"Intended as a terror to the idle and profligate": Embezzlement and the origins of policing in the Yorkshire Worsted Industry, c. 1750-1777

Journal of Social History

Volumn 31, Issue 3, 1998, Pages 646-669

  Soderlund, Richard J ^a  

^a ILLINOIS STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0032034124     PISSN: 00224529     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/jsh/31.3.647     Document Type: Review

References (153)

1. Martha Pimlott's encounters with the criminal justice system can be reconstructed from records on deposit at the Cheshire Record Office, Chester [hereafter, CRO]. These include conviction certificates as well as Middlewich House of Correction Calendars and Incident Bills: QJF, Chester Sessions Files: 213/2, 213/3, 1785; 215/2, 1787; 217/1, 217/4, 1789; 219/1, 219/2, 219/4, 1791; 221/3, 1793.
2. These included woollen, worsted, silk, linen, fustian, cotton, hemp, flax and mohair manufacturing. Statutes also pertained to the leather, fur and iron industries as well as hatmaking, shoemaking and clock and watchmaking.
3. Cited in Joanna Innés, "Statute Law and Summary Justice in Early Modern England," Bulletin of the Society for the Study of Labour History vol.52, no.1 (1987): 34.
4. The fullest treatment of the changing character of the law of embezzlement is by John Styles, "Embezzlement, Industry and the Law in England," in Maxine Berg, et al., eds., Manufacture in Town and Country Before the Factory (Cambridge, 1983), pp. 173-210.
5. See, for example, John Styles, "Sir John Fielding and the Problem of Criminal Investigation in 18th Century England," Transactions of the Royal Historical Society 5th ser., 33 (1983): 127-149; Ruth Paley, "Thief-Takers in London in the Age of the McDaniel Gang c. 1745-1754," in Douglas Hay and Francis Snyder, eds., Policing and Prosecution in Britain, 1750-1850 (Oxford, 1989), pp. 301-340; J. M. Beattie, Crime and the Courts in England, 1660-1800 (Princeton, 1986), pp. 55-59, 67-72.
6. See, for example, John Styles, "Sir John Fielding and the Problem of Criminal Investigation in 18th Century England," Transactions of the Royal Historical Society 5th ser., 33 (1983): 127-149; Ruth Paley, "Thief-Takers in London in the Age of the McDaniel Gang c. 1745-1754," in Douglas Hay and Francis Snyder, eds., Policing and Prosecution in Britain, 1750-1850 (Oxford, 1989), pp. 301-340; J. M. Beattie, Crime and the Courts in England, 1660-1800 (Princeton, 1986), pp. 55-59, 67-72.
7. See, for example, John Styles, "Sir John Fielding and the Problem of Criminal Investigation in 18th Century England," Transactions of the Royal Historical Society 5th ser., 33 (1983): 127-149; Ruth Paley, "Thief-Takers in London in the Age of the McDaniel Gang c. 1745-1754," in Douglas Hay and Francis Snyder, eds., Policing and Prosecution in Britain, 1750-1850 (Oxford, 1989), pp. 301-340; J. M. Beattie, Crime and the Courts in England, 1660-1800 (Princeton, 1986), pp. 55-59, 67-72.
8. Between 1784 and 1791, at least three groups of worsted manufacturers in other regions founded statutory associations for the purpose of introducing industrial policing. In Yorkshire itself, woollen manufacturers of Halifax as well as Huddersfield established respective policing bodies based upon the model of the Worsted Committee.
9. The intellectual sources of this transformation are considered in P. S. Atiyah, The Rise and Fall of Freedom of Contract (Oxford, 1979), pp. 61-91.
10. J. L. and Barbara Hammond, The Skilled Labourer, 1760-1832 (London, 1919), pp. 190-191, 199; Herbert Heaton, The Yorkshire Woollen and Worsted Industries: From the Earliest Times up to the Industrial Revolution (Oxford, 1965; 2nd ed.), pp. 405-437; Ivy Pinchbeck, Women Workers and the Industrial Revolution, 1750-1850 (New York, 1930), p. 146; T. S. Ashton, An Economic History of England: The Eighteenth Century (London, 1955), p. 211; Sidney Pollard, The Genesis of Modern Management: A Study of the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain (London, 1965), p. 46; John Rule, The Experience of Labour in Eighteenth Century Industry (London, 1981), pp. 131-132; R.W. Malcolmson, Life and Labor in England, 1700-1780 (London, 1981), p. 152; Pat Hudson, The Genesis of Industrial Capital: A Study of the West Riding Wool Textile Industry, c. 1750-1850 (Cambridge, 1986), pp. 75, 288, 290; Theodore Koditschek, Class Formation and Urban-Industrial Society: Bradford, 1750-1850 (Cambridge, 1990), pp. 65, 75, 154; Deborah Valenze, The First Industrial Woman (Oxford, 1995), p. 74.
11. J. L. and Barbara Hammond, The Skilled Labourer, 1760-1832 (London, 1919), pp. 190-191, 199; Herbert Heaton, The Yorkshire Woollen and Worsted Industries: From the Earliest Times up to the Industrial Revolution (Oxford, 1965; 2nd ed.), pp. 405-437; Ivy Pinchbeck, Women Workers and the Industrial Revolution, 1750-1850 (New York, 1930), p. 146; T. S. Ashton, An Economic History of England: The Eighteenth Century (London, 1955), p. 211; Sidney Pollard, The Genesis of Modern Management: A Study of the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain (London, 1965), p. 46; John Rule, The Experience of Labour in Eighteenth Century Industry (London, 1981), pp. 131-132; R.W. Malcolmson, Life and Labor in England, 1700-1780 (London, 1981), p. 152; Pat Hudson, The Genesis of Industrial Capital: A Study of the West Riding Wool Textile Industry, c. 1750-1850 (Cambridge, 1986), pp. 75, 288, 290; Theodore Koditschek, Class Formation and Urban-Industrial Society: Bradford, 1750-1850 (Cambridge, 1990), pp. 65, 75, 154; Deborah Valenze, The First Industrial Woman (Oxford, 1995), p. 74.
12. J. L. and Barbara Hammond, The Skilled Labourer, 1760-1832 (London, 1919), pp. 190-191, 199; Herbert Heaton, The Yorkshire Woollen and Worsted Industries: From the Earliest Times up to the Industrial Revolution (Oxford, 1965; 2nd ed.), pp. 405-437; Ivy Pinchbeck, Women Workers and the Industrial Revolution, 1750-1850 (New York, 1930), p. 146; T. S. Ashton, An Economic History of England: The Eighteenth Century (London, 1955), p. 211; Sidney Pollard, The Genesis of Modern Management: A Study of the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain (London, 1965), p. 46; John Rule, The Experience of Labour in Eighteenth Century Industry (London, 1981), pp. 131-132; R.W. Malcolmson, Life and Labor in England, 1700-1780 (London, 1981), p. 152; Pat Hudson, The Genesis of Industrial Capital: A Study of the West Riding Wool Textile Industry, c. 1750-1850 (Cambridge, 1986), pp. 75, 288, 290; Theodore Koditschek, Class Formation and Urban-Industrial Society: Bradford, 1750-1850 (Cambridge, 1990), pp. 65, 75, 154; Deborah Valenze, The First Industrial Woman (Oxford, 1995), p. 74.
