Controversy and the State: Lord ARPA and Intelligent Computing

Social Studies of Science

Volumn 28, Issue 1, 1998, Pages 103-138

  Guice, Jon ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^b Electrum   (Sweden)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE; COMPUTER; HISTORY; NATIONAL HEALTH SERVICE; NERVE TRACT; NERVOUS SYSTEM; RESEARCH;

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE; COMPUTERS; HISTORY, 20TH CENTURY; NERVOUS SYSTEM; NEURAL PATHWAYS; RESEARCH; STATE MEDICINE;

EID: 0031993142     PISSN: 03063127     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/030631298028001004     Document Type: Article

References (201)

1. The terms 'AI' and 'neural networks' (or 'neural nets') were standard terms during the period under study, although AI had been in use for a shorter time, and neural nets had many synonyms. 'Neural network' had roots in post-World War II neuropsychological models (see, for example, Warren S. McCulloch and Walter Pitts, 'A Logical Calculus of the Ideas Immanent in Nervous Activity', Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics, Vol. 5 [1943], 115-33), and its use became more frequent through the decade. In 1969, it was admitted as a thesaurus term in the bibliographic index INSPEC. Related terms, and some of the history of the term 'artificial intelligence', are discussed below in passing. 'Intelligent computing' has not often been used in the technical literature, which has been deeply influenced by divisions such as those described in this paper. Rather, this phrase is my attempt at a bipartisan description of the field defining (and invoked by) the controversy. A similar approach is adopted in Kristin Luker, Abortion and the Politics of Motherhood (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1984).
2. The terms 'AI' and 'neural networks' (or 'neural nets') were standard terms during the period under study, although AI had been in use for a shorter time, and neural nets had many synonyms. 'Neural network' had roots in post-World War II neuropsychological models (see, for example, Warren S. McCulloch and Walter Pitts, 'A Logical Calculus of the Ideas Immanent in Nervous Activity', Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics, Vol. 5 [1943], 115-33), and its use became more frequent through the decade. In 1969, it was admitted as a thesaurus term in the bibliographic index INSPEC. Related terms, and some of the history of the term 'artificial intelligence', are discussed below in passing. 'Intelligent computing' has not often been used in the technical literature, which has been deeply influenced by divisions such as those described in this paper. Rather, this phrase is my attempt at a bipartisan description of the field defining (and invoked by) the controversy. A similar approach is adopted in Kristin Luker, Abortion and the Politics of Motherhood (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1984).
3. Michael S. Mahoney, 'The History of Computing in the History of Technology', Annals of the History of Computing, Vol. 10, No. 2 (1988), 113-25; Paul N. Edwards, The Closed World: Computers and the Politics of Discourse in Cold War America (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1996), 43.
4. Michael S. Mahoney, 'The History of Computing in the History of Technology', Annals of the History of Computing, Vol. 10, No. 2 (1988), 113-25; Paul N. Edwards, The Closed World: Computers and the Politics of Discourse in Cold War America (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1996), 43.
5. The clearest examples of the earlier tendency include the following: Daniel Crevier, AI: The Tumultuous History of the Search for Artificial Intelligence (New York: Basic Books, 1993); Grant Fjermedal, The Tomorrow Makers (New York: Macmillan, 1986); Pamela McCorduck, Machines Who Think: A Personal Inquiry into the History and Prospects of Artificial Intelligence (San Francisco, CA: W.H. Freeman, 1979). Other works on the history of artificial intelligence include the following: Thomas Bartee (ed.), Expert Systems and Artificial Intelligence (Indianapolis, IN: Howard Sams, 1988); James Fleck, 'Development and Establishment in Artificial Intelligence', in Norbert Elias, Herminio Martins and Richard Whitley (eds), Scientific Establishments and Hierarchies, Sociology of the Sciences Yearbook, No. 6 (Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Reidel, 1982), 169-217; Philip J. Hilts, Scientific Temperaments: Three Lives in Contemporary Science (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1982); Ray Kurzweil (ed.), The Age of Intelligent Machines (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1988); Rene Moreau, trans. J. Hewlett, The Computer Comes of Age: The People, the Hardware, and the Software (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1984); George Johnson, Machinery of the Mind: Inside the New Science of Artificial Intelligence (New York: Random House, 1986); Allen Newell, 'Intellectual Issues in the History of Artifical Intelligence', in Fritz Machlup and Una Mansfield (eds), The Study of Information: Interdisciplinary Messages (New York: Wiley, 1983), 187-228; Harvey P. Newquist (ed.), The Brain Makers (Indianapolis, IN: Sams Publishing, 1st edn, 1994); ACM SIGPLAN, The Second ACM SIGPLAN History of Programming Languages Conference (HOPL-II) in Cambridge, MA (New York: Association for Computing Machinery, 1993); Howard Rheingold, Tools for Thought (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1985); Frank Rose, Into the Heart of the Mind (New York: Harper & Row, 1984); Geoffrey L. Simons, Evolution of the Intelligent Machine: A Popular History of AI (Manchester, UK: NCC Publication, 1988); Tom Stonier, Beyond Information: The Natural History of Intelligence (London: Springer-Verlag, 1992). Important exceptions to the earlier tendency, because they do map some of the differences and diversity of technical approaches in the fields, are the following: Howard Gardner, The Mind's New Science: A History of the Cognitive Revolution (New York: Basic Books, 1985); Mikel Olazaran, A Historical Sociology of Neural Network Research (unpublished PhD dissertation, University of Edinburgh, 1991); Olazaran, 'A Sociological History of the Neural Network Controversy', Advances in Computers, Vol. 37 (1993), 335-425; Olazaran, 'A Sociological Study of the Official History of the Perceptrons Controversy', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 26, No. 3 (August 1996), 611-59.
6. The clearest examples of the earlier tendency include the following: Daniel Crevier, AI: The Tumultuous History of the Search for Artificial Intelligence (New York: Basic Books, 1993); Grant Fjermedal, The Tomorrow Makers (New York: Macmillan, 1986); Pamela McCorduck, Machines Who Think: A Personal Inquiry into the History and Prospects of Artificial Intelligence (San Francisco, CA: W.H. Freeman, 1979). Other works on the history of artificial intelligence include the following: Thomas Bartee (ed.), Expert Systems and Artificial Intelligence (Indianapolis, IN: Howard Sams, 1988); James Fleck, 'Development and Establishment in Artificial Intelligence', in Norbert Elias, Herminio Martins and Richard Whitley (eds), Scientific Establishments and Hierarchies, Sociology of the Sciences Yearbook, No. 6 (Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Reidel, 1982), 169-217; Philip J. Hilts, Scientific Temperaments: Three Lives in Contemporary Science (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1982); Ray Kurzweil (ed.), The Age of Intelligent Machines (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1988); Rene Moreau, trans. J. Hewlett, The Computer Comes of Age: The People, the Hardware, and the Software (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1984); George Johnson, Machinery of the Mind: Inside the New Science of Artificial Intelligence (New York: Random House, 1986); Allen Newell, 'Intellectual Issues in the History of Artifical Intelligence', in Fritz Machlup and Una Mansfield (eds), The Study of Information: Interdisciplinary Messages (New York: Wiley, 1983), 187-228; Harvey P. Newquist (ed.), The Brain Makers (Indianapolis, IN: Sams Publishing, 1st edn, 1994); ACM SIGPLAN, The Second ACM SIGPLAN History of Programming Languages Conference (HOPL-II) in Cambridge, MA (New York: Association for Computing Machinery, 1993); Howard Rheingold, Tools for Thought (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1985); Frank Rose, Into the Heart of the Mind (New York: Harper & Row, 1984); Geoffrey L. Simons, Evolution of the Intelligent Machine: A Popular History of AI (Manchester, UK: NCC Publication, 1988); Tom Stonier, Beyond Information: The Natural History of Intelligence (London: Springer-Verlag, 1992). Important exceptions to the earlier tendency, because they do map some of the differences and diversity of technical approaches in the fields, are the following: Howard Gardner, The Mind's New Science: A History of the Cognitive Revolution (New York: Basic Books, 1985); Mikel Olazaran, A Historical Sociology of Neural Network Research (unpublished PhD dissertation, University of Edinburgh, 1991); Olazaran, 'A Sociological History of the Neural Network Controversy', Advances in Computers, Vol. 37 (1993), 335-425; Olazaran, 'A Sociological Study of the Official History of the Perceptrons Controversy', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 26, No. 3 (August 1996), 611-59.
7. The clearest examples of the earlier tendency include the following: Daniel Crevier, AI: The Tumultuous History of the Search for Artificial Intelligence (New York: Basic Books, 1993); Grant Fjermedal, The Tomorrow Makers (New York: Macmillan, 1986); Pamela McCorduck, Machines Who Think: A Personal Inquiry into the History and Prospects of Artificial Intelligence (San Francisco, CA: W.H. Freeman, 1979). Other works on the history of artificial intelligence include the following: Thomas Bartee (ed.), Expert Systems and Artificial Intelligence (Indianapolis, IN: Howard Sams, 1988); James Fleck, 'Development and Establishment in Artificial Intelligence', in Norbert Elias, Herminio Martins and Richard Whitley (eds), Scientific Establishments and Hierarchies, Sociology of the Sciences Yearbook, No. 6 (Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Reidel, 1982), 169-217; Philip J. Hilts, Scientific Temperaments: Three Lives in Contemporary Science (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1982); Ray Kurzweil (ed.), The Age of Intelligent Machines (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1988); Rene Moreau, trans. J. Hewlett, The Computer Comes of Age: The People, the Hardware, and the Software (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1984); George Johnson, Machinery of the Mind: Inside the New Science of Artificial Intelligence (New York: Random House, 1986); Allen Newell, 'Intellectual Issues in the History of Artifical Intelligence', in Fritz Machlup and Una Mansfield (eds), The Study of Information: Interdisciplinary Messages (New York: Wiley, 1983), 187-228; Harvey P. Newquist (ed.), The Brain Makers (Indianapolis, IN: Sams Publishing, 1st edn, 1994); ACM SIGPLAN, The Second ACM SIGPLAN History of Programming Languages Conference (HOPL-II) in Cambridge, MA (New York: Association for Computing Machinery, 1993); Howard Rheingold, Tools for Thought (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1985); Frank Rose, Into the Heart of the Mind (New York: Harper & Row, 1984); Geoffrey L. Simons, Evolution of the Intelligent Machine: A Popular History of AI (Manchester, UK: NCC Publication, 1988); Tom Stonier, Beyond Information: The Natural History of Intelligence (London: Springer-Verlag, 1992). Important exceptions to the earlier tendency, because they do map some of the differences and diversity of technical approaches in the fields, are the following: Howard Gardner, The Mind's New Science: A History of the Cognitive Revolution (New York: Basic Books, 1985); Mikel Olazaran, A Historical Sociology of Neural Network Research (unpublished PhD dissertation, University of Edinburgh, 1991); Olazaran, 'A Sociological History of the Neural Network Controversy', Advances in Computers, Vol. 37 (1993), 335-425; Olazaran, 'A Sociological Study of the Official History of the Perceptrons Controversy', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 26, No. 3 (August 1996), 611-59.
8. The clearest examples of the earlier tendency include the following: Daniel Crevier, AI: The Tumultuous History of the Search for Artificial Intelligence (New York: Basic Books, 1993); Grant Fjermedal, The Tomorrow Makers (New York: Macmillan, 1986); Pamela McCorduck, Machines Who Think: A Personal Inquiry into the History and Prospects of Artificial Intelligence (San Francisco, CA: W.H. Freeman, 1979). Other works on the history of artificial intelligence include the following: Thomas Bartee (ed.), Expert Systems and Artificial Intelligence (Indianapolis, IN: Howard Sams, 1988); James Fleck, 'Development and Establishment in Artificial Intelligence', in Norbert Elias, Herminio Martins and Richard Whitley (eds), Scientific Establishments and Hierarchies, Sociology of the Sciences Yearbook, No. 6 (Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Reidel, 1982), 169-217; Philip J. Hilts, Scientific Temperaments: Three Lives in Contemporary Science (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1982); Ray Kurzweil (ed.), The Age of Intelligent Machines (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1988); Rene Moreau, trans. J. Hewlett, The Computer Comes of Age: The People, the Hardware, and the Software (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1984); George Johnson, Machinery of the Mind: Inside the New Science of Artificial Intelligence (New York: Random House, 1986); Allen Newell, 'Intellectual Issues in the History of Artifical Intelligence', in Fritz Machlup and Una Mansfield (eds), The Study of Information: Interdisciplinary Messages (New York: Wiley, 1983), 187-228; Harvey P. Newquist (ed.), The Brain Makers (Indianapolis, IN: Sams Publishing, 1st edn, 1994); ACM SIGPLAN, The Second ACM SIGPLAN History of Programming Languages Conference (HOPL-II) in Cambridge, MA (New York: Association for Computing Machinery, 1993); Howard Rheingold, Tools for Thought (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1985); Frank Rose, Into the Heart of the Mind (New York: Harper & Row, 1984); Geoffrey L. Simons, Evolution of the Intelligent Machine: A Popular History of AI (Manchester, UK: NCC Publication, 1988); Tom Stonier, Beyond Information: The Natural History of Intelligence (London: Springer-Verlag, 1992). Important exceptions to the earlier tendency, because they do map some of the differences and diversity of technical approaches in the fields, are the following: Howard Gardner, The Mind's New Science: A History of the Cognitive Revolution (New York: Basic Books, 1985); Mikel Olazaran, A Historical Sociology of Neural Network Research (unpublished PhD dissertation, University of Edinburgh, 1991); Olazaran, 'A Sociological History of the Neural Network Controversy', Advances in Computers, Vol. 37 (1993), 335-425; Olazaran, 'A Sociological Study of the Official History of the Perceptrons Controversy', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 26, No. 3 (August 1996), 611-59.
9. The clearest examples of the earlier tendency include the following: Daniel Crevier, AI: The Tumultuous History of the Search for Artificial Intelligence (New York: Basic Books, 1993); Grant Fjermedal, The Tomorrow Makers (New York: Macmillan, 1986); Pamela McCorduck, Machines Who Think: A Personal Inquiry into the History and Prospects of Artificial Intelligence (San Francisco, CA: W.H. Freeman, 1979). Other works on the history of artificial intelligence include the following: Thomas Bartee (ed.), Expert Systems and Artificial Intelligence (Indianapolis, IN: Howard Sams, 1988); James Fleck, 'Development and Establishment in Artificial Intelligence', in Norbert Elias, Herminio Martins and Richard Whitley (eds), Scientific Establishments and Hierarchies, Sociology of the Sciences Yearbook, No. 6 (Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Reidel, 1982), 169-217; Philip J. Hilts, Scientific Temperaments: Three Lives in Contemporary Science (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1982); Ray Kurzweil (ed.), The Age of Intelligent Machines (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1988); Rene Moreau, trans. J. Hewlett, The Computer Comes of Age: The People, the Hardware, and the Software (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1984); George Johnson, Machinery of the Mind: Inside the New Science of Artificial Intelligence (New York: Random House, 1986); Allen Newell, 'Intellectual Issues in the History of Artifical Intelligence', in Fritz Machlup and Una Mansfield (eds), The Study of Information: Interdisciplinary Messages (New York: Wiley, 1983), 187-228; Harvey P. Newquist (ed.), The Brain Makers (Indianapolis, IN: Sams Publishing, 1st edn, 1994); ACM SIGPLAN, The Second ACM SIGPLAN History of Programming Languages Conference (HOPL-II) in Cambridge, MA (New York: Association for Computing Machinery, 1993); Howard Rheingold, Tools for Thought (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1985); Frank Rose, Into the Heart of the Mind (New York: Harper & Row, 1984); Geoffrey L. Simons, Evolution of the Intelligent Machine: A Popular History of AI (Manchester, UK: NCC Publication, 1988); Tom Stonier, Beyond Information: The Natural History of Intelligence (London: Springer-Verlag, 1992). Important exceptions to the earlier tendency, because they do map some of the differences and diversity of technical approaches in the fields, are the following: Howard Gardner, The Mind's New Science: A History of the Cognitive Revolution (New York: Basic Books, 1985); Mikel Olazaran, A Historical Sociology of Neural Network Research (unpublished PhD dissertation, University of Edinburgh, 1991); Olazaran, 'A Sociological History of the Neural Network Controversy', Advances in Computers, Vol. 37 (1993), 335-425; Olazaran, 'A Sociological Study of the Official History of the Perceptrons Controversy', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 26, No. 3 (August 1996), 611-59.
