après quinze mois d'agonie (undated); Adolphe Smith, Monaco and Monte Carlo (London: Grant Richards, 1912), 98-99; Wallon, Histoire du Tribunal, 5: 162-64.
    • Les Femmes Enceintes , pp. 39-47
    • Billard1
  • 124
    • 85033522397 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Brégeon, 208-09;
    • See, for example, Billard, Les Femmes enceintes, 39-47; Brégeon, 208-09; Blanc, Last Letters, 69-72; Campardon, Le Tribunal, 1: 410-12; Jacques Castelnau, Le Tribunal Révolutionnaire, 1792-1795 (Paris: SFELT, 1950), 218-19; Paris de l'Epinard, Mon retour àla vie après quinze mois d'agonie (undated); Adolphe Smith, Monaco and Monte Carlo (London: Grant Richards, 1912), 98-99; Wallon, Histoire du Tribunal, 5: 162-64.
  • 125
    • 84981559509 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, for example, Billard, Les Femmes enceintes, 39-47; Brégeon, 208-09; Blanc, Last Letters, 69-72; Campardon, Le Tribunal, 1: 410-12; Jacques Castelnau, Le Tribunal Révolutionnaire, 1792-1795 (Paris: SFELT, 1950), 218-19; Paris de l'Epinard, Mon retour àla vie après quinze mois d'agonie (undated); Adolphe Smith, Monaco and Monte Carlo (London: Grant Richards, 1912), 98-99; Wallon, Histoire du Tribunal, 5: 162-64.
    • Last Letters , pp. 69-72
    • Blanc1
  • 126
    • 85033538943 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, for example, Billard, Les Femmes enceintes, 39-47; Brégeon, 208-09; Blanc, Last Letters, 69-72; Campardon, Le Tribunal, 1: 410-12; Jacques Castelnau, Le Tribunal Révolutionnaire, 1792-1795 (Paris: SFELT, 1950), 218-19; Paris de l'Epinard, Mon retour àla vie après quinze mois d'agonie (undated); Adolphe Smith, Monaco and Monte Carlo (London: Grant Richards, 1912), 98-99; Wallon, Histoire du Tribunal, 5: 162-64.
    • Le Tribunal , vol.1 , pp. 410-412
    • Campardon1
  • 127
    • 85033506737 scopus 로고
    • Paris: SFELT
    • See, for example, Billard, Les Femmes enceintes, 39-47; Brégeon, 208-09; Blanc, Last Letters, 69-72; Campardon, Le Tribunal, 1: 410-12; Jacques Castelnau, Le Tribunal Révolutionnaire, 1792-1795 (Paris: SFELT, 1950), 218-19; Paris de l'Epinard, Mon retour àla vie après quinze mois d'agonie (undated); Adolphe Smith, Monaco and Monte Carlo (London: Grant Richards, 1912), 98-99; Wallon, Histoire du Tribunal, 5: 162-64.
    • (1950) Le Tribunal Révolutionnaire, 1792-1795 , pp. 218-219
    • Castelnau, J.1
  • 128
    • 85033523164 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • undated
    • See, for example, Billard, Les Femmes enceintes, 39-47; Brégeon, 208-09; Blanc, Last Letters, 69-72; Campardon, Le Tribunal, 1: 410-12; Jacques Castelnau, Le Tribunal Révolutionnaire, 1792-1795 (Paris: SFELT, 1950), 218-19; Paris de l'Epinard, Mon retour àla vie après quinze mois d'agonie (undated); Adolphe Smith, Monaco and Monte Carlo (London: Grant Richards, 1912), 98-99; Wallon, Histoire du Tribunal, 5: 162-64.
    • Mon Retour Àla Vie Après Quinze Mois D'agonie
    • De L'Epinard, P.1
  • 129
    • 0004276369 scopus 로고
    • London: Grant Richards
    • See, for example, Billard, Les Femmes enceintes, 39-47; Brégeon, 208-09; Blanc, Last Letters, 69-72; Campardon, Le Tribunal, 1: 410-12; Jacques Castelnau, Le Tribunal Révolutionnaire, 1792-1795 (Paris: SFELT, 1950), 218-19; Paris de l'Epinard, Mon retour àla vie après quinze mois d'agonie (undated); Adolphe Smith, Monaco and Monte Carlo (London: Grant Richards, 1912), 98-99; Wallon, Histoire du Tribunal, 5: 162-64.
    • (1912) Monaco and Monte Carlo , pp. 98-99
    • Smith, A.1
  • 130
    • 85033542571 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, for example, Billard, Les Femmes enceintes, 39-47; Brégeon, 208-09; Blanc, Last Letters, 69-72; Campardon, Le Tribunal, 1: 410-12; Jacques Castelnau, Le Tribunal Révolutionnaire, 1792-1795 (Paris: SFELT, 1950), 218-19; Paris de l'Epinard, Mon retour àla vie après quinze mois d'agonie (undated); Adolphe Smith, Monaco and Monte Carlo (London: Grant Richards, 1912), 98-99; Wallon, Histoire du Tribunal, 5: 162-64.
    • Histoire du Tribunal , vol.5 , pp. 162-164
    • Wallon1
  • 132
    • 85033532679 scopus 로고
    • note
    • Olivier Blanc, in his 1987 Last Letters, places his description of Madame de Monaco's death at the end of the chapter "From the Conciergerie to the Scaffold," thus heightening its dramatic weight. He writes in the last paragraph of the chapter, "A second victim was ready. The third was called. It was the Princess of Monaco. She climed the steps in her turn. On the platform, her youthful beauty shone in the dazzling July light" (p. 72).
    • (1987) Last Letters , pp. 72
    • Blanc, O.1


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