13. J. L. and Barbara Hammond, The Skilled Labourer, 1760-1832 (London, 1919), pp. 190-191, 199; Herbert Heaton, The Yorkshire Woollen and Worsted Industries: From the Earliest Times up to the Industrial Revolution (Oxford, 1965; 2nd ed.), pp. 405-437; Ivy Pinchbeck, Women Workers and the Industrial Revolution, 1750-1850 (New York, 1930), p. 146; T. S. Ashton, An Economic History of England: The Eighteenth Century (London, 1955), p. 211; Sidney Pollard, The Genesis of Modern Management: A Study of the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain (London, 1965), p. 46; John Rule, The Experience of Labour in Eighteenth Century Industry (London, 1981), pp. 131-132; R.W. Malcolmson, Life and Labor in England, 1700-1780 (London, 1981), p. 152; Pat Hudson, The Genesis of Industrial Capital: A Study of the West Riding Wool Textile Industry, c. 1750-1850 (Cambridge, 1986), pp. 75, 288, 290; Theodore Koditschek, Class Formation and Urban-Industrial Society: Bradford, 1750-1850 (Cambridge, 1990), pp. 65, 75, 154; Deborah Valenze, The First Industrial Woman (Oxford, 1995), p. 74.
14. J. L. and Barbara Hammond, The Skilled Labourer, 1760-1832 (London, 1919), pp. 190-191, 199; Herbert Heaton, The Yorkshire Woollen and Worsted Industries: From the Earliest Times up to the Industrial Revolution (Oxford, 1965; 2nd ed.), pp. 405-437; Ivy Pinchbeck, Women Workers and the Industrial Revolution, 1750-1850 (New York, 1930), p. 146; T. S. Ashton, An Economic History of England: The Eighteenth Century (London, 1955), p. 211; Sidney Pollard, The Genesis of Modern Management: A Study of the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain (London, 1965), p. 46; John Rule, The Experience of Labour in Eighteenth Century Industry (London, 1981), pp. 131-132; R.W. Malcolmson, Life and Labor in England, 1700-1780 (London, 1981), p. 152; Pat Hudson, The Genesis of Industrial Capital: A Study of the West Riding Wool Textile Industry, c. 1750-1850 (Cambridge, 1986), pp. 75, 288, 290; Theodore Koditschek, Class Formation and Urban-Industrial Society: Bradford, 1750-1850 (Cambridge, 1990), pp. 65, 75, 154; Deborah Valenze, The First Industrial Woman (Oxford, 1995), p. 74.
15. J. L. and Barbara Hammond, The Skilled Labourer, 1760-1832 (London, 1919), pp. 190-191, 199; Herbert Heaton, The Yorkshire Woollen and Worsted Industries: From the Earliest Times up to the Industrial Revolution (Oxford, 1965; 2nd ed.), pp. 405-437; Ivy Pinchbeck, Women Workers and the Industrial Revolution, 1750-1850 (New York, 1930), p. 146; T. S. Ashton, An Economic History of England: The Eighteenth Century (London, 1955), p. 211; Sidney Pollard, The Genesis of Modern Management: A Study of the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain (London, 1965), p. 46; John Rule, The Experience of Labour in Eighteenth Century Industry (London, 1981), pp. 131-132; R.W. Malcolmson, Life and Labor in England, 1700-1780 (London, 1981), p. 152; Pat Hudson, The Genesis of Industrial Capital: A Study of the West Riding Wool Textile Industry, c. 1750-1850 (Cambridge, 1986), pp. 75, 288, 290; Theodore Koditschek, Class Formation and Urban-Industrial Society: Bradford, 1750-1850 (Cambridge, 1990), pp. 65, 75, 154; Deborah Valenze, The First Industrial Woman (Oxford, 1995), p. 74.
16. J. L. and Barbara Hammond, The Skilled Labourer, 1760-1832 (London, 1919), pp. 190-191, 199; Herbert Heaton, The Yorkshire Woollen and Worsted Industries: From the Earliest Times up to the Industrial Revolution (Oxford, 1965; 2nd ed.), pp. 405-437; Ivy Pinchbeck, Women Workers and the Industrial Revolution, 1750-1850 (New York, 1930), p. 146; T. S. Ashton, An Economic History of England: The Eighteenth Century (London, 1955), p. 211; Sidney Pollard, The Genesis of Modern Management: A Study of the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain (London, 1965), p. 46; John Rule, The Experience of Labour in Eighteenth Century Industry (London, 1981), pp. 131-132; R.W. Malcolmson, Life and Labor in England, 1700-1780 (London, 1981), p. 152; Pat Hudson, The Genesis of Industrial Capital: A Study of the West Riding Wool Textile Industry, c. 1750-1850 (Cambridge, 1986), pp. 75, 288, 290; Theodore Koditschek, Class Formation and Urban-Industrial Society: Bradford, 1750-1850 (Cambridge, 1990), pp. 65, 75, 154; Deborah Valenze, The First Industrial Woman (Oxford, 1995), p. 74.
17. J. L. and Barbara Hammond, The Skilled Labourer, 1760-1832 (London, 1919), pp. 190-191, 199; Herbert Heaton, The Yorkshire Woollen and Worsted Industries: From the Earliest Times up to the Industrial Revolution (Oxford, 1965; 2nd ed.), pp. 405-437; Ivy Pinchbeck, Women Workers and the Industrial Revolution, 1750-1850 (New York, 1930), p. 146; T. S. Ashton, An Economic History of England: The Eighteenth Century (London, 1955), p. 211; Sidney Pollard, The Genesis of Modern Management: A Study of the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain (London, 1965), p. 46; John Rule, The Experience of Labour in Eighteenth Century Industry (London, 1981), pp. 131-132; R.W. Malcolmson, Life and Labor in England, 1700-1780 (London, 1981), p. 152; Pat Hudson, The Genesis of Industrial Capital: A Study of the West Riding Wool Textile Industry, c. 1750-1850 (Cambridge, 1986), pp. 75, 288, 290; Theodore Koditschek, Class Formation and Urban-Industrial Society: Bradford, 1750-1850 (Cambridge, 1990), pp. 65, 75, 154; Deborah Valenze, The First Industrial Woman (Oxford, 1995), p. 74.