10. The clearest examples of the earlier tendency include the following: Daniel Crevier, AI: The Tumultuous History of the Search for Artificial Intelligence (New York: Basic Books, 1993); Grant Fjermedal, The Tomorrow Makers (New York: Macmillan, 1986); Pamela McCorduck, Machines Who Think: A Personal Inquiry into the History and Prospects of Artificial Intelligence (San Francisco, CA: W.H. Freeman, 1979). Other works on the history of artificial intelligence include the following: Thomas Bartee (ed.), Expert Systems and Artificial Intelligence (Indianapolis, IN: Howard Sams, 1988); James Fleck, 'Development and Establishment in Artificial Intelligence', in Norbert Elias, Herminio Martins and Richard Whitley (eds), Scientific Establishments and Hierarchies, Sociology of the Sciences Yearbook, No. 6 (Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Reidel, 1982), 169-217; Philip J. Hilts, Scientific Temperaments: Three Lives in Contemporary Science (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1982); Ray Kurzweil (ed.), The Age of Intelligent Machines (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1988); Rene Moreau, trans. J. Hewlett, The Computer Comes of Age: The People, the Hardware, and the Software (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1984); George Johnson, Machinery of the Mind: Inside the New Science of Artificial Intelligence (New York: Random House, 1986); Allen Newell, 'Intellectual Issues in the History of Artifical Intelligence', in Fritz Machlup and Una Mansfield (eds), The Study of Information: Interdisciplinary Messages (New York: Wiley, 1983), 187-228; Harvey P. Newquist (ed.), The Brain Makers (Indianapolis, IN: Sams Publishing, 1st edn, 1994); ACM SIGPLAN, The Second ACM SIGPLAN History of Programming Languages Conference (HOPL-II) in Cambridge, MA (New York: Association for Computing Machinery, 1993); Howard Rheingold, Tools for Thought (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1985); Frank Rose, Into the Heart of the Mind (New York: Harper & Row, 1984); Geoffrey L. Simons, Evolution of the Intelligent Machine: A Popular History of AI (Manchester, UK: NCC Publication, 1988); Tom Stonier, Beyond Information: The Natural History of Intelligence (London: Springer-Verlag, 1992). Important exceptions to the earlier tendency, because they do map some of the differences and diversity of technical approaches in the fields, are the following: Howard Gardner, The Mind's New Science: A History of the Cognitive Revolution (New York: Basic Books, 1985); Mikel Olazaran, A Historical Sociology of Neural Network Research (unpublished PhD dissertation, University of Edinburgh, 1991); Olazaran, 'A Sociological History of the Neural Network Controversy', Advances in Computers, Vol. 37 (1993), 335-425; Olazaran, 'A Sociological Study of the Official History of the Perceptrons Controversy', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 26, No. 3 (August 1996), 611-59.
11. The clearest examples of the earlier tendency include the following: Daniel Crevier, AI: The Tumultuous History of the Search for Artificial Intelligence (New York: Basic Books, 1993); Grant Fjermedal, The Tomorrow Makers (New York: Macmillan, 1986); Pamela McCorduck, Machines Who Think: A Personal Inquiry into the History and Prospects of Artificial Intelligence (San Francisco, CA: W.H. Freeman, 1979). Other works on the history of artificial intelligence include the following: Thomas Bartee (ed.), Expert Systems and Artificial Intelligence (Indianapolis, IN: Howard Sams, 1988); James Fleck, 'Development and Establishment in Artificial Intelligence', in Norbert Elias, Herminio Martins and Richard Whitley (eds), Scientific Establishments and Hierarchies, Sociology of the Sciences Yearbook, No. 6 (Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Reidel, 1982), 169-217; Philip J. Hilts, Scientific Temperaments: Three Lives in Contemporary Science (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1982); Ray Kurzweil (ed.), The Age of Intelligent Machines (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1988); Rene Moreau, trans. J. Hewlett, The Computer Comes of Age: The People, the Hardware, and the Software (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1984); George Johnson, Machinery of the Mind: Inside the New Science of Artificial Intelligence (New York: Random House, 1986); Allen Newell, 'Intellectual Issues in the History of Artifical Intelligence', in Fritz Machlup and Una Mansfield (eds), The Study of Information: Interdisciplinary Messages (New York: Wiley, 1983), 187-228; Harvey P. Newquist (ed.), The Brain Makers (Indianapolis, IN: Sams Publishing, 1st edn, 1994); ACM SIGPLAN, The Second ACM SIGPLAN History of Programming Languages Conference (HOPL-II) in Cambridge, MA (New York: Association for Computing Machinery, 1993); Howard Rheingold, Tools for Thought (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1985); Frank Rose, Into the Heart of the Mind (New York: Harper & Row, 1984); Geoffrey L. Simons, Evolution of the Intelligent Machine: A Popular History of AI (Manchester, UK: NCC Publication, 1988); Tom Stonier, Beyond Information: The Natural History of Intelligence (London: Springer-Verlag, 1992). Important exceptions to the earlier tendency, because they do map some of the differences and diversity of technical approaches in the fields, are the following: Howard Gardner, The Mind's New Science: A History of the Cognitive Revolution (New York: Basic Books, 1985); Mikel Olazaran, A Historical Sociology of Neural Network Research (unpublished PhD dissertation, University of Edinburgh, 1991); Olazaran, 'A Sociological History of the Neural Network Controversy', Advances in Computers, Vol. 37 (1993), 335-425; Olazaran, 'A Sociological Study of the Official History of the Perceptrons Controversy', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 26, No. 3 (August 1996), 611-59.
12. The clearest examples of the earlier tendency include the following: Daniel Crevier, AI: The Tumultuous History of the Search for Artificial Intelligence (New York: Basic Books, 1993); Grant Fjermedal, The Tomorrow Makers (New York: Macmillan, 1986); Pamela McCorduck, Machines Who Think: A Personal Inquiry into the History and Prospects of Artificial Intelligence (San Francisco, CA: W.H. Freeman, 1979). Other works on the history of artificial intelligence include the following: Thomas Bartee (ed.), Expert Systems and Artificial Intelligence (Indianapolis, IN: Howard Sams, 1988); James Fleck, 'Development and Establishment in Artificial Intelligence', in Norbert Elias, Herminio Martins and Richard Whitley (eds), Scientific Establishments and Hierarchies, Sociology of the Sciences Yearbook, No. 6 (Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Reidel, 1982), 169-217; Philip J. Hilts, Scientific Temperaments: Three Lives in Contemporary Science (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1982); Ray Kurzweil (ed.), The Age of Intelligent Machines (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1988); Rene Moreau, trans. J. Hewlett, The Computer Comes of Age: The People, the Hardware, and the Software (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1984); George Johnson, Machinery of the Mind: Inside the New Science of Artificial Intelligence (New York: Random House, 1986); Allen Newell, 'Intellectual Issues in the History of Artifical Intelligence', in Fritz Machlup and Una Mansfield (eds), The Study of Information: Interdisciplinary Messages (New York: Wiley, 1983), 187-228; Harvey P. Newquist (ed.), The Brain Makers (Indianapolis, IN: Sams Publishing, 1st edn, 1994); ACM SIGPLAN, The Second ACM SIGPLAN History of Programming Languages Conference (HOPL-II) in Cambridge, MA (New York: Association for Computing Machinery, 1993); Howard Rheingold, Tools for Thought (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1985); Frank Rose, Into the Heart of the Mind (New York: Harper & Row, 1984); Geoffrey L. Simons, Evolution of the Intelligent Machine: A Popular History of AI (Manchester, UK: NCC Publication, 1988); Tom Stonier, Beyond Information: The Natural History of Intelligence (London: Springer-Verlag, 1992). Important exceptions to the earlier tendency, because they do map some of the differences and diversity of technical approaches in the fields, are the following: Howard Gardner, The Mind's New Science: A History of the Cognitive Revolution (New York: Basic Books, 1985); Mikel Olazaran, A Historical Sociology of Neural Network Research (unpublished PhD dissertation, University of Edinburgh, 1991); Olazaran, 'A Sociological History of the Neural Network Controversy', Advances in Computers, Vol. 37 (1993), 335-425; Olazaran, 'A Sociological Study of the Official History of the Perceptrons Controversy', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 26, No. 3 (August 1996), 611-59.
13. The clearest examples of the earlier tendency include the following: Daniel Crevier, AI: The Tumultuous History of the Search for Artificial Intelligence (New York: Basic Books, 1993); Grant Fjermedal, The Tomorrow Makers (New York: Macmillan, 1986); Pamela McCorduck, Machines Who Think: A Personal Inquiry into the History and Prospects of Artificial Intelligence (San Francisco, CA: W.H. Freeman, 1979). Other works on the history of artificial intelligence include the following: Thomas Bartee (ed.), Expert Systems and Artificial Intelligence (Indianapolis, IN: Howard Sams, 1988); James Fleck, 'Development and Establishment in Artificial Intelligence', in Norbert Elias, Herminio Martins and Richard Whitley (eds), Scientific Establishments and Hierarchies, Sociology of the Sciences Yearbook, No. 6 (Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Reidel, 1982), 169-217; Philip J. Hilts, Scientific Temperaments: Three Lives in Contemporary Science (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1982); Ray Kurzweil (ed.), The Age of Intelligent Machines (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1988); Rene Moreau, trans. J. Hewlett, The Computer Comes of Age: The People, the Hardware, and the Software (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1984); George Johnson, Machinery of the Mind: Inside the New Science of Artificial Intelligence (New York: Random House, 1986); Allen Newell, 'Intellectual Issues in the History of Artifical Intelligence', in Fritz Machlup and Una Mansfield (eds), The Study of Information: Interdisciplinary Messages (New York: Wiley, 1983), 187-228; Harvey P. Newquist (ed.), The Brain Makers (Indianapolis, IN: Sams Publishing, 1st edn, 1994); ACM SIGPLAN, The Second ACM SIGPLAN History of Programming Languages Conference (HOPL-II) in Cambridge, MA (New York: Association for Computing Machinery, 1993); Howard Rheingold, Tools for Thought (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1985); Frank Rose, Into the Heart of the Mind (New York: Harper & Row, 1984); Geoffrey L. Simons, Evolution of the Intelligent Machine: A Popular History of AI (Manchester, UK: NCC Publication, 1988); Tom Stonier, Beyond Information: The Natural History of Intelligence (London: Springer-Verlag, 1992). Important exceptions to the earlier tendency, because they do map some of the differences and diversity of technical approaches in the fields, are the following: Howard Gardner, The Mind's New Science: A History of the Cognitive Revolution (New York: Basic Books, 1985); Mikel Olazaran, A Historical Sociology of Neural Network Research (unpublished PhD dissertation, University of Edinburgh, 1991); Olazaran, 'A Sociological History of the Neural Network Controversy', Advances in Computers, Vol. 37 (1993), 335-425; Olazaran, 'A Sociological Study of the Official History of the Perceptrons Controversy', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 26, No. 3 (August 1996), 611-59.
14. The clearest examples of the earlier tendency include the following: Daniel Crevier, AI: The Tumultuous History of the Search for Artificial Intelligence (New York: Basic Books, 1993); Grant Fjermedal, The Tomorrow Makers (New York: Macmillan, 1986); Pamela McCorduck, Machines Who Think: A Personal Inquiry into the History and Prospects of Artificial Intelligence (San Francisco, CA: W.H. Freeman, 1979). Other works on the history of artificial intelligence include the following: Thomas Bartee (ed.), Expert Systems and Artificial Intelligence (Indianapolis, IN: Howard Sams, 1988); James Fleck, 'Development and Establishment in Artificial Intelligence', in Norbert Elias, Herminio Martins and Richard Whitley (eds), Scientific Establishments and Hierarchies, Sociology of the Sciences Yearbook, No. 6 (Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Reidel, 1982), 169-217; Philip J. Hilts, Scientific Temperaments: Three Lives in Contemporary Science (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1982); Ray Kurzweil (ed.), The Age of Intelligent Machines (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1988); Rene Moreau, trans. J. Hewlett, The Computer Comes of Age: The People, the Hardware, and the Software (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1984); George Johnson, Machinery of the Mind: Inside the New Science of Artificial Intelligence (New York: Random House, 1986); Allen Newell, 'Intellectual Issues in the History of Artifical Intelligence', in Fritz Machlup and Una Mansfield (eds), The Study of Information: Interdisciplinary Messages (New York: Wiley, 1983), 187-228; Harvey P. Newquist (ed.), The Brain Makers (Indianapolis, IN: Sams Publishing, 1st edn, 1994); ACM SIGPLAN, The Second ACM SIGPLAN History of Programming Languages Conference (HOPL-II) in Cambridge, MA (New York: Association for Computing Machinery, 1993); Howard Rheingold, Tools for Thought (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1985); Frank Rose, Into the Heart of the Mind (New York: Harper & Row, 1984); Geoffrey L. Simons, Evolution of the Intelligent Machine: A Popular History of AI (Manchester, UK: NCC Publication, 1988); Tom Stonier, Beyond Information: The Natural History of Intelligence (London: Springer-Verlag, 1992). Important exceptions to the earlier tendency, because they do map some of the differences and diversity of technical approaches in the fields, are the following: Howard Gardner, The Mind's New Science: A History of the Cognitive Revolution (New York: Basic Books, 1985); Mikel Olazaran, A Historical Sociology of Neural Network Research (unpublished PhD dissertation, University of Edinburgh, 1991); Olazaran, 'A Sociological History of the Neural Network Controversy', Advances in Computers, Vol. 37 (1993), 335-425; Olazaran, 'A Sociological Study of the Official History of the Perceptrons Controversy', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 26, No. 3 (August 1996), 611-59.
15. The clearest examples of the earlier tendency include the following: Daniel Crevier, AI: The Tumultuous History of the Search for Artificial Intelligence (New York: Basic Books, 1993); Grant Fjermedal, The Tomorrow Makers (New York: Macmillan, 1986); Pamela McCorduck, Machines Who Think: A Personal Inquiry into the History and Prospects of Artificial Intelligence (San Francisco, CA: W.H. Freeman, 1979). Other works on the history of artificial intelligence include the following: Thomas Bartee (ed.), Expert Systems and Artificial Intelligence (Indianapolis, IN: Howard Sams, 1988); James Fleck, 'Development and Establishment in Artificial Intelligence', in Norbert Elias, Herminio Martins and Richard Whitley (eds), Scientific Establishments and Hierarchies, Sociology of the Sciences Yearbook, No. 6 (Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Reidel, 1982), 169-217; Philip J. Hilts, Scientific Temperaments: Three Lives in Contemporary Science (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1982); Ray Kurzweil (ed.), The Age of Intelligent Machines (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1988); Rene Moreau, trans. J. Hewlett, The Computer Comes of Age: The People, the Hardware, and the Software (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1984); George Johnson, Machinery of the Mind: Inside the New Science of Artificial Intelligence (New York: Random House, 1986); Allen Newell, 'Intellectual Issues in the History of Artifical Intelligence', in Fritz Machlup and Una Mansfield (eds), The Study of Information: Interdisciplinary Messages (New York: Wiley, 1983), 187-228; Harvey P. Newquist (ed.), The Brain Makers (Indianapolis, IN: Sams Publishing, 1st edn, 1994); ACM SIGPLAN, The Second ACM SIGPLAN History of Programming Languages Conference (HOPL-II) in Cambridge, MA (New York: Association for Computing Machinery, 1993); Howard Rheingold, Tools for Thought (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1985); Frank Rose, Into the Heart of the Mind (New York: Harper & Row, 1984); Geoffrey L. Simons, Evolution of the Intelligent Machine: A Popular History of AI (Manchester, UK: NCC Publication, 1988); Tom Stonier, Beyond Information: The Natural History of Intelligence (London: Springer-Verlag, 1992). Important exceptions to the earlier tendency, because they do map some of the differences and diversity of technical approaches in the fields, are the following: Howard Gardner, The Mind's New Science: A History of the Cognitive Revolution (New York: Basic Books, 1985); Mikel Olazaran, A Historical Sociology of Neural Network Research (unpublished PhD dissertation, University of Edinburgh, 1991); Olazaran, 'A Sociological History of the Neural Network Controversy', Advances in Computers, Vol. 37 (1993), 335-425; Olazaran, 'A Sociological Study of the Official History of the Perceptrons Controversy', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 26, No. 3 (August 1996), 611-59.