18. J. L. and Barbara Hammond, The Skilled Labourer, 1760-1832 (London, 1919), pp. 190-191, 199; Herbert Heaton, The Yorkshire Woollen and Worsted Industries: From the Earliest Times up to the Industrial Revolution (Oxford, 1965; 2nd ed.), pp. 405-437; Ivy Pinchbeck, Women Workers and the Industrial Revolution, 1750-1850 (New York, 1930), p. 146; T. S. Ashton, An Economic History of England: The Eighteenth Century (London, 1955), p. 211; Sidney Pollard, The Genesis of Modern Management: A Study of the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain (London, 1965), p. 46; John Rule, The Experience of Labour in Eighteenth Century Industry (London, 1981), pp. 131-132; R.W. Malcolmson, Life and Labor in England, 1700-1780 (London, 1981), p. 152; Pat Hudson, The Genesis of Industrial Capital: A Study of the West Riding Wool Textile Industry, c. 1750-1850 (Cambridge, 1986), pp. 75, 288, 290; Theodore Koditschek, Class Formation and Urban-Industrial Society: Bradford, 1750-1850 (Cambridge, 1990), pp. 65, 75, 154; Deborah Valenze, The First Industrial Woman (Oxford, 1995), p. 74.
19. J. L. and Barbara Hammond, The Skilled Labourer, 1760-1832 (London, 1919), pp. 190-191, 199; Herbert Heaton, The Yorkshire Woollen and Worsted Industries: From the Earliest Times up to the Industrial Revolution (Oxford, 1965; 2nd ed.), pp. 405-437; Ivy Pinchbeck, Women Workers and the Industrial Revolution, 1750-1850 (New York, 1930), p. 146; T. S. Ashton, An Economic History of England: The Eighteenth Century (London, 1955), p. 211; Sidney Pollard, The Genesis of Modern Management: A Study of the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain (London, 1965), p. 46; John Rule, The Experience of Labour in Eighteenth Century Industry (London, 1981), pp. 131-132; R.W. Malcolmson, Life and Labor in England, 1700-1780 (London, 1981), p. 152; Pat Hudson, The Genesis of Industrial Capital: A Study of the West Riding Wool Textile Industry, c. 1750-1850 (Cambridge, 1986), pp. 75, 288, 290; Theodore Koditschek, Class Formation and Urban-Industrial Society: Bradford, 1750-1850 (Cambridge, 1990), pp. 65, 75, 154; Deborah Valenze, The First Industrial Woman (Oxford, 1995), p. 74.
20. Craig Becker, "Property in the Workplace: Labor, Capital and Crime in the Eighteenth Century British Woolen and Worsted Industries," Virginia Law Review 69 (1983): 1487-1515; John Rule, The Labouring Classes in Early Industrial England, 1750-1850 (London, 1986), pp. 107-129 and Experience of Labour, pp. 124-146; Valenze, First Industrial Woman, pp. 70-75.
21. Craig Becker, "Property in the Workplace: Labor, Capital and Crime in the Eighteenth Century British Woolen and Worsted Industries," Virginia Law Review 69 (1983): 1487-1515; John Rule, The Labouring Classes in Early Industrial England, 1750-1850 (London, 1986), pp. 107-129 and Experience of Labour, pp. 124-146; Valenze, First Industrial Woman, pp. 70-75.
22. Craig Becker, "Property in the Workplace: Labor, Capital and Crime in the Eighteenth Century British Woolen and Worsted Industries," Virginia Law Review 69 (1983): 1487-1515; John Rule, The Labouring Classes in Early Industrial England, 1750-1850 (London, 1986), pp. 107-129 and Experience of Labour, pp. 124-146; Valenze, First Industrial Woman, pp. 70-75.
23. Craig Becker, "Property in the Workplace: Labor, Capital and Crime in the Eighteenth Century British Woolen and Worsted Industries," Virginia Law Review 69 (1983): 1487-1515; John Rule, The Labouring Classes in Early Industrial England, 1750-1850 (London, 1986), pp. 107-129 and Experience of Labour, pp. 124-146; Valenze, First Industrial Woman, pp. 70-75.
24. It is implicit to Linebaugh's analysis that the transformation of property relationships in eighteenth-century industry paralleled the process of primitive capital accumulation in the countryside that Marx traced in the historical sections of Capital. See his, The London Hanged: Crime and Civil Society in the Eighteenth Century (Cambridge, 1992).
25. John Styles, "Embezzlement in England" and "Criminalization and Capitalism: Industrial Structure, Legislative Opportunity and Employee Fraud in the English Worsted Industries, 1550-1800," unpublished paper, 1988. Clive Emsley has closely followed Styles in "Fiddles, Perks and Pilferage," a chapter in his Crime and Society in England, 1750-1900 (London, 1987), pp. 103-128.
26. John Styles, "Embezzlement in England" and "Criminalization and Capitalism: Industrial Structure, Legislative Opportunity and Employee Fraud in the English Worsted Industries, 1550-1800," unpublished paper, 1988. Clive Emsley has closely followed Styles in "Fiddles, Perks and Pilferage," a chapter in his Crime and Society in England, 1750-1900 (London, 1987), pp. 103-128.
27. Adrian J. Randall, "Peculiar Perquisites and Pernicious Practices: Embezzlement in the West of England Woollen Industry, c. 1750-1840," International Review of Social History XXXV (1990): 193-219.
28. Classic worsted textiles were made of long staple wool rather than the short staple wool used in traditional woollens. The differences in the character of the two fabrics resulted from the distinct production processes. For example, in the preparation of worsteds, wool was combed rather than carded, a process that suspended the felting properties of wool and allowed for the production of stronger yarn. Gaining their tenacity and strength from the yarn, worsteds were not fulled in the finishing process, a procedure in the manufacture of woollens that subjected cloth to the pounding of heavy wooden stocks while it was submerged in water.
29. John James, History of the Worsted Manufacture in England (London, 1857; repr. 1968), p. 268.
30. James, History of Worsted Manufacture, pp. 282, 284. See, also, D.T. Jenkins, The West Riding Wool Industry, 1770-1835: A Study of Fixed Capital Formation (Edington, 1975), pp. 2-4; R. G. Wilson, "The Supremacy of the Yorkshire Cloth Industry," in N. B. Harte and K. G. Ponting, eds., Textile History and Economic History (Manchester, 1973), pp. 225-226.
31. James, History of Worsted Manufacture, pp. 282, 284. See, also, D.T. Jenkins, The West Riding Wool Industry, 1770-1835: A Study of Fixed Capital Formation (Edington, 1975), pp. 2-4; R. G. Wilson, "The Supremacy of the Yorkshire Cloth Industry," in N. B. Harte and K. G. Ponting, eds., Textile History and Economic History (Manchester, 1973), pp. 225-226.
32. James, History of Worsted Manufacture, pp. 282, 284. See, also, D.T. Jenkins, The West Riding Wool Industry, 1770-1835: A Study of Fixed Capital Formation (Edington, 1975), pp. 2-4; R. G. Wilson, "The Supremacy of the Yorkshire Cloth Industry," in N. B. Harte and K. G. Ponting, eds., Textile History and Economic History (Manchester, 1973), pp. 225-226.
33. Hudson, Genesis of Industrial Capital, pp. 26, 28; Heaton, Yorkshire Woollen, pp. 284-286.
34. Hudson, Genesis of Industrial Capital, pp. 26, 28; Heaton, Yorkshire Woollen, pp. 284-286.
35. Michael Dickinson, "The West Riding Woollen and Worsted Industries, 1689-1769: An Analysis of Probate Inventories and Insurance Policies," University of Nottingham Ph.D. Thesis, 1974; Heaton, Yorkshire Woollen, pp. 293-301; Hudson, Genesis of Industrial Capital, pp. 37-39.
36. Michael Dickinson, "The West Riding Woollen and Worsted Industries, 1689-1769: An Analysis of Probate Inventories and Insurance Policies," University of Nottingham Ph.D. Thesis, 1974; Heaton, Yorkshire Woollen, pp. 293-301; Hudson, Genesis of Industrial Capital, pp. 37-39.
37. Michael Dickinson, "The West Riding Woollen and Worsted Industries, 1689-1769: An Analysis of Probate Inventories and Insurance Policies," University of Nottingham Ph.D. Thesis, 1974; Heaton, Yorkshire Woollen, pp. 293-301; Hudson, Genesis of Industrial Capital, pp. 37-39.
38. John Smail, The Origins of Middle-Class Culture: Halifax, Yorkshire, 1660-1780 (Ithaca, 1994); Koditschek, Class Formation, pp. 45-52.
39. John Smail, The Origins of Middle-Class Culture: Halifax, Yorkshire, 1660-1780 (Ithaca, 1994); Koditschek, Class Formation, pp. 45-52.
40. Pat Hudson, "Proto-Industrialization: The Case of the West Riding Wool Textile Industry in the Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Centuries," History Workshop Journal 12 (Autumn 1981): 34-62 and Genesis of Industrial Capital, pp. 59-67; Heaton, Yorkshire Woollen, 286-287.
41. Pat Hudson, "Proto-Industrialization: The Case of the West Riding Wool Textile Industry in the Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Centuries," History Workshop Journal 12 (Autumn 1981): 34-62 and Genesis of Industrial Capital, pp. 59-67; Heaton, Yorkshire Woollen, 286-287.
42. Pat Hudson, "Proto-Industrialization: The Case of the West Riding Wool Textile Industry in the Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Centuries," History Workshop Journal 12 (Autumn 1981): 34-62 and Genesis of Industrial Capital, pp. 59-67; Heaton, Yorkshire Woollen, 286-287.
43. Jack Reynolds, The Great Paternalist: Titus Salt and the Growth of Nineteenth Century Bradford (London, 1983), p. 17.
44. William Scruton, Pen and Pencil Pictures of Old Bradford (Bradford, 1889; repr. 1968), p. 115.
45. The discussion in this paragraph draws closely on the insightful work of Koditschek, Class Formation, pp. 53-78.
46. J. H. Baker, An Introduction to English Legal History (London, 1979), p. 433; George F. Fletcher, "The Metamorphosis of Larceny," Harvard Law Review 89 (1976): esp. 473-475.
47. J. H. Baker, An Introduction to English Legal History (London, 1979), p. 433; George F. Fletcher, "The Metamorphosis of Larceny," Harvard Law Review 89 (1976): esp. 473-475.
48. On this point see Alfred P. Wadsworth and Julia De Lacy Mann in The Cotton Trade and Industrial Lancashire, 1600-1780 (Manchester, 1931), pp. 52-53.
49. The law of bailment, including the relationship of locatio operis, was enumerated in a celebrated judgement by Holt C. J. in The English Law Reports, Coggs v. Bernand (1703), 2 Ld. Raym. 909. My discussion of the law of bailment draws on the penetrating insights of Christopher L. Tomlins in his Law, Labor and Ideology in the Early American Republic (Cambridge, 1993), esp. pp. 223-231. A standard treatment of the law of bailment is Jerome T. Hall, Theft, Law and Society (Boston, 1935).
50. The law of bailment, including the relationship of locatio operis, was enumerated in a celebrated judgement by Holt C. J. in The English Law Reports, Coggs v. Bernand (1703), 2 Ld. Raym. 909. My discussion of the law of bailment draws on the penetrating insights of Christopher L. Tomlins in his Law, Labor and Ideology in the Early American Republic (Cambridge, 1993), esp. pp. 223-231. A standard treatment of the law of bailment is Jerome T. Hall, Theft, Law and Society (Boston, 1935).
51. The law of bailment, including the relationship of locatio operis, was enumerated in a celebrated judgement by Holt C. J. in The English Law Reports, Coggs v. Bernand (1703), 2 Ld. Raym. 909. My discussion of the law of bailment draws on the penetrating insights of Christopher L. Tomlins in his Law, Labor and Ideology in the Early American Republic (Cambridge, 1993), esp. pp. 223-231. A standard treatment of the law of bailment is Jerome T. Hall, Theft, Law and Society (Boston, 1935).
52. Styles, "Embezzlement in England," pp. 188-189.
53. Thomas Blount, A Law Dictionary and Glossary (London, 1717).
54. Peter Linebaugh, "Crime and Social Control in Eighteenth Century England," Bulletin of the Society for the Study of Labour History 25 (Autumn 1972): 114-119. See, also, L. D. Schwartz, "The Formation of the Wage: Some Problems," in Peter Scholliers, ed., Real Wages in Nineteenth and Twentieth Century Europe: Historical and Comparative Perspectives (New York, 1989), pp. 21-39.
55. Peter Linebaugh, "Crime and Social Control in Eighteenth Century England," Bulletin of the Society for the Study of Labour History 25 (Autumn 1972): 114-119. See, also, L. D. Schwartz, "The Formation of the Wage: Some Problems," in Peter Scholliers, ed., Real Wages in Nineteenth and Twentieth Century Europe: Historical and Comparative Perspectives (New York, 1989), pp. 21-39.