16. The clearest examples of the earlier tendency include the following: Daniel Crevier, AI: The Tumultuous History of the Search for Artificial Intelligence (New York: Basic Books, 1993); Grant Fjermedal, The Tomorrow Makers (New York: Macmillan, 1986); Pamela McCorduck, Machines Who Think: A Personal Inquiry into the History and Prospects of Artificial Intelligence (San Francisco, CA: W.H. Freeman, 1979). Other works on the history of artificial intelligence include the following: Thomas Bartee (ed.), Expert Systems and Artificial Intelligence (Indianapolis, IN: Howard Sams, 1988); James Fleck, 'Development and Establishment in Artificial Intelligence', in Norbert Elias, Herminio Martins and Richard Whitley (eds), Scientific Establishments and Hierarchies, Sociology of the Sciences Yearbook, No. 6 (Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Reidel, 1982), 169-217; Philip J. Hilts, Scientific Temperaments: Three Lives in Contemporary Science (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1982); Ray Kurzweil (ed.), The Age of Intelligent Machines (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1988); Rene Moreau, trans. J. Hewlett, The Computer Comes of Age: The People, the Hardware, and the Software (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1984); George Johnson, Machinery of the Mind: Inside the New Science of Artificial Intelligence (New York: Random House, 1986); Allen Newell, 'Intellectual Issues in the History of Artifical Intelligence', in Fritz Machlup and Una Mansfield (eds), The Study of Information: Interdisciplinary Messages (New York: Wiley, 1983), 187-228; Harvey P. Newquist (ed.), The Brain Makers (Indianapolis, IN: Sams Publishing, 1st edn, 1994); ACM SIGPLAN, The Second ACM SIGPLAN History of Programming Languages Conference (HOPL-II) in Cambridge, MA (New York: Association for Computing Machinery, 1993); Howard Rheingold, Tools for Thought (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1985); Frank Rose, Into the Heart of the Mind (New York: Harper & Row, 1984); Geoffrey L. Simons, Evolution of the Intelligent Machine: A Popular History of AI (Manchester, UK: NCC Publication, 1988); Tom Stonier, Beyond Information: The Natural History of Intelligence (London: Springer-Verlag, 1992). Important exceptions to the earlier tendency, because they do map some of the differences and diversity of technical approaches in the fields, are the following: Howard Gardner, The Mind's New Science: A History of the Cognitive Revolution (New York: Basic Books, 1985); Mikel Olazaran, A Historical Sociology of Neural Network Research (unpublished PhD dissertation, University of Edinburgh, 1991); Olazaran, 'A Sociological History of the Neural Network Controversy', Advances in Computers, Vol. 37 (1993), 335-425; Olazaran, 'A Sociological Study of the Official History of the Perceptrons Controversy', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 26, No. 3 (August 1996), 611-59.
17. The clearest examples of the earlier tendency include the following: Daniel Crevier, AI: The Tumultuous History of the Search for Artificial Intelligence (New York: Basic Books, 1993); Grant Fjermedal, The Tomorrow Makers (New York: Macmillan, 1986); Pamela McCorduck, Machines Who Think: A Personal Inquiry into the History and Prospects of Artificial Intelligence (San Francisco, CA: W.H. Freeman, 1979). Other works on the history of artificial intelligence include the following: Thomas Bartee (ed.), Expert Systems and Artificial Intelligence (Indianapolis, IN: Howard Sams, 1988); James Fleck, 'Development and Establishment in Artificial Intelligence', in Norbert Elias, Herminio Martins and Richard Whitley (eds), Scientific Establishments and Hierarchies, Sociology of the Sciences Yearbook, No. 6 (Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Reidel, 1982), 169-217; Philip J. Hilts, Scientific Temperaments: Three Lives in Contemporary Science (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1982); Ray Kurzweil (ed.), The Age of Intelligent Machines (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1988); Rene Moreau, trans. J. Hewlett, The Computer Comes of Age: The People, the Hardware, and the Software (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1984); George Johnson, Machinery of the Mind: Inside the New Science of Artificial Intelligence (New York: Random House, 1986); Allen Newell, 'Intellectual Issues in the History of Artifical Intelligence', in Fritz Machlup and Una Mansfield (eds), The Study of Information: Interdisciplinary Messages (New York: Wiley, 1983), 187-228; Harvey P. Newquist (ed.), The Brain Makers (Indianapolis, IN: Sams Publishing, 1st edn, 1994); ACM SIGPLAN, The Second ACM SIGPLAN History of Programming Languages Conference (HOPL-II) in Cambridge, MA (New York: Association for Computing Machinery, 1993); Howard Rheingold, Tools for Thought (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1985); Frank Rose, Into the Heart of the Mind (New York: Harper & Row, 1984); Geoffrey L. Simons, Evolution of the Intelligent Machine: A Popular History of AI (Manchester, UK: NCC Publication, 1988); Tom Stonier, Beyond Information: The Natural History of Intelligence (London: Springer-Verlag, 1992). Important exceptions to the earlier tendency, because they do map some of the differences and diversity of technical approaches in the fields, are the following: Howard Gardner, The Mind's New Science: A History of the Cognitive Revolution (New York: Basic Books, 1985); Mikel Olazaran, A Historical Sociology of Neural Network Research (unpublished PhD dissertation, University of Edinburgh, 1991); Olazaran, 'A Sociological History of the Neural Network Controversy', Advances in Computers, Vol. 37 (1993), 335-425; Olazaran, 'A Sociological Study of the Official History of the Perceptrons Controversy', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 26, No. 3 (August 1996), 611-59.
18. The clearest examples of the earlier tendency include the following: Daniel Crevier, AI: The Tumultuous History of the Search for Artificial Intelligence (New York: Basic Books, 1993); Grant Fjermedal, The Tomorrow Makers (New York: Macmillan, 1986); Pamela McCorduck, Machines Who Think: A Personal Inquiry into the History and Prospects of Artificial Intelligence (San Francisco, CA: W.H. Freeman, 1979). Other works on the history of artificial intelligence include the following: Thomas Bartee (ed.), Expert Systems and Artificial Intelligence (Indianapolis, IN: Howard Sams, 1988); James Fleck, 'Development and Establishment in Artificial Intelligence', in Norbert Elias, Herminio Martins and Richard Whitley (eds), Scientific Establishments and Hierarchies, Sociology of the Sciences Yearbook, No. 6 (Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Reidel, 1982), 169-217; Philip J. Hilts, Scientific Temperaments: Three Lives in Contemporary Science (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1982); Ray Kurzweil (ed.), The Age of Intelligent Machines (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1988); Rene Moreau, trans. J. Hewlett, The Computer Comes of Age: The People, the Hardware, and the Software (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1984); George Johnson, Machinery of the Mind: Inside the New Science of Artificial Intelligence (New York: Random House, 1986); Allen Newell, 'Intellectual Issues in the History of Artifical Intelligence', in Fritz Machlup and Una Mansfield (eds), The Study of Information: Interdisciplinary Messages (New York: Wiley, 1983), 187-228; Harvey P. Newquist (ed.), The Brain Makers (Indianapolis, IN: Sams Publishing, 1st edn, 1994); ACM SIGPLAN, The Second ACM SIGPLAN History of Programming Languages Conference (HOPL-II) in Cambridge, MA (New York: Association for Computing Machinery, 1993); Howard Rheingold, Tools for Thought (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1985); Frank Rose, Into the Heart of the Mind (New York: Harper & Row, 1984); Geoffrey L. Simons, Evolution of the Intelligent Machine: A Popular History of AI (Manchester, UK: NCC Publication, 1988); Tom Stonier, Beyond Information: The Natural History of Intelligence (London: Springer-Verlag, 1992). Important exceptions to the earlier tendency, because they do map some of the differences and diversity of technical approaches in the fields, are the following: Howard Gardner, The Mind's New Science: A History of the Cognitive Revolution (New York: Basic Books, 1985); Mikel Olazaran, A Historical Sociology of Neural Network Research (unpublished PhD dissertation, University of Edinburgh, 1991); Olazaran, 'A Sociological History of the Neural Network Controversy', Advances in Computers, Vol. 37 (1993), 335-425; Olazaran, 'A Sociological Study of the Official History of the Perceptrons Controversy', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 26, No. 3 (August 1996), 611-59.
19. The clearest examples of the earlier tendency include the following: Daniel Crevier, AI: The Tumultuous History of the Search for Artificial Intelligence (New York: Basic Books, 1993); Grant Fjermedal, The Tomorrow Makers (New York: Macmillan, 1986); Pamela McCorduck, Machines Who Think: A Personal Inquiry into the History and Prospects of Artificial Intelligence (San Francisco, CA: W.H. Freeman, 1979). Other works on the history of artificial intelligence include the following: Thomas Bartee (ed.), Expert Systems and Artificial Intelligence (Indianapolis, IN: Howard Sams, 1988); James Fleck, 'Development and Establishment in Artificial Intelligence', in Norbert Elias, Herminio Martins and Richard Whitley (eds), Scientific Establishments and Hierarchies, Sociology of the Sciences Yearbook, No. 6 (Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Reidel, 1982), 169-217; Philip J. Hilts, Scientific Temperaments: Three Lives in Contemporary Science (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1982); Ray Kurzweil (ed.), The Age of Intelligent Machines (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1988); Rene Moreau, trans. J. Hewlett, The Computer Comes of Age: The People, the Hardware, and the Software (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1984); George Johnson, Machinery of the Mind: Inside the New Science of Artificial Intelligence (New York: Random House, 1986); Allen Newell, 'Intellectual Issues in the History of Artifical Intelligence', in Fritz Machlup and Una Mansfield (eds), The Study of Information: Interdisciplinary Messages (New York: Wiley, 1983), 187-228; Harvey P. Newquist (ed.), The Brain Makers (Indianapolis, IN: Sams Publishing, 1st edn, 1994); ACM SIGPLAN, The Second ACM SIGPLAN History of Programming Languages Conference (HOPL-II) in Cambridge, MA (New York: Association for Computing Machinery, 1993); Howard Rheingold, Tools for Thought (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1985); Frank Rose, Into the Heart of the Mind (New York: Harper & Row, 1984); Geoffrey L. Simons, Evolution of the Intelligent Machine: A Popular History of AI (Manchester, UK: NCC Publication, 1988); Tom Stonier, Beyond Information: The Natural History of Intelligence (London: Springer-Verlag, 1992). Important exceptions to the earlier tendency, because they do map some of the differences and diversity of technical approaches in the fields, are the following: Howard Gardner, The Mind's New Science: A History of the Cognitive Revolution (New York: Basic Books, 1985); Mikel Olazaran, A Historical Sociology of Neural Network Research (unpublished PhD dissertation, University of Edinburgh, 1991); Olazaran, 'A Sociological History of the Neural Network Controversy', Advances in Computers, Vol. 37 (1993), 335-425; Olazaran, 'A Sociological Study of the Official History of the Perceptrons Controversy', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 26, No. 3 (August 1996), 611-59.
20. The clearest examples of the earlier tendency include the following: Daniel Crevier, AI: The Tumultuous History of the Search for Artificial Intelligence (New York: Basic Books, 1993); Grant Fjermedal, The Tomorrow Makers (New York: Macmillan, 1986); Pamela McCorduck, Machines Who Think: A Personal Inquiry into the History and Prospects of Artificial Intelligence (San Francisco, CA: W.H. Freeman, 1979). Other works on the history of artificial intelligence include the following: Thomas Bartee (ed.), Expert Systems and Artificial Intelligence (Indianapolis, IN: Howard Sams, 1988); James Fleck, 'Development and Establishment in Artificial Intelligence', in Norbert Elias, Herminio Martins and Richard Whitley (eds), Scientific Establishments and Hierarchies, Sociology of the Sciences Yearbook, No. 6 (Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Reidel, 1982), 169-217; Philip J. Hilts, Scientific Temperaments: Three Lives in Contemporary Science (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1982); Ray Kurzweil (ed.), The Age of Intelligent Machines (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1988); Rene Moreau, trans. J. Hewlett, The Computer Comes of Age: The People, the Hardware, and the Software (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1984); George Johnson, Machinery of the Mind: Inside the New Science of Artificial Intelligence (New York: Random House, 1986); Allen Newell, 'Intellectual Issues in the History of Artifical Intelligence', in Fritz Machlup and Una Mansfield (eds), The Study of Information: Interdisciplinary Messages (New York: Wiley, 1983), 187-228; Harvey P. Newquist (ed.), The Brain Makers (Indianapolis, IN: Sams Publishing, 1st edn, 1994); ACM SIGPLAN, The Second ACM SIGPLAN History of Programming Languages Conference (HOPL-II) in Cambridge, MA (New York: Association for Computing Machinery, 1993); Howard Rheingold, Tools for Thought (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1985); Frank Rose, Into the Heart of the Mind (New York: Harper & Row, 1984); Geoffrey L. Simons, Evolution of the Intelligent Machine: A Popular History of AI (Manchester, UK: NCC Publication, 1988); Tom Stonier, Beyond Information: The Natural History of Intelligence (London: Springer-Verlag, 1992). Important exceptions to the earlier tendency, because they do map some of the differences and diversity of technical approaches in the fields, are the following: Howard Gardner, The Mind's New Science: A History of the Cognitive Revolution (New York: Basic Books, 1985); Mikel Olazaran, A Historical Sociology of Neural Network Research (unpublished PhD dissertation, University of Edinburgh, 1991); Olazaran, 'A Sociological History of the Neural Network Controversy', Advances in Computers, Vol. 37 (1993), 335-425; Olazaran, 'A Sociological Study of the Official History of the Perceptrons Controversy', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 26, No. 3 (August 1996), 611-59.
21. The clearest examples of the earlier tendency include the following: Daniel Crevier, AI: The Tumultuous History of the Search for Artificial Intelligence (New York: Basic Books, 1993); Grant Fjermedal, The Tomorrow Makers (New York: Macmillan, 1986); Pamela McCorduck, Machines Who Think: A Personal Inquiry into the History and Prospects of Artificial Intelligence (San Francisco, CA: W.H. Freeman, 1979). Other works on the history of artificial intelligence include the following: Thomas Bartee (ed.), Expert Systems and Artificial Intelligence (Indianapolis, IN: Howard Sams, 1988); James Fleck, 'Development and Establishment in Artificial Intelligence', in Norbert Elias, Herminio Martins and Richard Whitley (eds), Scientific Establishments and Hierarchies, Sociology of the Sciences Yearbook, No. 6 (Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Reidel, 1982), 169-217; Philip J. Hilts, Scientific Temperaments: Three Lives in Contemporary Science (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1982); Ray Kurzweil (ed.), The Age of Intelligent Machines (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1988); Rene Moreau, trans. J. Hewlett, The Computer Comes of Age: The People, the Hardware, and the Software (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1984); George Johnson, Machinery of the Mind: Inside the New Science of Artificial Intelligence (New York: Random House, 1986); Allen Newell, 'Intellectual Issues in the History of Artifical Intelligence', in Fritz Machlup and Una Mansfield (eds), The Study of Information: Interdisciplinary Messages (New York: Wiley, 1983), 187-228; Harvey P. Newquist (ed.), The Brain Makers (Indianapolis, IN: Sams Publishing, 1st edn, 1994); ACM SIGPLAN, The Second ACM SIGPLAN History of Programming Languages Conference (HOPL-II) in Cambridge, MA (New York: Association for Computing Machinery, 1993); Howard Rheingold, Tools for Thought (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1985); Frank Rose, Into the Heart of the Mind (New York: Harper & Row, 1984); Geoffrey L. Simons, Evolution of the Intelligent Machine: A Popular History of AI (Manchester, UK: NCC Publication, 1988); Tom Stonier, Beyond Information: The Natural History of Intelligence (London: Springer-Verlag, 1992). Important exceptions to the earlier tendency, because they do map some of the differences and diversity of technical approaches in the fields, are the following: Howard Gardner, The Mind's New Science: A History of the Cognitive Revolution (New York: Basic Books, 1985); Mikel Olazaran, A Historical Sociology of Neural Network Research (unpublished PhD dissertation, University of Edinburgh, 1991); Olazaran, 'A Sociological History of the Neural Network Controversy', Advances in Computers, Vol. 37 (1993), 335-425; Olazaran, 'A Sociological Study of the Official History of the Perceptrons Controversy', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 26, No. 3 (August 1996), 611-59.
22. The clearest examples of the earlier tendency include the following: Daniel Crevier, AI: The Tumultuous History of the Search for Artificial Intelligence (New York: Basic Books, 1993); Grant Fjermedal, The Tomorrow Makers (New York: Macmillan, 1986); Pamela McCorduck, Machines Who Think: A Personal Inquiry into the History and Prospects of Artificial Intelligence (San Francisco, CA: W.H. Freeman, 1979). Other works on the history of artificial intelligence include the following: Thomas Bartee (ed.), Expert Systems and Artificial Intelligence (Indianapolis, IN: Howard Sams, 1988); James Fleck, 'Development and Establishment in Artificial Intelligence', in Norbert Elias, Herminio Martins and Richard Whitley (eds), Scientific Establishments and Hierarchies, Sociology of the Sciences Yearbook, No. 6 (Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Reidel, 1982), 169-217; Philip J. Hilts, Scientific Temperaments: Three Lives in Contemporary Science (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1982); Ray Kurzweil (ed.), The Age of Intelligent Machines (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1988); Rene Moreau, trans. J. Hewlett, The Computer Comes of Age: The People, the Hardware, and the Software (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1984); George Johnson, Machinery of the Mind: Inside the New Science of Artificial Intelligence (New York: Random House, 1986); Allen Newell, 'Intellectual Issues in the History of Artifical Intelligence', in Fritz Machlup and Una Mansfield (eds), The Study of Information: Interdisciplinary Messages (New York: Wiley, 1983), 187-228; Harvey P. Newquist (ed.), The Brain Makers (Indianapolis, IN: Sams Publishing, 1st edn, 1994); ACM SIGPLAN, The Second ACM SIGPLAN History of Programming Languages Conference (HOPL-II) in Cambridge, MA (New York: Association for Computing Machinery, 1993); Howard Rheingold, Tools for Thought (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1985); Frank Rose, Into the Heart of the Mind (New York: Harper & Row, 1984); Geoffrey L. Simons, Evolution of the Intelligent Machine: A Popular History of AI (Manchester, UK: NCC Publication, 1988); Tom Stonier, Beyond Information: The Natural History of Intelligence (London: Springer-Verlag, 1992). Important exceptions to the earlier tendency, because they do map some of the differences and diversity of technical approaches in the fields, are the following: Howard Gardner, The Mind's New Science: A History of the Cognitive Revolution (New York: Basic Books, 1985); Mikel Olazaran, A Historical Sociology of Neural Network Research (unpublished PhD dissertation, University of Edinburgh, 1991); Olazaran, 'A Sociological History of the Neural Network Controversy', Advances in Computers, Vol. 37 (1993), 335-425; Olazaran, 'A Sociological Study of the Official History of the Perceptrons Controversy', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 26, No. 3 (August 1996), 611-59.
23. The clearest examples of the earlier tendency include the following: Daniel Crevier, AI: The Tumultuous History of the Search for Artificial Intelligence (New York: Basic Books, 1993); Grant Fjermedal, The Tomorrow Makers (New York: Macmillan, 1986); Pamela McCorduck, Machines Who Think: A Personal Inquiry into the History and Prospects of Artificial Intelligence (San Francisco, CA: W.H. Freeman, 1979). Other works on the history of artificial intelligence include the following: Thomas Bartee (ed.), Expert Systems and Artificial Intelligence (Indianapolis, IN: Howard Sams, 1988); James Fleck, 'Development and Establishment in Artificial Intelligence', in Norbert Elias, Herminio Martins and Richard Whitley (eds), Scientific Establishments and Hierarchies, Sociology of the Sciences Yearbook, No. 6 (Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Reidel, 1982), 169-217; Philip J. Hilts, Scientific Temperaments: Three Lives in Contemporary Science (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1982); Ray Kurzweil (ed.), The Age of Intelligent Machines (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1988); Rene Moreau, trans. J. Hewlett, The Computer Comes of Age: The People, the Hardware, and the Software (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1984); George Johnson, Machinery of the Mind: Inside the New Science of Artificial Intelligence (New York: Random House, 1986); Allen Newell, 'Intellectual Issues in the History of Artifical Intelligence', in Fritz Machlup and Una Mansfield (eds), The Study of Information: Interdisciplinary Messages (New York: Wiley, 1983), 187-228; Harvey P. Newquist (ed.), The Brain Makers (Indianapolis, IN: Sams Publishing, 1st edn, 1994); ACM SIGPLAN, The Second ACM SIGPLAN History of Programming Languages Conference (HOPL-II) in Cambridge, MA (New York: Association for Computing Machinery, 1993); Howard Rheingold, Tools for Thought (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1985); Frank Rose, Into the Heart of the Mind (New York: Harper & Row, 1984); Geoffrey L. Simons, Evolution of the Intelligent Machine: A Popular History of AI (Manchester, UK: NCC Publication, 1988); Tom Stonier, Beyond Information: The Natural History of Intelligence (London: Springer-Verlag, 1992). Important exceptions to the earlier tendency, because they do map some of the differences and diversity of technical approaches in the fields, are the following: Howard Gardner, The Mind's New Science: A History of the Cognitive Revolution (New York: Basic Books, 1985); Mikel Olazaran, A Historical Sociology of Neural Network Research (unpublished PhD dissertation, University of Edinburgh, 1991); Olazaran, 'A Sociological History of the Neural Network Controversy', Advances in Computers, Vol. 37 (1993), 335-425; Olazaran, 'A Sociological Study of the Official History of the Perceptrons Controversy', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 26, No. 3 (August 1996), 611-59.
24. The clearest examples of the earlier tendency include the following: Daniel Crevier, AI: The Tumultuous History of the Search for Artificial Intelligence (New York: Basic Books, 1993); Grant Fjermedal, The Tomorrow Makers (New York: Macmillan, 1986); Pamela McCorduck, Machines Who Think: A Personal Inquiry into the History and Prospects of Artificial Intelligence (San Francisco, CA: W.H. Freeman, 1979). Other works on the history of artificial intelligence include the following: Thomas Bartee (ed.), Expert Systems and Artificial Intelligence (Indianapolis, IN: Howard Sams, 1988); James Fleck, 'Development and Establishment in Artificial Intelligence', in Norbert Elias, Herminio Martins and Richard Whitley (eds), Scientific Establishments and Hierarchies, Sociology of the Sciences Yearbook, No. 6 (Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Reidel, 1982), 169-217; Philip J. Hilts, Scientific Temperaments: Three Lives in Contemporary Science (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1982); Ray Kurzweil (ed.), The Age of Intelligent Machines (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1988); Rene Moreau, trans. J. Hewlett, The Computer Comes of Age: The People, the Hardware, and the Software (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1984); George Johnson, Machinery of the Mind: Inside the New Science of Artificial Intelligence (New York: Random House, 1986); Allen Newell, 'Intellectual Issues in the History of Artifical Intelligence', in Fritz Machlup and Una Mansfield (eds), The Study of Information: Interdisciplinary Messages (New York: Wiley, 1983), 187-228; Harvey P. Newquist (ed.), The Brain Makers (Indianapolis, IN: Sams Publishing, 1st edn, 1994); ACM SIGPLAN, The Second ACM SIGPLAN History of Programming Languages Conference (HOPL-II) in Cambridge, MA (New York: Association for Computing Machinery, 1993); Howard Rheingold, Tools for Thought (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1985); Frank Rose, Into the Heart of the Mind (New York: Harper & Row, 1984); Geoffrey L. Simons, Evolution of the Intelligent Machine: A Popular History of AI (Manchester, UK: NCC Publication, 1988); Tom Stonier, Beyond Information: The Natural History of Intelligence (London: Springer-Verlag, 1992). Important exceptions to the earlier tendency, because they do map some of the differences and diversity of technical approaches in the fields, are the following: Howard Gardner, The Mind's New Science: A History of the Cognitive Revolution (New York: Basic Books, 1985); Mikel Olazaran, A Historical Sociology of Neural Network Research (unpublished PhD dissertation, University of Edinburgh, 1991); Olazaran, 'A Sociological History of the Neural Network Controversy', Advances in Computers, Vol. 37 (1993), 335-425; Olazaran, 'A Sociological Study of the Official History of the Perceptrons Controversy', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 26, No. 3 (August 1996), 611-59.
25. Theda Skocpol, 'Bringing the State Back In: Strategies of Analysis in Current Research', in Peter B. Evans, Dietrich Rueschemeyer and Skocpol (eds), Bringing the State Back In (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 3-37. Not to overstate the case, I should point out that there are many predecessors to the current concern with the state in social studies of science, including, perhaps most prominently, the small body of literature on science advice and the scientific élite in the 1960s. Examples include Donald Cox, America's New Policy Makers: The Scientific Elite and the Use of Power (New York: Chilton, 1964); Robert Gilpin, American Scientists and Nuclear Weapons Policy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1962); Gilpin and Christopher Wright (eds), Scientists and National Policy-Making (New York: Columbia University Press, 1964); Daniel S. Greenberg, 'The Myth of the Scientific Elite', The Public Interest, No. 1 (Fall 1965), 61-70; Lyle Groeneveld, Norman Koller and Nicholas C. Mullins, 'The Advisors of the United States National Science Foundation', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 5, No. 3 (August 1975), 343-54; Ralph Lapp, The New Priesthood: The Scientific Elite and the Use of Power (New York: Harper & Row, 1965); Avery Leiserson, 'Scientists and the Policy Process', American Political Science Review, Vol. 59, No. 2 (June 1965), 408-16; Bruce L.R. Smith, The RAND Corporation (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1966).
26. Theda Skocpol, 'Bringing the State Back In: Strategies of Analysis in Current Research', in Peter B. Evans, Dietrich Rueschemeyer and Skocpol (eds),
27. Theda Skocpol, 'Bringing the State Back In: Strategies of Analysis in Current Research', in Peter B. Evans, Dietrich Rueschemeyer and Skocpol (eds), Bringing the State Back In (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 3-37. Not to overstate the case, I should point out that there are many predecessors to the current concern with the state in social studies of science, including, perhaps most prominently, the small body of literature on science advice and the scientific élite in the 1960s. Examples include Donald Cox, America's New Policy Makers: The Scientific Elite and the Use of Power (New York: Chilton, 1964); Robert Gilpin, American Scientists and Nuclear Weapons Policy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1962); Gilpin and Christopher Wright (eds), Scientists and National Policy-Making (New York: Columbia University Press, 1964); Daniel S. Greenberg, 'The Myth of the Scientific Elite', The Public Interest, No. 1 (Fall 1965), 61-70; Lyle Groeneveld, Norman Koller and Nicholas C. Mullins, 'The Advisors of the United States National Science Foundation', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 5, No. 3 (August 1975), 343-54; Ralph Lapp, The New Priesthood: The Scientific Elite and the Use of Power (New York: Harper & Row, 1965); Avery Leiserson, 'Scientists and the Policy Process', American Political Science Review, Vol. 59, No. 2 (June 1965), 408-16; Bruce L.R. Smith, The RAND Corporation (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1966).
28. Theda Skocpol, 'Bringing the State Back In: Strategies of Analysis in Current Research', in Peter B. Evans, Dietrich Rueschemeyer and Skocpol (eds), Bringing the State Back In (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 3-37. Not to overstate the case, I should point out that there are many predecessors to the current concern with the state in social studies of science, including, perhaps most prominently, the small body of literature on science advice and the scientific élite in the 1960s. Examples include Donald Cox, America's New Policy Makers: The Scientific Elite and the Use of Power (New York: Chilton, 1964); Robert Gilpin, American Scientists and Nuclear Weapons Policy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1962); Gilpin and Christopher Wright (eds), Scientists and National Policy-Making (New York: Columbia University Press, 1964); Daniel S. Greenberg, 'The Myth of the Scientific Elite', The Public Interest, No. 1 (Fall 1965), 61-70; Lyle Groeneveld, Norman Koller and Nicholas C. Mullins, 'The Advisors of the United States National Science Foundation', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 5, No. 3 (August 1975), 343-54; Ralph Lapp, The New Priesthood: The Scientific Elite and the Use of Power (New York: Harper & Row, 1965); Avery Leiserson, 'Scientists and the Policy Process', American Political Science Review, Vol. 59, No. 2 (June 1965), 408-16; Bruce L.R. Smith, The RAND Corporation (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1966).
29. Theda Skocpol, 'Bringing the State Back In: Strategies of Analysis in Current Research', in Peter B. Evans, Dietrich Rueschemeyer and Skocpol (eds), Bringing the State Back In (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 3-37. Not to overstate the case, I should point out that there are many predecessors to the current concern with the state in social studies of science, including, perhaps most prominently, the small body of literature on science advice and the scientific élite in the 1960s. Examples include Donald Cox, America's New Policy Makers: The Scientific Elite and the Use of Power (New York: Chilton, 1964); Robert Gilpin, American Scientists and Nuclear Weapons Policy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1962); Gilpin and Christopher Wright (eds), Scientists and National Policy-Making (New York: Columbia University Press, 1964); Daniel S. Greenberg, 'The Myth of the Scientific Elite', The Public Interest, No. 1 (Fall 1965), 61-70; Lyle Groeneveld, Norman Koller and Nicholas C. Mullins, 'The Advisors of the United States National Science Foundation', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 5, No. 3 (August 1975), 343-54; Ralph Lapp, The New Priesthood: The Scientific Elite and the Use of Power (New York: Harper & Row, 1965); Avery Leiserson, 'Scientists and the Policy Process', American Political Science Review, Vol. 59, No. 2 (June 1965), 408-16; Bruce L.R. Smith, The RAND Corporation (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1966).
30. Theda Skocpol, 'Bringing the State Back In: Strategies of Analysis in Current Research', in Peter B. Evans, Dietrich Rueschemeyer and Skocpol (eds), Bringing the State Back In (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 3-37. Not to overstate the case, I should point out that there are many predecessors to the current concern with the state in social studies of science, including, perhaps most prominently, the small body of literature on science advice and the scientific élite in the 1960s. Examples include Donald Cox, America's New Policy Makers: The Scientific Elite and the Use of Power (New York: Chilton, 1964); Robert Gilpin, American Scientists and Nuclear Weapons Policy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1962); Gilpin and Christopher Wright (eds), Scientists and National Policy-Making (New York: Columbia University Press, 1964); Daniel S. Greenberg, 'The Myth of the Scientific Elite', The Public Interest, No. 1 (Fall 1965), 61-70; Lyle Groeneveld, Norman Koller and Nicholas C. Mullins, 'The Advisors of the United States National Science Foundation', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 5, No. 3 (August 1975), 343-54; Ralph Lapp, The New Priesthood: The Scientific Elite and the Use of Power (New York: Harper & Row, 1965); Avery Leiserson, 'Scientists and the Policy Process', American Political Science Review, Vol. 59, No. 2 (June 1965), 408-16; Bruce L.R. Smith, The RAND Corporation (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1966).
31. Theda Skocpol, 'Bringing the State Back In: Strategies of Analysis in Current Research', in Peter B. Evans, Dietrich Rueschemeyer and Skocpol (eds), Bringing the State Back In (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 3-37. Not to overstate the case, I should point out that there are many predecessors to the current concern with the state in social studies of science, including, perhaps most prominently, the small body of literature on science advice and the scientific élite in the 1960s. Examples include Donald Cox, America's New Policy Makers: The Scientific Elite and the Use of Power (New York: Chilton, 1964); Robert Gilpin, American Scientists and Nuclear Weapons Policy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1962); Gilpin and Christopher Wright (eds), Scientists and National Policy-Making (New York: Columbia University Press, 1964); Daniel S. Greenberg, 'The Myth of the Scientific Elite', The Public Interest, No. 1 (Fall 1965), 61-70; Lyle Groeneveld, Norman Koller and Nicholas C. Mullins, 'The Advisors of the United States National Science Foundation', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 5, No. 3 (August 1975), 343-54; Ralph Lapp, The New Priesthood: The Scientific Elite and the Use of Power (New York: Harper & Row, 1965); Avery Leiserson, 'Scientists and the Policy Process', American Political Science Review, Vol. 59, No. 2 (June 1965), 408-16; Bruce L.R. Smith, The RAND Corporation (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1966).
32. Theda Skocpol, 'Bringing the State Back In: Strategies of Analysis in Current Research', in Peter B. Evans, Dietrich Rueschemeyer and Skocpol (eds), Bringing the State Back In (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 3-37. Not to overstate the case, I should point out that there are many predecessors to the current concern with the state in social studies of science, including, perhaps most prominently, the small body of literature on science advice and the scientific élite in the 1960s. Examples include Donald Cox, America's New Policy Makers: The Scientific Elite and the Use of Power (New York: Chilton, 1964); Robert Gilpin, American Scientists and Nuclear Weapons Policy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1962); Gilpin and Christopher Wright (eds), Scientists and National Policy-Making (New York: Columbia University Press, 1964); Daniel S. Greenberg, 'The Myth of the Scientific Elite', The Public Interest, No. 1 (Fall 1965), 61-70; Lyle Groeneveld, Norman Koller and Nicholas C. Mullins, 'The Advisors of the United States National Science Foundation', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 5, No. 3 (August 1975), 343-54; Ralph Lapp, The New Priesthood: The Scientific Elite and the Use of Power (New York: Harper & Row, 1965); Avery Leiserson, 'Scientists and the Policy Process', American Political Science Review, Vol. 59, No. 2 (June 1965), 408-16; Bruce L.R. Smith, The RAND Corporation (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1966).