56. Ashton, An Economic History, p. 208.
57. Styles, "Embezzlement in England," pp. 181-182.
58. Bradford University Archives [hereafter, BUA], Worsted Committee Minute Books, WC 1/ii, entries for 21 June 1779, 12 April 1802; Leeds Intelligencer, 26 August 1783, 29 January 1788; William Cudworth, Round About Bradford: A Series of Sketches of Forty-Two Places Within Six Miles of Bradford (Bradford, 1876), p. 173. The larger problem of inadequate coinage in Yorkshire communities is examined in John Styles, "'Our Traitorous Money Makers': The Yorkshire Coiners and the Law, 1760-1783," in John Brewer and John Styles, eds., An Ungovernable People: The English and Their Law in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries (London, 1980), pp. 172-249.
59. Bradford University Archives [hereafter, BUA], Worsted Committee Minute Books, WC 1/ii, entries for 21 June 1779, 12 April 1802; Leeds Intelligencer, 26 August 1783, 29 January 1788; William Cudworth, Round About Bradford: A Series of Sketches of Forty-Two Places Within Six Miles of Bradford (Bradford, 1876), p. 173. The larger problem of inadequate coinage in Yorkshire communities is examined in John Styles, "'Our Traitorous Money Makers': The Yorkshire Coiners and the Law, 1760-1783," in John Brewer and John Styles, eds., An Ungovernable People: The English and Their Law in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries (London, 1980), pp. 172-249.
60. Bradford University Archives [hereafter, BUA], Worsted Committee Minute Books, WC 1/ii, entries for 21 June 1779, 12 April 1802; Leeds Intelligencer, 26 August 1783, 29 January 1788; William Cudworth, Round About Bradford: A Series of Sketches of Forty-Two Places Within Six Miles of Bradford (Bradford, 1876), p. 173. The larger problem of inadequate coinage in Yorkshire communities is examined in John Styles, "'Our Traitorous Money Makers': The Yorkshire Coiners and the Law, 1760-1783," in John Brewer and John Styles, eds., An Ungovernable People: The English and Their Law in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries (London, 1980), pp. 172-249.
61. West Yorkshire Archive Service, Bradford District Archives [hereafter, WYAS-BDA], Heaton Papers, B145; Eric Sigsworth, "William Greenwood and Robert Heaton: Two Eighteenth Century Worsted Manufacturers," Bradford Textile Society Journal (1951-1952): 63-64.
62. According to Crabtree, the embezzlement of yarn was universally practiced by the weavers of his village. See Isaac Mann, Memoirs of the Late William Crabtree, First Pastor of the Baptist Church at Bradford Yorkshire (London, 1815), pp. 13-15.
63. On this point Crabtree's memoir is fascinating. See Mann, William Crabtree, pp. 13-15. See also Leeds Mercury, 12 May 1778, 25 May 1779.
64. On this point Crabtree's memoir is fascinating. See Mann, William Crabtree, pp. 13-15. See also Leeds Mercury, 12 May 1778, 25 May 1779.
65. BUA, Worsted Committee Minute Books, WC 1/i, entry for 5 January 1784.
66. Leeds Intelligencer, 26 April 1791.
67. See, Barnsley Central Library, Local Studies Department, John Hugh Burland Collection, "Annals of Barnsley and its Environs," volume one, p. 413.
68. Leeds Intelligencer, 26 April 1791.
69. For useful discussions of the relationship of custom to the capitalist market see Adrian J. Randall, Before the Luddites: Custom, Community and Machinery in the English Woollen Industry, 1776-1809 (Cambridge, 1991), pp. 88-90; John Rule, "Against Innovation? Custom and Resistance in the Workplace, 1700-1850" in Tim Harris, ed., Popular Culture in England, c.1500-1850 (New York, 1995), pp. 187-188.
70. For useful discussions of the relationship of custom to the capitalist market see Adrian J. Randall, Before the Luddites: Custom, Community and Machinery in the English Woollen Industry, 1776-1809 (Cambridge, 1991), pp. 88-90; John Rule, "Against Innovation? Custom and Resistance in the Workplace, 1700-1850" in Tim Harris, ed., Popular Culture in England, c.1500-1850 (New York, 1995), pp. 187-188.
71. See, for example, Leeds Intelligencer, 16 January 1764.
72. 24 Geo. III, c.44. Under this statute a first offender was automatically liable for a monetary fine of five shillings. Second offenders faced a ten shilling fine and third offenders, the sum of one pound. All offenders also had to pay court costs, usually amounting to an additional three or four shillings. Individuals unable to pay fines could have their goods constrained. Only on a fourth conviction did an offender face a mandatory spell of imprisonment and corporal punishment. Needless to say, even the minimum fines, from eight or nine shillings, represented a substantial burden on poor spinners.
73. The following description of the mechanics of measuring a spinner's work draws closely on Styles, "Criminalization and Capitalism," pp. 9-10.
74. Brotherton Library [hereafter, BL], Leeds University, Special Collections, Jonathan Akroyd Papers, Account Book, item 1, various entries; Patricia Baines, Spinning Wheels, Spinners and Spinning (New York, 1977), pp. 106-110.
75. Leeds Intelligencer, 5 June 1764; Wade Hustwick, "An Eighteenth Century Woolstapler," Bradford Textile Society Journal (1956-57): 117-125; John Mahaffey, "On Some Decayed Families of Bradford," The Bradford Antiquary, vol. 1 (1888): 26-32.
76. Leeds Intelligencer, 5 June 1764; Wade Hustwick, "An Eighteenth Century Woolstapler," Bradford Textile Society Journal (1956-57): 117-125; John Mahaffey, "On Some Decayed Families of Bradford," The Bradford Antiquary, vol. 1 (1888): 26-32.
77. Leeds Intelligencer, 5 June 1764; Wade Hustwick, "An Eighteenth Century Woolstapler," Bradford Textile Society Journal (1956-57): 117-125; John Mahaffey, "On Some Decayed Families of Bradford," The Bradford Antiquary, vol. 1 (1888): 26-32.
78. Peter King, "Prosecution Associations and their Impact on Eighteenth Century Essex," in Francis Snyder and Douglas Hay, eds., Policing and Prosecution in Britain, 1750-1850 (Oxford, 1989), pp. 171-210; David Philips, "'Good Men to Associate and Bad Men to Conspire': Associations for the Prosecution of Felons in England, 1760-1860," Ibid., pp. 155-189.
79. Peter King, "Prosecution Associations and their Impact on Eighteenth Century Essex," in Francis Snyder and Douglas Hay, eds., Policing and Prosecution in Britain, 1750-1850 (Oxford, 1989), pp. 171-210; David Philips, "'Good Men to Associate and Bad Men to Conspire': Associations for the Prosecution of Felons in England, 1760-1860," Ibid., pp. 155-189.
80. Each association member paid the annual sum of one shilling and six pence for every woolcomber that they employed. Since even substantial manufacturers might employ only ten or twelve combers, annual dues were not large. See the recollections of this early attempt at policing in Leeds Mercury, 26 September 1776 and the account provided by the Halifax manufacturer, William Currer, in House of Commons Journals, vol. xxxvi, February 4, 1776, p. 113.