33. Theda Skocpol, 'Bringing the State Back In: Strategies of Analysis in Current Research', in Peter B. Evans, Dietrich Rueschemeyer and Skocpol (eds), Bringing the State Back In (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 3-37. Not to overstate the case, I should point out that there are many predecessors to the current concern with the state in social studies of science, including, perhaps most prominently, the small body of literature on science advice and the scientific élite in the 1960s. Examples include Donald Cox, America's New Policy Makers: The Scientific Elite and the Use of Power (New York: Chilton, 1964); Robert Gilpin, American Scientists and Nuclear Weapons Policy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1962); Gilpin and Christopher Wright (eds), Scientists and National Policy-Making (New York: Columbia University Press, 1964); Daniel S. Greenberg, 'The Myth of the Scientific Elite', The Public Interest, No. 1 (Fall 1965), 61-70; Lyle Groeneveld, Norman Koller and Nicholas C. Mullins, 'The Advisors of the United States National Science Foundation', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 5, No. 3 (August 1975), 343-54; Ralph Lapp, The New Priesthood: The Scientific Elite and the Use of Power (New York: Harper & Row, 1965); Avery Leiserson, 'Scientists and the Policy Process', American Political Science Review, Vol. 59, No. 2 (June 1965), 408-16; Bruce L.R. Smith, The RAND Corporation (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1966).
34. Dorothy Nelkin (ed.), Controversy: Politics of Technical Decisions (Beverly Hills, CA & London: Sage, 1979). The following is a synthetic work dealing with this tradition: H. Tristam Engelhardt, Jr, and Arthur L. Caplan (eds), Scientific Controversies: Case Studies In The Resolution and Closure of Disputes in Science and Technology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987).
35. Dorothy Nelkin (ed.), Controversy: Politics of Technical Decisions (Beverly Hills, CA & London: Sage, 1979). The following is a synthetic work dealing with this tradition: H. Tristam Engelhardt, Jr, and Arthur L. Caplan (eds), Scientific Controversies: Case Studies In The Resolution and Closure of Disputes in Science and Technology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987).
36. Martin J.S. Rudwick, The Great Devonian Controversy: The Shaping of Scientific Knowledge among Gentlemanly Specialists (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1985); H.M. Collins, 'The TEA Set: Tacit Knowledge and Scientific Networks', Science Studies, Vol. 4 (1974), 165-86; Collins, Changing Order: Replication and Induction in Scientific Practice (London: Sage, 1985). Other examples include: Barry Barnes and Steven Shapin (eds), Natural Order (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1979); Adele Clarke, 'Controversy and the Development of American Reproductive Sciences', Social Problems, Vol. 37, No. 1 (February 1990), 18-37; H.M. Collins (ed.), 'Special Issue: Knowledge and Controversy: Studies of Modern Natural Science', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 11, No. 1 (February 1981), 1-158; Jonathan Harwood, 'The Race- Intelligence Controversy: A Sociological Approach; 1: Professional Factors', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 6, Nos 3 & 4 (October 1976), 369-94, and '2: "External" Factors', ibid., Vol. 7, No. 1 (February 1977), 1-30; Shapin and Simon Shaffer, Leviathan and the Air Pump: Hobbes, Boyle and the Experimental Life (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1985). There are also a number of studies which combine the two traditions in various ways: for example, David W. Chambers, A Worm in the Bud: Case Study of the Pesticide Controversy (Waurn Pond, Victoria: Deakin University, 1979); Brian Martin, Scientific Knowledge in Controversy: The Social Dynamics of the Fluoridation Debate (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1991).
37. Martin J.S. Rudwick, The Great Devonian Controversy: The Shaping of Scientific Knowledge among Gentlemanly Specialists (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1985); H.M. Collins, 'The TEA Set: Tacit Knowledge and Scientific Networks', Science Studies, Vol. 4 (1974), 165-86; Collins, Changing Order: Replication and Induction in Scientific Practice (London: Sage, 1985). Other examples include: Barry Barnes and Steven Shapin (eds), Natural Order (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1979); Adele Clarke, 'Controversy and the Development of American Reproductive Sciences', Social Problems, Vol. 37, No. 1 (February 1990), 18-37; H.M. Collins (ed.), 'Special Issue: Knowledge and Controversy: Studies of Modern Natural Science', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 11, No. 1 (February 1981), 1-158; Jonathan Harwood, 'The Race- Intelligence Controversy: A Sociological Approach; 1: Professional Factors', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 6, Nos 3 & 4 (October 1976), 369-94, and '2: "External" Factors', ibid., Vol. 7, No. 1 (February 1977), 1-30; Shapin and Simon Shaffer, Leviathan and the Air Pump: Hobbes, Boyle and the Experimental Life (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1985). There are also a number of studies which combine the two traditions in various ways: for example, David W. Chambers, A Worm in the Bud: Case Study of the Pesticide Controversy (Waurn Pond, Victoria: Deakin University, 1979); Brian Martin, Scientific Knowledge in Controversy: The Social Dynamics of the Fluoridation Debate (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1991).
38. Martin J.S. Rudwick, The Great Devonian Controversy: The Shaping of Scientific Knowledge among Gentlemanly Specialists (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1985); H.M. Collins, 'The TEA Set: Tacit Knowledge and Scientific Networks', Science Studies, Vol. 4 (1974), 165-86; Collins, Changing Order: Replication and Induction in Scientific Practice (London: Sage, 1985). Other examples include: Barry Barnes and Steven Shapin (eds), Natural Order (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1979); Adele Clarke, 'Controversy and the Development of American Reproductive Sciences', Social Problems, Vol. 37, No. 1 (February 1990), 18-37; H.M. Collins (ed.), 'Special Issue: Knowledge and Controversy: Studies of Modern Natural Science', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 11, No. 1 (February 1981), 1-158; Jonathan Harwood, 'The Race- Intelligence Controversy: A Sociological Approach; 1: Professional Factors', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 6, Nos 3 & 4 (October 1976), 369-94, and '2: "External" Factors', ibid., Vol. 7, No. 1 (February 1977), 1-30; Shapin and Simon Shaffer, Leviathan and the Air Pump: Hobbes, Boyle and the Experimental Life (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1985). There are also a number of studies which combine the two traditions in various ways: for example, David W. Chambers, A Worm in the Bud: Case Study of the Pesticide Controversy (Waurn Pond, Victoria: Deakin University, 1979); Brian Martin, Scientific Knowledge in Controversy: The Social Dynamics of the Fluoridation Debate (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1991).
39. Martin J.S. Rudwick, The Great Devonian Controversy: The Shaping of Scientific Knowledge among Gentlemanly Specialists (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1985); H.M. Collins, 'The TEA Set: Tacit Knowledge and Scientific Networks', Science Studies, Vol. 4 (1974), 165-86; Collins, Changing Order: Replication and Induction in Scientific Practice (London: Sage, 1985). Other examples include: Barry Barnes and Steven Shapin (eds), Natural Order (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1979); Adele Clarke, 'Controversy and the Development of American Reproductive Sciences', Social Problems, Vol. 37, No. 1 (February 1990), 18-37; H.M. Collins (ed.), 'Special Issue: Knowledge and Controversy: Studies of Modern Natural Science', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 11, No. 1 (February 1981), 1-158; Jonathan Harwood, 'The Race- Intelligence Controversy: A Sociological Approach; 1: Professional Factors', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 6, Nos 3 & 4 (October 1976), 369-94, and '2: "External" Factors', ibid., Vol. 7, No. 1 (February 1977), 1-30; Shapin and Simon Shaffer, Leviathan and the Air Pump: Hobbes, Boyle and the Experimental Life (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1985). There are also a number of studies which combine the two traditions in various ways: for example, David W. Chambers, A Worm in the Bud: Case Study of the Pesticide Controversy (Waurn Pond, Victoria: Deakin University, 1979); Brian Martin, Scientific Knowledge in Controversy: The Social Dynamics of the Fluoridation Debate (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1991).
40. Martin J.S. Rudwick, The Great Devonian Controversy: The Shaping of Scientific Knowledge among Gentlemanly Specialists (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1985); H.M. Collins, 'The TEA Set: Tacit Knowledge and Scientific Networks', Science Studies, Vol. 4 (1974), 165-86; Collins, Changing Order: Replication and Induction in Scientific Practice (London: Sage, 1985). Other examples include: Barry Barnes and Steven Shapin (eds), Natural Order (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1979); Adele Clarke, 'Controversy and the Development of American Reproductive Sciences', Social Problems, Vol. 37, No. 1 (February 1990), 18-37; H.M. Collins (ed.), 'Special Issue: Knowledge and Controversy: Studies of Modern Natural Science', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 11, No. 1 (February 1981), 1-158; Jonathan Harwood, 'The Race- Intelligence Controversy: A Sociological Approach; 1: Professional Factors', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 6, Nos 3 & 4 (October 1976), 369-94, and '2: "External" Factors', ibid., Vol. 7, No. 1 (February 1977), 1-30; Shapin and Simon Shaffer, Leviathan and the Air Pump: Hobbes, Boyle and the Experimental Life (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1985). There are also a number of studies which combine the two traditions in various ways: for example, David W. Chambers, A Worm in the Bud: Case Study of the Pesticide Controversy (Waurn Pond, Victoria: Deakin University, 1979); Brian Martin, Scientific Knowledge in Controversy: The Social Dynamics of the Fluoridation Debate (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1991).
41. Martin J.S. Rudwick, The Great Devonian Controversy: The Shaping of Scientific Knowledge among Gentlemanly Specialists (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1985); H.M. Collins, 'The TEA Set: Tacit Knowledge and Scientific Networks', Science Studies, Vol. 4 (1974), 165-86; Collins, Changing Order: Replication and Induction in Scientific Practice (London: Sage, 1985). Other examples include: Barry Barnes and Steven Shapin (eds), Natural Order (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1979); Adele Clarke, 'Controversy and the Development of American Reproductive Sciences', Social Problems, Vol. 37, No. 1 (February 1990), 18-37; H.M. Collins (ed.), 'Special Issue: Knowledge and Controversy: Studies of Modern Natural Science', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 11, No. 1 (February 1981), 1-158; Jonathan Harwood, 'The Race- Intelligence Controversy: A Sociological Approach; 1: Professional Factors', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 6, Nos 3 & 4 (October 1976), 369-94, and '2: "External" Factors', ibid., Vol. 7, No. 1 (February 1977), 1-30; Shapin and Simon Shaffer, Leviathan and the Air Pump: Hobbes, Boyle and the Experimental Life (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1985). There are also a number of studies which combine the two traditions in various ways: for example, David W. Chambers, A Worm in the Bud: Case Study of the Pesticide Controversy (Waurn Pond, Victoria: Deakin University, 1979); Brian Martin, Scientific Knowledge in Controversy: The Social Dynamics of the Fluoridation Debate (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1991).
42. Martin J.S. Rudwick, The Great Devonian Controversy: The Shaping of Scientific Knowledge among Gentlemanly Specialists (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1985); H.M. Collins, 'The TEA Set: Tacit Knowledge and Scientific Networks', Science Studies, Vol. 4 (1974), 165-86; Collins, Changing Order: Replication and Induction in Scientific Practice (London: Sage, 1985). Other examples include: Barry Barnes and Steven Shapin (eds), Natural Order (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1979); Adele Clarke, 'Controversy and the Development of American Reproductive Sciences', Social Problems, Vol. 37, No. 1 (February 1990), 18-37; H.M. Collins (ed.), 'Special Issue: Knowledge and Controversy: Studies of Modern Natural Science', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 11, No. 1 (February 1981), 1-158; Jonathan Harwood, 'The Race-Intelligence Controversy: A Sociological Approach; 1: Professional Factors', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 6, Nos 3 & 4 (October 1976), 369-94, and '2: "External" Factors', ibid., Vol. 7, No. 1 (February 1977), 1-30; Shapin and Simon Shaffer, Leviathan and the Air Pump: Hobbes, Boyle and the Experimental Life (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1985). There are also a number of studies which combine the two traditions in various ways: for example, David W. Chambers, A Worm in the Bud: Case Study of the Pesticide Controversy (Waurn Pond, Victoria: Deakin University, 1979); Brian Martin, Scientific Knowledge in Controversy: The Social Dynamics of the Fluoridation Debate (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1991).
43. Martin J.S. Rudwick, The Great Devonian Controversy: The Shaping of Scientific Knowledge among Gentlemanly Specialists (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1985); H.M. Collins, 'The TEA Set: Tacit Knowledge and Scientific Networks', Science Studies, Vol. 4 (1974), 165-86; Collins, Changing Order: Replication and Induction in Scientific Practice (London: Sage, 1985). Other examples include: Barry Barnes and Steven Shapin (eds), Natural Order (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1979); Adele Clarke, 'Controversy and the Development of American Reproductive Sciences', Social Problems, Vol. 37, No. 1 (February 1990), 18-37; H.M. Collins (ed.), 'Special Issue: Knowledge and Controversy: Studies of Modern Natural Science', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 11, No. 1 (February 1981), 1-158; Jonathan Harwood, 'The Race- Intelligence Controversy: A Sociological Approach; 1: Professional Factors', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 6, Nos 3 & 4 (October 1976), 369-94, and '2: "External" Factors', ibid., Vol. 7, No. 1 (February 1977), 1-30; Shapin and Simon Shaffer, Leviathan and the Air Pump: Hobbes, Boyle and the Experimental Life (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1985). There are also a number of studies which combine the two traditions in various ways: for example, David W. Chambers, A Worm in the Bud: Case Study of the Pesticide Controversy (Waurn Pond, Victoria: Deakin University, 1979); Brian Martin, Scientific Knowledge in Controversy: The Social Dynamics of the Fluoridation Debate (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1991).
44. Martin J.S. Rudwick, The Great Devonian Controversy: The Shaping of Scientific Knowledge among Gentlemanly Specialists (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1985); H.M. Collins, 'The TEA Set: Tacit Knowledge and Scientific Networks', Science Studies, Vol. 4 (1974), 165-86; Collins, Changing Order: Replication and Induction in Scientific Practice (London: Sage, 1985). Other examples include: Barry Barnes and Steven Shapin (eds), Natural Order (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1979); Adele Clarke, 'Controversy and the Development of American Reproductive Sciences', Social Problems, Vol. 37, No. 1 (February 1990), 18-37; H.M. Collins (ed.), 'Special Issue: Knowledge and Controversy: Studies of Modern Natural Science', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 11, No. 1 (February 1981), 1-158; Jonathan Harwood, 'The Race- Intelligence Controversy: A Sociological Approach; 1: Professional Factors', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 6, Nos 3 & 4 (October 1976), 369-94, and '2: "External" Factors', ibid., Vol. 7, No. 1 (February 1977), 1-30; Shapin and Simon Shaffer, Leviathan and the Air Pump: Hobbes, Boyle and the Experimental Life (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1985). There are also a number of studies which combine the two traditions in various ways: for example, David W. Chambers, A Worm in the Bud: Case Study of the Pesticide Controversy (Waurn Pond, Victoria: Deakin University, 1979); Brian Martin, Scientific Knowledge in Controversy: The Social Dynamics of the Fluoridation Debate (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1991).
45. Martin J.S. Rudwick, The Great Devonian Controversy: The Shaping of Scientific Knowledge among Gentlemanly Specialists (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1985); H.M. Collins, 'The TEA Set: Tacit Knowledge and Scientific Networks', Science Studies, Vol. 4 (1974), 165-86; Collins, Changing Order: Replication and Induction in Scientific Practice (London: Sage, 1985). Other examples include: Barry Barnes and Steven Shapin (eds), Natural Order (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1979); Adele Clarke, 'Controversy and the Development of American Reproductive Sciences', Social Problems, Vol. 37, No. 1 (February 1990), 18-37; H.M. Collins (ed.), 'Special Issue: Knowledge and Controversy: Studies of Modern Natural Science', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 11, No. 1 (February 1981), 1-158; Jonathan Harwood, 'The Race- Intelligence Controversy: A Sociological Approach; 1: Professional Factors', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 6, Nos 3 & 4 (October 1976), 369-94, and '2: "External" Factors', ibid., Vol. 7, No. 1 (February 1977), 1-30; Shapin and Simon Shaffer, Leviathan and the Air Pump: Hobbes, Boyle and the Experimental Life (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1985). There are also a number of studies which combine the two traditions in various ways: for example, David W. Chambers, A Worm in the Bud: Case Study of the Pesticide Controversy (Waurn Pond, Victoria: Deakin University, 1979); Brian Martin, Scientific Knowledge in Controversy: The Social Dynamics of the Fluoridation Debate (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1991).
46. Martin J.S. Rudwick, The Great Devonian Controversy: The Shaping of Scientific Knowledge among Gentlemanly Specialists (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1985); H.M. Collins, 'The TEA Set: Tacit Knowledge and Scientific Networks', Science Studies, Vol. 4 (1974), 165-86; Collins, Changing Order: Replication and Induction in Scientific Practice (London: Sage, 1985). Other examples include: Barry Barnes and Steven Shapin (eds), Natural Order (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1979); Adele Clarke, 'Controversy and the Development of American Reproductive Sciences', Social Problems, Vol. 37, No. 1 (February 1990), 18-37; H.M. Collins (ed.), 'Special Issue: Knowledge and Controversy: Studies of Modern Natural Science', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 11, No. 1 (February 1981), 1-158; Jonathan Harwood, 'The Race- Intelligence Controversy: A Sociological Approach; 1: Professional Factors', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 6, Nos 3 & 4 (October 1976), 369-94, and '2: "External" Factors', ibid., Vol. 7, No. 1 (February 1977), 1-30; Shapin and Simon Shaffer, Leviathan and the Air Pump: Hobbes, Boyle and the Experimental Life (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1985). There are also a number of studies which combine the two traditions in various ways: for example, David W. Chambers, A Worm in the Bud: Case Study of the Pesticide Controversy (Waurn Pond, Victoria: Deakin University, 1979); Brian Martin, Scientific Knowledge in Controversy: The Social Dynamics of the Fluoridation Debate (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1991).
47. In addition to works cited above, see Karin D. Knorr-Cetina and Michael J. Mulkay (eds), Science Observed: Perspectives on the Social Study of Science (London & Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1983); Steven Shapin, 'History of Science and its Sociological Reconstructions', History of Science, Vol. 20 (1982), 157-211.
48. In addition to works cited above, see Karin D. Knorr-Cetina and Michael J. Mulkay (eds), Science Observed: Perspectives on the Social Study of Science (London & Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1983); Steven Shapin, 'History of Science and its Sociological Reconstructions', History of Science, Vol. 20 (1982), 157-211.
49. H.M. Collins, 'The Place of the "Core-Set" in Modern Science: Social Contingency with Methodological Propriety in Science', History of Science, Vol. 19 (1981), 6-19.
50. Ibid., 9. Students of scientific controversy typically interrogate both archives and people. One eventually settles on a cast of characters for one's re-enactment of the controversy, with a number of iterations and some informed judgement about the issues at play. As Collins points out, this sort of description puts the process in somewhat unrealistically formal terms for many studies, but accurately represents the logic of the inquiry.
51. Examples include: S. Leigh Star, Regions of the Mind: Brain Research and the Quest for Scientific Certainty (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1989); Donald MacKenzie, 'Statistical Theory and Social Interests: A Case Study', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 8, No. 1 (February 1978), 35-83.
52. Examples include: S. Leigh Star, Regions of the Mind: Brain Research and the Quest for Scientific Certainty (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1989); Donald MacKenzie, 'Statistical Theory and Social Interests: A Case Study', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 8, No. 1 (February 1978), 35-83.
53. Bibliographic search was limited to English-language studies.
54. Some similar issues are raised by the following: S. Shapin, 'Discipline and Bounding: The History and Sociology of Science as Seen through the Externalism-Internalism Debate', History of Science, Vol. 30 (1992), 333-69; K.D. Knorr-Cetina, 'Scientific Communities or Transepistemic Arenas of Research? A Critique of Quasi-Economic Models of Science', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 12, No. 1 (February 1982), 101-30.
55. Some similar issues are raised by the following: S. Shapin, 'Discipline and Bounding: The History and Sociology of Science as Seen through the Externalism-Internalism Debate', History of Science, Vol. 30 (1992), 333-69; K.D. Knorr-Cetina, 'Scientific Communities or Transepistemic Arenas of Research? A Critique of Quasi-Economic Models of Science', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 12, No. 1 (February 1982), 101-30.
56. Some of the better-known studies include the following: Finn Aaserud, Redirecting Science: Niels Bohr, Philanthropy and the Rise of Nuclear Physics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990); Paul Forman, 'Weimar Culture, Causality, and Quantum Theory, 1918-1927: Adaptation by German Physicists and Mathematicians to a Hostile Intellectual Environment', Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences, Vol. 3 (1971), 1-115; Forman, 'Behind Quantum Electronics: National Security as a Basis for Physical Research in the United States, 1940-1960', ibid., Vol. 18 (1987), 149-229; Daniel J. Kevles, The Physicists: The History of a Scientific Community in Modern America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1987 [1971]); Arnold Thackray (ed.), 'Science after '40', Osiris (second series), Vol. 7 (1992). There is also a body of historical studies of research sponsorship by foundations: see, for example, Robert E. Kohler, Partners in Science: Foundations and Scientists, 1900-1945 (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1991); Pnina Abir-Am, 'The Discourse of Physical Power and Biological Knowledge in the 1930s: A Reappraisal of the Rockefeller Foundation's "Policy" in Molecular Biology', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 12, No. 3 (August 1982), 341-82. In the wider literature on science, technology and the state, there have also been some important accounts of technical controversy: for example, Michael H. Armacost, The Politics of Weapons Innovation: The Thor-Jupiter Controversy (New York: Columbia University Press, 1969).
57. Some of the better-known studies include the following: Finn Aaserud, Redirecting Science: Niels Bohr, Philanthropy and the Rise of Nuclear Physics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990); Paul Forman, 'Weimar Culture, Causality, and Quantum Theory, 1918-1927: Adaptation by German Physicists and Mathematicians to a Hostile Intellectual Environment', Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences, Vol. 3 (1971), 1-115; Forman, 'Behind Quantum Electronics: National Security as a Basis for Physical Research in the United States, 1940-1960', ibid., Vol. 18 (1987), 149-229; Daniel J. Kevles, The Physicists: The History of a Scientific Community in Modern America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1987 [1971]); Arnold Thackray (ed.), 'Science after '40', Osiris (second series), Vol. 7 (1992). There is also a body of historical studies of research sponsorship by foundations: see, for example, Robert E. Kohler, Partners in Science: Foundations and Scientists, 1900-1945 (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1991); Pnina Abir-Am, 'The Discourse of Physical Power and Biological Knowledge in the 1930s: A Reappraisal of the Rockefeller Foundation's "Policy" in Molecular Biology', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 12, No. 3 (August 1982), 341-82. In the wider literature on science, technology and the state, there have also been some important accounts of technical controversy: for example, Michael H. Armacost, The Politics of Weapons Innovation: The Thor-Jupiter Controversy (New York: Columbia University Press, 1969).
58. Some of the better-known studies include the following: Finn Aaserud, Redirecting Science: Niels Bohr, Philanthropy and the Rise of Nuclear Physics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990); Paul Forman, 'Weimar Culture, Causality, and Quantum Theory, 1918-1927: Adaptation by German Physicists and Mathematicians to a Hostile Intellectual Environment', Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences, Vol. 3 (1971), 1-115; Forman, 'Behind Quantum Electronics: National Security as a Basis for Physical Research in the United States, 1940-1960', ibid., Vol. 18 (1987), 149-229; Daniel J. Kevles, The Physicists: The History of a Scientific Community in Modern America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1987 [1971]); Arnold Thackray (ed.), 'Science after '40', Osiris (second series), Vol. 7 (1992). There is also a body of historical studies of research sponsorship by foundations: see, for example, Robert E. Kohler, Partners in Science: Foundations and Scientists, 1900-1945 (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1991); Pnina Abir-Am, 'The Discourse of Physical Power and Biological Knowledge in the 1930s: A Reappraisal of the Rockefeller Foundation's "Policy" in Molecular Biology', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 12, No. 3 (August 1982), 341-82. In the wider literature on science, technology and the state, there have also been some important accounts of technical controversy: for example, Michael H. Armacost, The Politics of Weapons Innovation: The Thor-Jupiter Controversy (New York: Columbia University Press, 1969).
59. Some of the better-known studies include the following: Finn Aaserud, Redirecting Science: Niels Bohr, Philanthropy and the Rise of Nuclear Physics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990); Paul Forman, 'Weimar Culture, Causality, and Quantum Theory, 1918-1927: Adaptation by German Physicists and Mathematicians to a Hostile Intellectual Environment', Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences, Vol. 3 (1971), 1-115; Forman, 'Behind Quantum Electronics: National Security as a Basis for Physical Research in the United States, 1940-1960', ibid., Vol. 18 (1987), 149-229; Daniel J. Kevles, The Physicists: The History of a Scientific Community in Modern America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1987 [1971]); Arnold Thackray (ed.), 'Science after '40', Osiris (second series), Vol. 7 (1992). There is also a body of historical studies of research sponsorship by foundations: see, for example, Robert E. Kohler, Partners in Science: Foundations and Scientists, 1900-1945 (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1991); Pnina Abir-Am, 'The Discourse of Physical Power and Biological Knowledge in the 1930s: A Reappraisal of the Rockefeller Foundation's "Policy" in Molecular Biology', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 12, No. 3 (August 1982), 341-82. In the wider literature on science, technology and the state, there have also been some important accounts of technical controversy: for example, Michael H. Armacost, The Politics of Weapons Innovation: The Thor-Jupiter Controversy (New York: Columbia University Press, 1969).
60. Some of the better-known studies include the following: Finn Aaserud, Redirecting Science: Niels Bohr, Philanthropy and the Rise of Nuclear Physics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990); Paul Forman, 'Weimar Culture, Causality, and Quantum Theory, 1918-1927: Adaptation by German Physicists and Mathematicians to a Hostile Intellectual Environment', Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences, Vol. 3 (1971), 1-115; Forman, 'Behind Quantum Electronics: National Security as a Basis for Physical Research in the United States, 1940-1960', ibid., Vol. 18 (1987), 149-229; Daniel J. Kevles, The Physicists: The History of a Scientific Community in Modern America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1987 [1971]); Arnold Thackray (ed.), 'Science after '40', Osiris (second series), Vol. 7 (1992). There is also a body of historical studies of research sponsorship by foundations: see, for example, Robert E. Kohler, Partners in Science: Foundations and Scientists, 1900-1945 (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1991); Pnina Abir-Am, 'The Discourse of Physical Power and Biological Knowledge in the 1930s: A Reappraisal of the Rockefeller Foundation's "Policy" in Molecular Biology', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 12, No. 3 (August 1982), 341-82. In the wider literature on science, technology and the state, there have also been some important accounts of technical controversy: for example, Michael H. Armacost, The Politics of Weapons Innovation: The Thor-Jupiter Controversy (New York: Columbia University Press, 1969).
61. Some of the better-known studies include the following: Finn Aaserud, Redirecting Science: Niels Bohr, Philanthropy and the Rise of Nuclear Physics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990); Paul Forman, 'Weimar Culture, Causality, and Quantum Theory, 1918-1927: Adaptation by German Physicists and Mathematicians to a Hostile Intellectual Environment', Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences, Vol. 3 (1971), 1-115; Forman, 'Behind Quantum Electronics: National Security as a Basis for Physical Research in the United States, 1940-1960', ibid., Vol. 18 (1987), 149-229; Daniel J. Kevles, The Physicists: The History of a Scientific Community in Modern America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1987 [1971]); Arnold Thackray (ed.), 'Science after '40', Osiris (second series), Vol. 7 (1992). There is also a body of historical studies of research sponsorship by foundations: see, for example, Robert E. Kohler, Partners in Science: Foundations and Scientists, 1900-1945 (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1991); Pnina Abir-Am, 'The Discourse of Physical Power and Biological Knowledge in the 1930s: A Reappraisal of the Rockefeller Foundation's "Policy" in Molecular Biology', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 12, No. 3 (August 1982), 341-82. In the wider literature on science, technology and the state, there have also been some important accounts of technical controversy: for example, Michael H. Armacost, The Politics of Weapons Innovation: The Thor-Jupiter Controversy (New York: Columbia University Press, 1969).
62. Some of the better-known studies include the following: Finn Aaserud, Redirecting Science: Niels Bohr, Philanthropy and the Rise of Nuclear Physics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990); Paul Forman, 'Weimar Culture, Causality, and Quantum Theory, 1918-1927: Adaptation by German Physicists and Mathematicians to a Hostile Intellectual Environment', Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences, Vol. 3 (1971), 1-115; Forman, 'Behind Quantum Electronics: National Security as a Basis for Physical Research in the United States, 1940-1960', ibid., Vol. 18 (1987), 149-229; Daniel J. Kevles, The Physicists: The History of a Scientific Community in Modern America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1987 [1971]); Arnold Thackray (ed.), 'Science after '40', Osiris (second series), Vol. 7 (1992). There is also a body of historical studies of research sponsorship by foundations: see, for example, Robert E. Kohler, Partners in Science: Foundations and Scientists, 1900-1945 (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1991); Pnina Abir-Am, 'The Discourse of Physical Power and Biological Knowledge in the 1930s: A Reappraisal of the Rockefeller Foundation's "Policy" in Molecular Biology', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 12, No. 3 (August 1982), 341-82. In the wider literature on science, technology and the state, there have also been some important accounts of technical controversy: for example, Michael H. Armacost, The Politics of Weapons Innovation: The Thor-Jupiter Controversy (New York: Columbia University Press, 1969).
63. Some of the better-known studies include the following: Finn Aaserud, Redirecting Science: Niels Bohr, Philanthropy and the Rise of Nuclear Physics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990); Paul Forman, 'Weimar Culture, Causality, and Quantum Theory, 1918-1927: Adaptation by German Physicists and Mathematicians to a Hostile Intellectual Environment', Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences, Vol. 3 (1971), 1-115; Forman, 'Behind Quantum Electronics: National Security as a Basis for Physical Research in the United States, 1940-1960', ibid., Vol. 18 (1987), 149-229; Daniel J. Kevles, The Physicists: The History of a Scientific Community in Modern America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1987 [1971]); Arnold Thackray (ed.), 'Science after '40', Osiris (second series), Vol. 7 (1992). There is also a body of historical studies of research sponsorship by foundations: see, for example, Robert E. Kohler, Partners in Science: Foundations and Scientists, 1900-1945 (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1991); Pnina Abir-Am, 'The Discourse of Physical Power and Biological Knowledge in the 1930s: A Reappraisal of the Rockefeller Foundation's "Policy" in Molecular Biology', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 12, No. 3 (August 1982), 341-82. In the wider literature on science, technology and the state, there have also been some important accounts of technical controversy: for example, Michael H. Armacost, The Politics of Weapons Innovation: The Thor-Jupiter Controversy (New York: Columbia University Press, 1969).
64. Donald MacKenzie and Judy Wajcman (eds), The Social Shaping of Technology: How the Refrigerator Got Its Hum (Milton Keynes, Bucks. & Philadelphia, PA: Open University Press, 1985); Wiebe E. Bijker and John Law (eds), Shaping Technology/Building Society: Studies in Sociotechnical Change (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1992); Alberto Cambrosio and Camille Limoges, 'Controversies as Governing Processes in Technology Assessment', Technology Analysis and Strategic Management, Vol. 3, No. 4 (December 1991), 377-96; Brian Elliott (ed.), Technology and Social Process (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1988).
65. Donald MacKenzie and Judy Wajcman (eds), The Social Shaping of Technology: How the Refrigerator Got Its Hum (Milton Keynes, Bucks. & Philadelphia, PA: Open University Press, 1985); Wiebe E. Bijker and John Law (eds), Shaping Technology/Building Society: Studies in Sociotechnical Change (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1992); Alberto Cambrosio and Camille Limoges, 'Controversies as Governing Processes in Technology Assessment', Technology Analysis and Strategic Management, Vol. 3, No. 4 (December 1991), 377-96; Brian Elliott (ed.), Technology and Social Process (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1988).
66. Donald MacKenzie and Judy Wajcman (eds), The Social Shaping of Technology: How the Refrigerator Got Its Hum (Milton Keynes, Bucks. & Philadelphia, PA: Open University Press, 1985); Wiebe E. Bijker and John Law (eds), Shaping Technology/Building Society: Studies in Sociotechnical Change (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1992); Alberto Cambrosio and Camille Limoges, 'Controversies as Governing Processes in Technology Assessment', Technology Analysis and Strategic Management, Vol. 3, No. 4 (December 1991), 377-96; Brian Elliott (ed.), Technology and Social Process (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1988).