81. Expressed in a pamphlet that he published, Observations Upon the Bill Presented to Parliament for Preventing the Exportation of Wool (London, 1787).
82. John Styles, "Policing a Female Workforce: The Worsted Inspectors, 1760-1810," unpublished paper, 1986, p. 17.
83. Leeds Mercury, 7 August 1770.
84. The collapse is described in Leeds Mercury, 26 November 1776. According to James, "such a combination existed among the operatives," that manufacturers "could not obtain hands because they refused to work for him and frequently plotted mischief against his person and property." See History of Worsted Manufacture, p. 293. See, also, Heaton, Yorkshire Woollen, pp. 418-419.
85. The collapse is described in Leeds Mercury, 26 November 1776. According to James, "such a combination existed among the operatives," that manufacturers "could not obtain hands because they refused to work for him and frequently plotted mischief against his person and property." See History of Worsted Manufacture, p. 293. See, also, Heaton, Yorkshire Woollen, pp. 418-419.
86. The collapse is described in Leeds Mercury, 26 November 1776. According to James, "such a combination existed among the operatives," that manufacturers "could not obtain hands because they refused to work for him and frequently plotted mischief against his person and property." See History of Worsted Manufacture, p. 293. See, also, Heaton, Yorkshire Woollen, pp. 418-419.
87. The processing of wool required the use of great quantities of soap, primarily for cleaning. One pound of soap was commonly used to clean ten pounds of wool. Soap was also a heavily taxed item. In 1712, in deference to the importance of woollen manufacturing, parliament passed a statute that provided for the Excise to transfer a portion of the soap tax to the manufacturers, a rebate known as the drawback. By the terms of the Worsted Act, one or two pence of every shilling of drawback was to be paid to the trustees of the Worsted Committee.
88. James, History of Worsted Manufacture, p. 294.
89. In securing the Worsted Act, the Yorkshire masters relied on their close ties to nationally prominent politicians, including Sir George Saville in the House of Commons and Charles Watson Wentworth, the Second Marquess of Rockingham, in the House of Lords. The progress of the Bill is detailed in House of Commons Journals, vol. xxxvi, 29 and 31 January 1777 pp. 85, 95, 113.
90. BUA, Worsted Committee Minute Books, WC 1/iii, entry for 23 March 1812; WC 1/iv, entry for 31 December 1838.
91. Adam Smith, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (New York, 1909), p. 129.
92. Account books kept by the Haworth-area manufacturer, Robert Heaton, indicate that spinners produced the greatest volume of yarn from January through March, the winter months. April as well as June and August, when spinners were engaged in planting and harvest, saw the least yarn spun. See, WYAS-BDA, Heaton Papers, B147. See, also, the "Reminiscences" of Henry Hall, a Leeds stuff manufacturer, in James, History of Worsted Manufacture, pp. 311-312.
93. Account books kept by the Haworth-area manufacturer, Robert Heaton, indicate that spinners produced the greatest volume of yarn from January through March, the winter months. April as well as June and August, when spinners were engaged in planting and harvest, saw the least yarn spun. See, WYAS-BDA, Heaton Papers, B147. See, also, the "Reminiscences" of Henry Hall, a Leeds stuff manufacturer, in James, History of Worsted Manufacture, pp. 311-312.
94. James, History of Worsted Manufacture, pp. 281, 285; Hudson, Genesis of Industrial Capital, p. 42.
95. James, History of Worsted Manufacture, pp. 281, 285; Hudson, Genesis of Industrial Capital, p. 42.
96. Thomas Pennant, A Tour in Scotland (London, 1769), p. 523.
97. The dimensions of the spinning district can be pieced together from several sources, including West Yorkshire Archive Service, Registry of Deeds [hereafter, WYAS-RD], Wakefield Headquarters, QE15, Memoranda of Summary Convictions; John Hodgson, Textile Manufacture in Keighley (Keighley, 1879), pp. 17-18; James, History of Worsted Manufacture, pp. 292, 324-326.
98. The dimensions of the spinning district can be pieced together from several sources, including West Yorkshire Archive Service, Registry of Deeds [hereafter, WYAS-RD], Wakefield Headquarters, QE15, Memoranda of Summary Convictions; John Hodgson, Textile Manufacture in Keighley (Keighley, 1879), pp. 17-18; James, History of Worsted Manufacture, pp. 292, 324-326.
99. The dimensions of the spinning district can be pieced together from several sources, including West Yorkshire Archive Service, Registry of Deeds [hereafter, WYAS-RD], Wakefield Headquarters, QE15, Memoranda of Summary Convictions; John Hodgson, Textile Manufacture in Keighley (Keighley, 1879), pp. 17-18; James, History of Worsted Manufacture, pp. 292, 324-326.
100. Leeds Mercury, 17 September 1776; James, History of Worsted Manufacture, p. 312.
101. Leeds Mercury, 17 September 1776; James, History of Worsted Manufacture, p. 312.
102. Evidence on this point is voluminous. For example, see BL, Leeds University, Special Collections, Jonathan Akroyd's Account Books, various entries.
103. James, History of Worsted Manufacture, p. 312.
104. Julian Hoppit, Risk and Failure in English Business, 1700-1800 (Cambridge, 1987), pp. 78-80; Pinchbeck, Women Workers, pp. 137-138.
105. Julian Hoppit, Risk and Failure in English Business, 1700-1800 (Cambridge, 1987), pp. 78-80; Pinchbeck, Women Workers, pp. 137-138.
106. Leeds Mercury, 17 and 24 September 1776; 26 November 1776.
107. Eric Kerridge, Textile Manufacture in Early Modern England (Manchester, 1985), p. 158.
108. Leeds Mercury, 17 September 1776. For additional evidence on the problem of yarn quality, see Cudworth, Round About, p. 108; John Hodgson, Textile Manufacture and other Industries in Keighley (Keighley, 1879), pp. 17-18; James, History of Worsted Manufacture, pp. 311-312, 324.
109. Leeds Mercury, 17 September 1776. For additional evidence on the problem of yarn quality, see Cudworth, Round About, p. 108; John Hodgson, Textile Manufacture and other Industries in Keighley (Keighley, 1879), pp. 17-18; James, History of Worsted Manufacture, pp. 311-312, 324.
110. Leeds Mercury, 17 September 1776. For additional evidence on the problem of yarn quality, see Cudworth, Round About, p. 108; John Hodgson, Textile Manufacture and other Industries in Keighley (Keighley, 1879), pp. 17-18; James, History of Worsted Manufacture, pp. 311-312, 324.