67. Donald MacKenzie and Judy Wajcman (eds), The Social Shaping of Technology: How the Refrigerator Got Its Hum (Milton Keynes, Bucks. & Philadelphia, PA: Open University Press, 1985); Wiebe E. Bijker and John Law (eds), Shaping Technology/Building Society: Studies in Sociotechnical Change (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1992); Alberto Cambrosio and Camille Limoges, 'Controversies as Governing Processes in Technology Assessment', Technology Analysis and Strategic Management, Vol. 3, No. 4 (December 1991), 377-96; Brian Elliott (ed.), Technology and Social Process (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1988).
68. Susan E. Cozzens, 'Editor's Introduction' to Theme Section on 'Funding and Knowledge Growth', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 16, No. 1 (February 1986), 9-21, at 10.
69. Other programmatic works include the following: Alberto Cambrosio, Camille Limoges and Denyse Pronovost, 'Representing Biotechnology: An Ethnography of Quebec Science Policy', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 20, No. 2 (May 1990), 195-227; Thomas Brante, Steve Fuller and William Lynch (eds), Controversial Science: From Content to (Contention (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1993). Among empirical studies the following are particularly relevant to this study: C. Stewart Gillmor, 'Federal Funding and Knowledge Growth in Ionospheric Physics, 1945-81', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 16, No. 1 (February 1986), 105-33; Donald MacKenzie, Inventing Accuracy: A Historical Sociology of Nuclear Missile Guidance (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1990). It is also important to note that there have been many studies of regulatory and science-based government policy, motivated by concerns similar to those expressed by recent programmatic works, among which the following are perhaps the best known: Sheila Jasanoff, Risk Management and Political Culture: A Comparative Study of Science in the Policy Context (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1986); Jasanoff, The Fifth Branch: Science Advisers as Policymakers (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1990); Susan Wright, Molecular Politics: Developing American and British Regulatory Policy for Genetic Engineering, 1972-1982 (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1994).
70. Other programmatic works include the following: Alberto Cambrosio, Camille Limoges and Denyse Pronovost, 'Representing Biotechnology: An Ethnography of Quebec Science Policy', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 20, No. 2 (May 1990), 195-227; Thomas Brante, Steve Fuller and William Lynch (eds), Controversial Science: From Content to (Contention (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1993). Among empirical studies the following are particularly relevant to this study: C. Stewart Gillmor, 'Federal Funding and Knowledge Growth in Ionospheric Physics, 1945-81', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 16, No. 1 (February 1986), 105-33; Donald MacKenzie, Inventing Accuracy: A Historical Sociology of Nuclear Missile Guidance (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1990). It is also important to note that there have been many studies of regulatory and science-based government policy, motivated by concerns similar to those expressed by recent programmatic works, among which the following are perhaps the best known: Sheila Jasanoff, Risk Management and Political Culture: A Comparative Study of Science in the Policy Context (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1986); Jasanoff, The Fifth Branch: Science Advisers as Policymakers (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1990); Susan Wright, Molecular Politics: Developing American and British Regulatory Policy for Genetic Engineering, 1972-1982 (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1994).
71. Other programmatic works include the following: Alberto Cambrosio, Camille Limoges and Denyse Pronovost, 'Representing Biotechnology: An Ethnography of Quebec Science Policy', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 20, No. 2 (May 1990), 195-227; Thomas Brante, Steve Fuller and William Lynch (eds), Controversial Science: From Content to (Contention (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1993). Among empirical studies the following are particularly relevant to this study: C. Stewart Gillmor, 'Federal Funding and Knowledge Growth in Ionospheric Physics, 1945-81', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 16, No. 1 (February 1986), 105-33; Donald MacKenzie, Inventing Accuracy: A Historical Sociology of Nuclear Missile Guidance (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1990). It is also important to note that there have been many studies of regulatory and science-based government policy, motivated by concerns similar to those expressed by recent programmatic works, among which the following are perhaps the best known: Sheila Jasanoff, Risk Management and Political Culture: A Comparative Study of Science in the Policy Context (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1986); Jasanoff, The Fifth Branch: Science Advisers as Policymakers (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1990); Susan Wright, Molecular Politics: Developing American and British Regulatory Policy for Genetic Engineering, 1972-1982 (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1994).
72. Other programmatic works include the following: Alberto Cambrosio, Camille Limoges and Denyse Pronovost, 'Representing Biotechnology: An Ethnography of Quebec Science Policy', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 20, No. 2 (May 1990), 195-227; Thomas Brante, Steve Fuller and William Lynch (eds), Controversial Science: From Content to (Contention (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1993). Among empirical studies the following are particularly relevant to this study: C. Stewart Gillmor, 'Federal Funding and Knowledge Growth in Ionospheric Physics, 1945-81', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 16, No. 1 (February 1986), 105-33; Donald MacKenzie, Inventing Accuracy: A Historical Sociology of Nuclear Missile Guidance (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1990). It is also important to note that there have been many studies of regulatory and science-based government policy, motivated by concerns similar to those expressed by recent programmatic works, among which the following are perhaps the best known: Sheila Jasanoff, Risk Management and Political Culture: A Comparative Study of Science in the Policy Context (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1986); Jasanoff, The Fifth Branch: Science Advisers as Policymakers (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1990); Susan Wright, Molecular Politics: Developing American and British Regulatory Policy for Genetic Engineering, 1972-1982 (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1994).
73. Other programmatic works include the following: Alberto Cambrosio, Camille Limoges and Denyse Pronovost, 'Representing Biotechnology: An Ethnography of Quebec Science Policy', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 20, No. 2 (May 1990), 195-227; Thomas Brante, Steve Fuller and William Lynch (eds), Controversial Science: From Content to (Contention (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1993). Among empirical studies the following are particularly relevant to this study: C. Stewart Gillmor, 'Federal Funding and Knowledge Growth in Ionospheric Physics, 1945-81', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 16, No. 1 (February 1986), 105-33; Donald MacKenzie, Inventing Accuracy: A Historical Sociology of Nuclear Missile Guidance (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1990). It is also important to note that there have been many studies of regulatory and science-based government policy, motivated by concerns similar to those expressed by recent programmatic works, among which the following are perhaps the best known: Sheila Jasanoff, Risk Management and Political Culture: A Comparative Study of Science in the Policy Context (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1986); Jasanoff, The Fifth Branch: Science Advisers as Policymakers (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1990); Susan Wright, Molecular Politics: Developing American and British Regulatory Policy for Genetic Engineering, 1972-1982 (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1994).
74. Other programmatic works include the following: Alberto Cambrosio, Camille Limoges and Denyse Pronovost, 'Representing Biotechnology: An Ethnography of Quebec Science Policy', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 20, No. 2 (May 1990), 195-227; Thomas Brante, Steve Fuller and William Lynch (eds), Controversial Science: From Content to (Contention (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1993). Among empirical studies the following are particularly relevant to this study: C. Stewart Gillmor, 'Federal Funding and Knowledge Growth in Ionospheric Physics, 1945-81', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 16, No. 1 (February 1986), 105-33; Donald MacKenzie, Inventing Accuracy: A Historical Sociology of Nuclear Missile Guidance (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1990). It is also important to note that there have been many studies of regulatory and science-based government policy, motivated by concerns similar to those expressed by recent programmatic works, among which the following are perhaps the best known: Sheila Jasanoff, Risk Management and Political Culture: A Comparative Study of Science in the Policy Context (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1986); Jasanoff, The Fifth Branch: Science Advisers as Policymakers (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1990); Susan Wright, Molecular Politics: Developing American and British Regulatory Policy for Genetic Engineering, 1972-1982 (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1994).
75. Other programmatic works include the following: Alberto Cambrosio, Camille Limoges and Denyse Pronovost, 'Representing Biotechnology: An Ethnography of Quebec Science Policy', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 20, No. 2 (May 1990), 195-227; Thomas Brante, Steve Fuller and William Lynch (eds), Controversial Science: From Content to (Contention (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1993). Among empirical studies the following are particularly relevant to this study: C. Stewart Gillmor, 'Federal Funding and Knowledge Growth in Ionospheric Physics, 1945-81', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 16, No. 1 (February 1986), 105-33; Donald MacKenzie, Inventing Accuracy: A Historical Sociology of Nuclear Missile Guidance (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1990). It is also important to note that there have been many studies of regulatory and science-based government policy, motivated by concerns similar to those expressed by recent programmatic works, among which the following are perhaps the best known: Sheila Jasanoff, Risk Management and Political Culture: A Comparative Study of Science in the Policy Context (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1986); Jasanoff, The Fifth Branch: Science Advisers as Policymakers (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1990); Susan Wright, Molecular Politics: Developing American and British Regulatory Policy for Genetic Engineering, 1972-1982 (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1994).
76. These accounts are echoed in print. Examples of publications reproducing such hearsay include: Crevier, op. cit. note 3, 105-07; McCorduck, op. cit. note 3, passim; DARPA Neural Network Study (US), DARPA Neural Network Study: October 1987-February 1988 (Fairfax, VA: AFCEA International Press, 1988); R. Colin Johnson and Chappell Brown, Cognizers: Neural Networks and Machines That Think (New York: Wiley, 1988); Philip D. Wasserman, Neural Computing: Theory and Practice (New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1989); Hubert L. Dreyfus and Stuart E. Dreyfus, 'Making a Mind Versus Modelling the Brain: Artificial Intelligence Back at the Branchpoint', Daedalus, Vol. 117, No. 1 (Winter 1988), 15-43, reprinted (with the same pagination) in Stephen R. Graubard (ed.), The Artificial Intelligence Debate (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1988), and also republished in Massimo Negrotti (ed.), Understanding the Artificial: On the Future Shape of Artificial Intelligence (London: Springer-Verlag, 1991), 33-54; Robert Hecht-Nielsen, Neurocomputing (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1990).
77. These accounts are echoed in print. Examples of publications reproducing
78. These accounts are echoed in print. Examples of publications reproducing such hearsay include: Crevier, op. cit. note 3, 105-07; McCorduck, op. cit. note 3, passim; DARPA Neural Network Study (US), DARPA Neural Network Study: October 1987-February 1988 (Fairfax, VA: AFCEA International Press, 1988); R. Colin Johnson and Chappell Brown, Cognizers: Neural Networks and Machines That Think (New York: Wiley, 1988); Philip D. Wasserman, Neural Computing: Theory and Practice (New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1989); Hubert L. Dreyfus and Stuart E. Dreyfus, 'Making a Mind Versus Modelling the Brain: Artificial Intelligence Back at the Branchpoint', Daedalus, Vol. 117, No. 1 (Winter 1988), 15-43, reprinted (with the same pagination) in Stephen R. Graubard (ed.), The Artificial Intelligence Debate (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1988), and also republished in Massimo Negrotti (ed.), Understanding the Artificial: On the Future Shape of Artificial Intelligence (London: Springer-Verlag, 1991), 33-54; Robert Hecht-Nielsen, Neurocomputing (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1990).
79. These accounts are echoed in print. Examples of publications reproducing such hearsay include: Crevier, op. cit. note 3, 105-07; McCorduck, op. cit. note 3, passim; DARPA Neural Network Study (US), DARPA Neural Network Study: October 1987-February 1988 (Fairfax, VA: AFCEA International Press, 1988); R. Colin Johnson and Chappell Brown, Cognizers: Neural Networks and Machines That Think (New York: Wiley, 1988); Philip D. Wasserman, Neural Computing: Theory and Practice (New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1989); Hubert L. Dreyfus and Stuart E. Dreyfus, 'Making a Mind Versus Modelling the Brain: Artificial Intelligence Back at the Branchpoint', Daedalus, Vol. 117, No. 1 (Winter 1988), 15-43, reprinted (with the same pagination) in Stephen R. Graubard (ed.), The Artificial Intelligence Debate (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1988), and also republished in Massimo Negrotti (ed.), Understanding the Artificial: On the Future Shape of Artificial Intelligence (London: Springer-Verlag, 1991), 33-54; Robert Hecht-Nielsen, Neurocomputing (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1990).
80. These accounts are echoed in print. Examples of publications reproducing such hearsay include: Crevier, op. cit. note 3, 105-07; McCorduck, op. cit. note 3, passim; DARPA Neural Network Study (US), DARPA Neural Network Study: October 1987-February 1988 (Fairfax, VA: AFCEA International Press, 1988); R. Colin Johnson and Chappell Brown, Cognizers: Neural Networks and Machines That Think (New York: Wiley, 1988); Philip D. Wasserman, Neural Computing: Theory and Practice (New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1989); Hubert L. Dreyfus and Stuart E. Dreyfus, 'Making a Mind Versus Modelling the Brain: Artificial Intelligence Back at the Branchpoint', Daedalus, Vol. 117, No. 1 (Winter 1988), 15-43, reprinted (with the same pagination) in Stephen R. Graubard (ed.), The Artificial Intelligence Debate (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1988), and also republished in Massimo Negrotti (ed.), Understanding the Artificial: On the Future Shape of Artificial Intelligence (London: Springer-Verlag, 1991), 33-54; Robert Hecht-Nielsen, Neurocomputing (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1990).
81. These accounts are echoed in print. Examples of publications reproducing such hearsay include: Crevier, op. cit. note 3, 105-07; McCorduck, op. cit. note 3, passim; DARPA Neural Network Study (US), DARPA Neural Network Study: October 1987-February 1988 (Fairfax, VA: AFCEA International Press, 1988); R. Colin Johnson and Chappell Brown, Cognizers: Neural Networks and Machines That Think (New York: Wiley, 1988); Philip D. Wasserman, Neural Computing: Theory and Practice (New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1989); Hubert L. Dreyfus and Stuart E. Dreyfus, 'Making a Mind Versus Modelling the Brain: Artificial Intelligence Back at the Branchpoint', Daedalus, Vol. 117, No. 1 (Winter 1988), 15-43, reprinted (with the same pagination) in Stephen R. Graubard (ed.), The Artificial Intelligence Debate (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1988), and also republished in Massimo Negrotti (ed.), Understanding the Artificial: On the Future Shape of Artificial Intelligence (London: Springer-Verlag, 1991), 33-54; Robert Hecht-Nielsen, Neurocomputing (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1990).
82. These accounts are echoed in print. Examples of publications reproducing such hearsay include: Crevier, op. cit. note 3, 105-07; McCorduck, op. cit. note 3, passim; DARPA Neural Network Study (US), DARPA Neural Network Study: October 1987-February 1988 (Fairfax, VA: AFCEA International Press, 1988); R. Colin Johnson and Chappell Brown, Cognizers: Neural Networks and Machines That Think (New York: Wiley, 1988); Philip D. Wasserman, Neural Computing: Theory and Practice (New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1989); Hubert L. Dreyfus and Stuart E. Dreyfus, 'Making a Mind Versus Modelling the Brain: Artificial Intelligence Back at the Branchpoint', Daedalus, Vol. 117, No. 1 (Winter 1988), 15-43, reprinted (with the same pagination) in Stephen R. Graubard (ed.), The Artificial Intelligence Debate (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1988), and also republished in Massimo Negrotti (ed.), Understanding the Artificial: On the Future Shape of Artificial Intelligence (London: Springer-Verlag, 1991), 33-54; Robert Hecht-Nielsen, Neurocomputing (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1990).
83. Seymour A. Papert, 'One AI or Many?', in Graubard (ed.), op. cit. note 17, 1-14, at 3.
84. Marvin L. Minsky and Seymour A. Papert, Perceptrons: An Introduction to Computational Geometry (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1988 [1960]).
85. Among works cited in note 18, those especially salient on the point of funding are by Dreyfus & Dreyfus, DARPA Neural Network Study, and Hecht-Neilsen.
86. Minsky & Papert, op. cit. note 19, passim. 22. Papert, op. cit. note 18, 7.
87. Papert, op. cit. note 18, 3-4. Papert writes 'Lord DARPA', using the agency's acronym from 1972 to 1993, when its name was the 'Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency'. The name of the agency, from its inception in 1958 until 1972, which includes the period of this paper, did not include the word 'Defense', and thus it is historically accurate for this account to refer to the agency as 'ARPA'.
88. Olazaran, op. cit. note 3.
89. See note 3.
90. Kenneth Flamm, Creating the Computer: Government, Industry, and High Technology (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1988).