111. Leeds Mercury, 17 September 1776.
112. Ibid
113. Leeds Mercury, 24 September 1776.
114. Arthur Young, A Six Months Tour Through the North of England: Volume One (London, 1771), pp. 138, 254, 317, 425; William Cudworth, Rambles Round Horton: Historiographical, Topographical and Descriptive (Bradford, 1886), pp. 19, 24-25; James, History of Worsted Manufacture, pp. 281, 290.
115. Arthur Young, A Six Months Tour Through the North of England: Volume One (London, 1771), pp. 138, 254, 317, 425; William Cudworth, Rambles Round Horton: Historiographical, Topographical and Descriptive (Bradford, 1886), pp. 19, 24-25; James, History of Worsted Manufacture, pp. 281, 290.
116. Arthur Young, A Six Months Tour Through the North of England: Volume One (London, 1771), pp. 138, 254, 317, 425; William Cudworth, Rambles Round Horton: Historiographical, Topographical and Descriptive (Bradford, 1886), pp. 19, 24-25; James, History of Worsted Manufacture, pp. 281, 290.
117. For example, see the comments of Sir F. M. Eden in The State of the Poor: Volume Three (London, 1797; repr. 1966), p. 821.
118. James, History of Worsted Manufacture, pp. 280-281
119. Peter Mathias, "Leisure and Wages in Theory and Practice," in Mathias, The Transformation of England: Essays in the Economic and Social History of England in the 18th-Century (New York, 1979), pp. 154-159.
120. The data for this example were provided by a Halifax manufacturer named John Sutcliffe and included in a 1774 petition to Parliament. The item used in the cost analysis was a shalloon valued at 35 shillings. See, James, History of the Worsted Manufacture, pp. 281-282.
121. Pamela Sharp, Adapting to Capitalism: Working Women in the English Economy, 1700-1850 (New York, 1996), pp. 19-37; Anne Laurence, Women in England, 1500-1760: A Social History (New York, 1994), pp. 8-13, 108-143; Carole Shammas, "The World We Knew: Women Workers in the North of England During the Late-Seventeenth Century," in Richard S. Dunn and Mary Maples Dunn, eds., The World of William Penn (Philadelphia, 1986), pp. 99-115; Bridget Hill, Women, Work and Sexual Politics in 18th Century England (Oxford, 1989), esp. pp. 33-35; Pinchbeck, Women Workers, pp. 130-146; Valenze, Industrial Woman, pp. 70-75.
122. Pamela Sharp, Adapting to Capitalism: Working Women in the English Economy, 1700-1850 (New York, 1996), pp. 19-37; Anne Laurence, Women in England, 1500-1760: A Social History (New York, 1994), pp. 8-13, 108-143; Carole Shammas, "The World We Knew: Women Workers in the North of England During the Late-Seventeenth Century," in Richard S. Dunn and Mary Maples Dunn, eds., The World of William Penn (Philadelphia, 1986), pp. 99-115; Bridget Hill, Women, Work and Sexual Politics in 18th Century England (Oxford, 1989), esp. pp. 33-35; Pinchbeck, Women Workers, pp. 130-146; Valenze, Industrial Woman, pp. 70-75.
123. Pamela Sharp, Adapting to Capitalism: Working Women in the English Economy, 1700-1850 (New York, 1996), pp. 19-37; Anne Laurence, Women in England, 1500-1760: A Social History (New York, 1994), pp. 8-13, 108-143; Carole Shammas, "The World We Knew: Women Workers in the North of England During the Late-Seventeenth Century," in Richard S. Dunn and Mary Maples Dunn, eds., The World of William Penn (Philadelphia, 1986), pp. 99-115; Bridget Hill, Women, Work and Sexual Politics in 18th Century England (Oxford, 1989), esp. pp. 33-35; Pinchbeck, Women Workers, pp. 130-146; Valenze, Industrial Woman, pp. 70-75.
124. Pamela Sharp, Adapting to Capitalism: Working Women in the English Economy, 1700-1850 (New York, 1996), pp. 19-37; Anne Laurence, Women in England, 1500-1760: A Social History (New York, 1994), pp. 8-13, 108-143; Carole Shammas, "The World We Knew: Women Workers in the North of England During the Late-Seventeenth Century," in Richard S. Dunn and Mary Maples Dunn, eds., The World of William Penn (Philadelphia, 1986), pp. 99-115; Bridget Hill, Women, Work and Sexual Politics in 18th Century England (Oxford, 1989), esp. pp. 33-35; Pinchbeck, Women Workers, pp. 130-146; Valenze, Industrial Woman, pp. 70-75.
125. Pamela Sharp, Adapting to Capitalism: Working Women in the English Economy, 1700-1850 (New York, 1996), pp. 19-37; Anne Laurence, Women in England, 1500-1760: A Social History (New York, 1994), pp. 8-13, 108-143; Carole Shammas, "The World We Knew: Women Workers in the North of England During the Late-Seventeenth Century," in Richard S. Dunn and Mary Maples Dunn, eds., The World of William Penn (Philadelphia, 1986), pp. 99-115; Bridget Hill, Women, Work and Sexual Politics in 18th Century England (Oxford, 1989), esp. pp. 33-35; Pinchbeck, Women Workers, pp. 130-146; Valenze, Industrial Woman, pp. 70-75.
126. Pamela Sharp, Adapting to Capitalism: Working Women in the English Economy, 1700-1850 (New York, 1996), pp. 19-37; Anne Laurence, Women in England, 1500-1760: A Social History (New York, 1994), pp. 8-13, 108-143; Carole Shammas, "The World We Knew: Women Workers in the North of England During the Late-Seventeenth Century," in Richard S. Dunn and Mary Maples Dunn, eds., The World of William Penn (Philadelphia, 1986), pp. 99-115; Bridget Hill, Women, Work and Sexual Politics in 18th Century England (Oxford, 1989), esp. pp. 33-35; Pinchbeck, Women Workers, pp. 130-146; Valenze, Industrial Woman, pp. 70-75.
127. Leeds Mercury, 17 September 1776
128. Leeds Mercury, 24 September 1776. The literature on this point is extensive but for one example see Catherine Lis and Hugo Soly, "Policing the Early Modern Proletariat, 1450-1850," in David Levine, ed., Proletarianization and Family History (Orlando, FL, 1984), esp. pp. 189-193.
129. Leeds Mercury, 24 September 1776. The literature on this point is extensive but for one example see Catherine Lis and Hugo Soly, "Policing the Early Modern Proletariat, 1450-1850," in David Levine, ed., Proletarianization and Family History (Orlando, FL, 1984), esp. pp. 189-193.
130. E. S. Furniss, The Position of the Laborer in a System of Nationalism (Boston, 1920), pp. 117-137, 150-156. See, also, Joyce Oldham Appleby, Economic Thought and Ideology in 17th-Century England (Princeton, 1978), esp. pp. 129-157.
131. E. S. Furniss, The Position of the Laborer in a System of Nationalism (Boston, 1920), pp. 117-137, 150-156. See, also, Joyce Oldham Appleby, Economic Thought and Ideology in 17th-Century England (Princeton, 1978), esp. pp. 129-157.
132. Gregory Claeys, Machinery, Money and the Millenium: From Moral Economy to Socialism, 1815-1860 (Princeton, 1987), pp. 18-19; Thomas A. Horne, Property Rights and Poverty: Political Argument in Britain, 1605-1834 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1990),pp. 107-108, 122.
133. Gregory Claeys, Machinery, Money and the Millenium: From Moral Economy to Socialism, 1815-1860 (Princeton, 1987), pp. 18-19; Thomas A. Horne, Property Rights and Poverty: Political Argument in Britain, 1605-1834 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1990),pp. 107-108, 122.
134. William Temple, The Case as it now Stands Between the Clothiers, Weavers and other Manufacturers with Regard to the Late Riot in the County of Wiltshire (London, 1739).
135. Anon., Laws Concerning Masters and Servants (London, 1768), p. 226. See, also, Anon., The Laws Relating to Masters and Servants with Brief Notes and Explanations to Render them Easy and Intelligible to the Meanest Capacity (London, 1755), esp. p. 11.
136. Anon., Laws Concerning Masters and Servants (London, 1768), p. 226. See, also, Anon., The Laws Relating to Masters and Servants with Brief Notes and Explanations to Render them Easy and Intelligible to the Meanest Capacity (London, 1755), esp. p. 11.
137. A. W. Coats, "Changing Attitudes Toward Labour in the Mid-Eighteenth Century," Economic History Review 2nd ser., vol. 11 (1958-59): 35-51 and "The Relief of Poverty, Attitudes to Labour and Economic Change in England, 1660-1782," International Review of Social History vol. 21 (1976): 98-115; Richard C. Wiles, "The Theory of Wages in Later English Mercantilism," Economic History Review 2nd ser., vol. 21 (April 1968): 113-126.
138. A. W. Coats, "Changing Attitudes Toward Labour in the Mid-Eighteenth Century," Economic History Review 2nd ser., vol. 11 (1958-59): 35-51 and "The Relief of Poverty, Attitudes to Labour and Economic Change in England, 1660-1782," International Review of Social History vol. 21 (1976): 98-115; Richard C. Wiles, "The Theory of Wages in Later English Mercantilism," Economic History Review 2nd ser., vol. 21 (April 1968): 113-126.
139. A. W. Coats, "Changing Attitudes Toward Labour in the Mid-Eighteenth Century," Economic History Review 2nd ser., vol. 11 (1958-59): 35-51 and "The Relief of Poverty, Attitudes to Labour and Economic Change in England, 1660-1782," International Review of Social History vol. 21 (1976): 98-115; Richard C. Wiles, "The Theory of Wages in Later English Mercantilism," Economic History Review 2nd ser., vol. 21 (April 1968): 113-126.
140. See the suggestive discussion in William M. Reddy, Money and Liberty in Modern Europe: A Critique of Historical Understanding (Cambridge, 1987), esp. pp. 94-100, 161-164.
141. Conviction totals have been calculated from several sources, including: WYAS-RD, Wakefield Headquarters, QE15, Memoranda of Summary Convictions; CRO, Chester, QJF, Quarter Sessions Files, 1785-1800; Manchester Central Library, Archives Department, ms. 338.4 w1, "An Account of Frauds and Embezzlements Committed by the Spinners and Others Employed in the Worsted Manufactory, 1778-1783,"; and conviction notices published in the Leeds Mercury, 1777-1779 and Leeds Intelligencer, 1780-1799.
142. Conviction totals have been calculated from several sources, including: WYAS-RD, Wakefield Headquarters, QE15, Memoranda of Summary Convictions; CRO, Chester, QJF, Quarter Sessions Files, 1785-1800; Manchester Central Library, Archives Department, ms. 338.4 w1, "An Account of Frauds and Embezzlements Committed by the Spinners and Others Employed in the Worsted Manufactory, 1778-1783,"; and conviction notices published in the Leeds Mercury, 1777-1779 and Leeds Intelligencer, 1780-1799.
143. Conviction totals have been calculated from several sources, including: WYAS-RD, Wakefield Headquarters, QE15, Memoranda of Summary Convictions; CRO, Chester, QJF, Quarter Sessions Files, 1785-1800; Manchester Central Library, Archives Department, ms. 338.4 w1, "An Account of Frauds and Embezzlements Committed by the Spinners and Others Employed in the Worsted Manufactory, 1778-1783,"; and conviction notices published in the Leeds Mercury, 1777-1779 and Leeds Intelligencer, 1780-1799.
144. For example, BUA, Worsted Committee Minute Books, WC1/i, entries for 5 Jan. 1778, 13 April 1778, 21 June 1779, 27 Sept. 1784 and 3 Jan. 1785.
145. Henry Hall, a Leeds manufacturer, recalled the period as a time when "increased demand could not be met with a proportionate increased supply." See James, History of Worsted Manufacture, pp. 306. 312.
146. Henry Hall, a Leeds manufacturer, recalled the period as a time when "increased demand could not be met with a proportionate increased supply." See James, History of Worsted Manufacture, pp. 306. 312.
147. William Ecroyd, a stuff manufacturer from Burnley, Lancashire, observed that his grandfather had faced stiff competition for spinning labor from a pioneer of the cotton industry, Robert Peel the Elder. See Ibid., p. 633.
148. Ibid., p. 326.
149. Eric Sigsworth, Black Dyke Mills: A History with Introductory Chapters on the Development of the Worsted Industry in the Nineteenth Century (Liverpool, 1958), pp. 2-6; Jenkins, West Riding Wool Industry, pp. 251-265; Hodgson, Textile Manufacture, pp. 130, 144-145.
150. Eric Sigsworth, Black Dyke Mills: A History with Introductory Chapters on the Development of the Worsted Industry in the Nineteenth Century (Liverpool, 1958), pp. 2-6; Jenkins, West Riding Wool Industry, pp. 251-265; Hodgson, Textile Manufacture, pp. 130, 144-145.
151. Eric Sigsworth, Black Dyke Mills: A History with Introductory Chapters on the Development of the Worsted Industry in the Nineteenth Century (Liverpool, 1958), pp. 2-6; Jenkins, West Riding Wool Industry, pp. 251-265; Hodgson, Textile Manufacture, pp. 130, 144-145.
152. Leeds Intelligencer, 26 April 1791.
153. Leeds Mercury, 17 September 1776.