91. Fleck, op.cit. note 3, 169-217.
92. Arthur L. Norberg and Judy E. O'Neill, with Kerry J. Freedman, A History of the Information Processing Techniques Office of the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (Minneapolis, MN: Charles Babbage Insitute, University of Minnesota, 1992).
93. Edwards, op. cit. note 2. Other works with related concerns include the following: Donna Haraway, 'The High Cost of Information in Post-World War II Evolutionary Biology', Philosophical Forum, Vol. 13, Nos 2/3 (1981-82), 244-78; P.N. Edwards, 'A History of Computers and Weapons Systems', in David Bellin and Gary Chapman (eds), Computers in Battle, Will They Work? (Boston, MA: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1987), 45-60; Chris H. Gray, Computers as Weapons and Metaphors: The US Military 1940-1990 and Postmodern War (unpublished PhD dissertation, University of California, Santa Cruz, 1991).
94. Edwards, op. cit. note 2. Other works with related concerns include the following: Donna Haraway, 'The High Cost of Information in Post-World War II Evolutionary Biology', Philosophical Forum, Vol. 13, Nos 2/3 (1981-82), 244-78; P.N. Edwards, 'A History of Computers and Weapons Systems', in David Bellin and Gary Chapman (eds), Computers in Battle, Will They Work? (Boston, MA: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1987), 45-60; Chris H. Gray, Computers as Weapons and Metaphors: The US Military 1940-1990 and Postmodern War (unpublished PhD dissertation, University of California, Santa Cruz, 1991).
95. Edwards, op. cit. note 2. Other works with related concerns include the following: Donna Haraway, 'The High Cost of Information in Post-World War II Evolutionary Biology', Philosophical Forum, Vol. 13, Nos 2/3 (1981-82), 244-78; P.N. Edwards, 'A History of Computers and Weapons Systems', in David Bellin and Gary Chapman (eds), Computers in Battle, Will They Work? (Boston, MA: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1987), 45-60; Chris H. Gray, Computers as Weapons and Metaphors: The US Military 1940-1990 and Postmodern War (unpublished PhD dissertation, University of California, Santa Cruz, 1991).
96. See, for example, Marvin Minsky, 'Logical vs Analogical or Symbolic vs Connectionist or Neat vs Scruffy', in Patrick Henry Winston (ed.), with Sara Alexandra Shellard, Artificial Intelligence at MIT: Expanding Frontiers (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1990), 219-69.
97. There are many admixtures and ironies in the history of computing before 1960, such as the fact that John von Neumann, the putative father of the architecture of the standard programmable digital computer, had an active interest in brain models of information processing: see J. von Neumann, The Computer and the Brain (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1958);
98. William Aspray, John von Neumann and the Origins of Modern Computing (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1990).
99. Von Neumann's lectures on computing and the brain were later cited by Rosenblatt: Frank Rosenblatt, Two Theorems of Statistical Separability in the Perceptron (Buffalo, NY: Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory, Inc., VG-1196-G-2, 1958) . For an in-depth discussion relevant to the perceptrons controversy, see Olazaran (1991), op. cit. note 3.
100. Fleck, op. cit. note 3, 178.
101. Ibid.
102. See, for example, John Haugeland, Artificial Intelligence: The Very Idea (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1985).
103. Unless otherwise noted, cost figures are presented in current dollars. Grant information is extracted from the following: F. Rosenblatt, unpublished documents: 'Proposal to the Office of Naval Research for Continuation of the Cognitive Systems Research Program, 1961-1962' (Cornell University, 1960 [n.d.]); 'Proposal to the Office of Naval Research for Continuation of the Cognitive Systems Research Program, 1963-1964' (Cornell University, 1962 [n.d.]); 'Proposal to the Office of Naval Research for Continuation of the Cognitive Systems Research Program, 1966-1967' (Cornell University, 1965 [n.d.]). Copies of these documents granted to the author by Dr George Nagy. On ONR's role in funding early neural net research, see: Olazaran (1991), op. cit. note 3; Thomas McKenna, 'A Brief History of Neural Nets at ONR' (unpublished report, US Office of Naval Research, 1993). The following are relevant general sources: Mina Rees, 'The Computing Program of the Office of Naval Research, 1946-1953', Annals of the History of Computing, Vol. 4, No. 2 (1982), 102-20; David K. Allison, 'US Navy Research and Development Since World War II', in Merritt Roe Smith (ed.), Military Enterprise and Technological Change: Perspectives on the American Experience (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1985), 289-328; James W. Cortada, 'Office of Naval Research (ONR)', in Cortada (ed.), Historical Dictionary of Data Processing - Organizations (New York: Greenwood Press, 1987), 215-17; Harvey M. Sapolsky, Science and the Navy: The History of the Office of Naval Research (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1990).
104. Unless otherwise noted, cost figures are presented in current dollars. Grant information is extracted from the following: F. Rosenblatt, unpublished documents: 'Proposal to the Office of Naval Research for Continuation of the Cognitive Systems Research Program, 1961-1962' (Cornell University, 1960 [n.d.]); 'Proposal to the Office of Naval Research for Continuation of the Cognitive Systems Research Program, 1963-1964' (Cornell University, 1962 [n.d.]); 'Proposal to the Office of Naval Research for Continuation of the Cognitive Systems Research Program, 1966-1967' (Cornell University, 1965 [n.d.]). Copies of these documents granted to the author by Dr George Nagy. On ONR's role in funding early neural net research, see: Olazaran (1991), op. cit. note 3; Thomas McKenna, 'A Brief History of Neural Nets at ONR' (unpublished report, US Office of Naval Research, 1993). The following are relevant general sources: Mina Rees, 'The Computing Program of the Office of Naval Research, 1946-1953', Annals of the History of Computing, Vol. 4, No. 2 (1982), 102-20; David K. Allison, 'US Navy Research and Development Since World War II', in Merritt Roe Smith (ed.), Military Enterprise and Technological Change: Perspectives on the American Experience (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1985), 289-328; James W. Cortada, 'Office of Naval Research (ONR)', in Cortada (ed.), Historical Dictionary of Data Processing - Organizations (New York: Greenwood Press, 1987), 215-17; Harvey M. Sapolsky, Science and the Navy: The History of the Office of Naval Research (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1990).
105. Unless otherwise noted, cost figures are presented in current dollars. Grant information is extracted from the following: F. Rosenblatt, unpublished documents: 'Proposal to the Office of Naval Research for Continuation of the Cognitive Systems Research Program, 1961-1962' (Cornell University, 1960 [n.d.]); 'Proposal to the Office of Naval Research for Continuation of the Cognitive Systems Research Program, 1963-1964' (Cornell University, 1962 [n.d.]); 'Proposal to the Office of Naval Research for Continuation of the Cognitive Systems Research Program, 1966-1967' (Cornell University, 1965 [n.d.]). Copies of these documents granted to the author by Dr George Nagy. On ONR's role in funding early neural net research, see: Olazaran (1991), op. cit. note 3; Thomas McKenna, 'A Brief History of Neural Nets at ONR' (unpublished report, US Office of Naval Research, 1993). The following are relevant general sources: Mina Rees, 'The Computing Program of the Office of Naval Research, 1946-1953', Annals of the History of Computing, Vol. 4, No. 2 (1982), 102-20; David K. Allison, 'US Navy Research and Development Since World War II', in Merritt Roe Smith (ed.), Military Enterprise and Technological Change: Perspectives on the American Experience (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1985), 289-328; James W. Cortada, 'Office of Naval Research (ONR)', in Cortada (ed.), Historical Dictionary of Data Processing - Organizations (New York: Greenwood Press, 1987), 215-17; Harvey M. Sapolsky, Science and the Navy: The History of the Office of Naval Research (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1990).
106. Unless otherwise noted, cost figures are presented in current dollars. Grant information is extracted from the following: F. Rosenblatt, unpublished documents: 'Proposal to the Office of Naval Research for Continuation of the Cognitive Systems Research Program, 1961-1962' (Cornell University, 1960 [n.d.]); 'Proposal to the Office of Naval Research for Continuation of the Cognitive Systems Research Program, 1963-1964' (Cornell University, 1962 [n.d.]); 'Proposal to the Office of Naval Research for Continuation of the Cognitive Systems Research Program, 1966-1967' (Cornell University, 1965 [n.d.]). Copies of these documents granted to the author by Dr George Nagy. On ONR's role in funding early neural net research, see: Olazaran (1991), op. cit. note 3; Thomas McKenna, 'A Brief History of Neural Nets at ONR' (unpublished report, US Office of Naval Research, 1993). The following are relevant general sources: Mina Rees, 'The Computing Program of the Office of Naval Research, 1946-1953', Annals of the History of Computing, Vol. 4, No. 2 (1982), 102-20; David K. Allison, 'US Navy Research and Development Since World War II', in Merritt Roe Smith (ed.), Military Enterprise and Technological Change: Perspectives on the American Experience (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1985), 289-328; James W. Cortada, 'Office of Naval Research (ONR)', in Cortada (ed.), Historical Dictionary of Data Processing - Organizations (New York: Greenwood Press, 1987), 215-17; Harvey M. Sapolsky, Science and the Navy: The History of the Office of Naval Research (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1990).
107. Unless otherwise noted, cost figures are presented in current dollars. Grant information is extracted from the following: F. Rosenblatt, unpublished documents: 'Proposal to the Office of Naval Research for Continuation of the Cognitive Systems Research Program, 1961-1962' (Cornell University, 1960 [n.d.]); 'Proposal to the Office of Naval Research for Continuation of the Cognitive Systems Research Program, 1963-1964' (Cornell University, 1962 [n.d.]); 'Proposal to the Office of Naval Research for Continuation of the Cognitive Systems Research Program, 1966-1967' (Cornell University, 1965 [n.d.]). Copies of these documents granted to the author by Dr George Nagy. On ONR's role in funding early neural net research, see: Olazaran (1991), op. cit. note 3; Thomas McKenna, 'A Brief History of Neural Nets at ONR' (unpublished report, US Office of Naval Research, 1993). The following are relevant general sources: Mina Rees, 'The Computing Program of the Office of Naval Research, 1946-1953', Annals of the History of Computing, Vol. 4, No. 2 (1982), 102-20; David K. Allison, 'US Navy Research and Development Since World War II', in Merritt Roe Smith (ed.), Military Enterprise and Technological Change: Perspectives on the American Experience (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1985), 289-328; James W. Cortada, 'Office of Naval Research (ONR)', in Cortada (ed.), Historical Dictionary of Data Processing - Organizations (New York: Greenwood Press, 1987), 215-17; Harvey M. Sapolsky, Science and the Navy: The History of the Office of Naval Research (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1990).
108. Unless otherwise noted, cost figures are presented in current dollars. Grant information is extracted from the following: F. Rosenblatt, unpublished documents: 'Proposal to the Office of Naval Research for Continuation of the Cognitive Systems Research Program, 1961-1962' (Cornell University, 1960 [n.d.]); 'Proposal to the Office of Naval Research for Continuation of the Cognitive Systems Research Program, 1963-1964' (Cornell University, 1962 [n.d.]); 'Proposal to the Office of Naval Research for Continuation of the Cognitive Systems Research Program, 1966-1967' (Cornell University, 1965 [n.d.]). Copies of these documents granted to the author by Dr George Nagy. On ONR's role in funding early neural net research, see: Olazaran (1991), op. cit. note 3; Thomas McKenna, 'A Brief History of Neural Nets at ONR' (unpublished report, US Office of Naval Research, 1993). The following are relevant general sources: Mina Rees, 'The Computing Program of the Office of Naval Research, 1946-1953', Annals of the History of Computing, Vol. 4, No. 2 (1982), 102-20; David K. Allison, 'US Navy Research and Development Since World War II', in Merritt Roe Smith (ed.), Military Enterprise and Technological Change: Perspectives on the American Experience (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1985), 289-328; James W. Cortada, 'Office of Naval Research (ONR)', in Cortada (ed.), Historical Dictionary of Data Processing - Organizations (New York: Greenwood Press, 1987), 215-17; Harvey M. Sapolsky, Science and the Navy: The History of the Office of Naval Research (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1990).
109. Unless otherwise noted, cost figures are presented in current dollars. Grant information is extracted from the following: F. Rosenblatt, unpublished documents: 'Proposal to the Office of Naval Research for Continuation of the Cognitive Systems Research Program, 1961-1962' (Cornell University, 1960 [n.d.]); 'Proposal to the Office of Naval Research for Continuation of the Cognitive Systems Research Program, 1963-1964' (Cornell University, 1962 [n.d.]); 'Proposal to the Office of Naval Research for Continuation of the Cognitive Systems Research Program, 1966-1967' (Cornell University, 1965 [n.d.]). Copies of these documents granted to the author by Dr George Nagy. On ONR's role in funding early neural net research, see: Olazaran (1991), op. cit. note 3; Thomas McKenna, 'A Brief History of Neural Nets at ONR' (unpublished report, US Office of Naval Research, 1993). The following are relevant general sources: Mina Rees, 'The Computing Program of the Office of Naval Research, 1946-1953', Annals of the History of Computing, Vol. 4, No. 2 (1982), 102-20; David K. Allison, 'US Navy Research and Development Since World War II', in Merritt Roe Smith (ed.), Military Enterprise and Technological Change: Perspectives on the American Experience (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1985), 289-328; James W. Cortada, 'Office of Naval Research (ONR)', in Cortada (ed.), Historical Dictionary of Data Processing - Organizations (New York: Greenwood Press, 1987), 215-17; Harvey M. Sapolsky, Science and the Navy: The History of the Office of Naval Research (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1990).
110. Unless otherwise noted, cost figures are presented in current dollars. Grant information is extracted from the following: F. Rosenblatt, unpublished documents: 'Proposal to the Office of Naval Research for Continuation of the Cognitive Systems Research Program, 1961-1962' (Cornell University, 1960 [n.d.]); 'Proposal to the Office of Naval Research for Continuation of the Cognitive Systems Research Program, 1963-1964' (Cornell University, 1962 [n.d.]); 'Proposal to the Office of Naval Research for Continuation of the Cognitive Systems Research Program, 1966-1967' (Cornell University, 1965 [n.d.]). Copies of these documents granted to the author by Dr George Nagy. On ONR's role in funding early neural net research, see: Olazaran (1991), op. cit. note 3; Thomas McKenna, 'A Brief History of Neural Nets at ONR' (unpublished report, US Office of Naval Research, 1993). The following are relevant general sources: Mina Rees, 'The Computing Program of the Office of Naval Research, 1946-1953', Annals of the History of Computing, Vol. 4, No. 2 (1982), 102-20; David K. Allison, 'US Navy Research and Development Since World War II', in Merritt Roe Smith (ed.), Military Enterprise and Technological Change: Perspectives on the American Experience (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1985), 289-328; James W. Cortada, 'Office of Naval Research (ONR)', in Cortada (ed.), Historical Dictionary of Data Processing - Organizations (New York: Greenwood Press, 1987), 215-17; Harvey M. Sapolsky, Science and the Navy: The History of the Office of Naval Research (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1990).
111. Marshall C. Yovits, 'Preface', in Yovits and Scott Cameron (eds), Self-Organizing Systems: Proceedings of an Interdisciplinary Conference, 5 and 6 May, 1959 (London: Pergamon Press, 1960), v-viii, at v. 'All of the papers presented at the Conference are included in these Proceedings in the order presented . . . with the exception of the paper entitled "Progress on the Advice Taker" by Dr Marvin Minsky . . .' (ibid., vii).
112. Marshall C. Yovits, 'Preface', in Yovits and Scott Cameron (eds), Self-Organizing Systems: Proceedings of an Interdisciplinary Conference, 5 and 6 May, 1959 (London: Pergamon Press, 1960), v-viii, at v. 'All of the papers presented at the Conference are included in these Proceedings in the order presented . . . with the exception of the paper entitled "Progress on the Advice Taker" by Dr Marvin Minsky . . .' (ibid., vii).
113. Olazaran (1991), op. cit. note 3, 73-85.
114. Rosenblatt, op. cit. note 31, 2.
115. George Nagy, 'Neural Networks - Then and Now', IEEE Transactions on Neural Networks, Vol. 2, No. 2 (March 1991), 316-18; F. Rosenblatt, Principles of Neurodynamics (Washington, DC: Spartan Books, 1961).
116. George Nagy, 'Neural Networks - Then and Now', IEEE Transactions on Neural Networks, Vol. 2, No. 2 (March 1991), 316-18; F. Rosenblatt, Principles of Neurodynamics (Washington, DC: Spartan Books, 1961).
117. This was the Perceptron Mark I: New York Times (8 July 1958), 25:2, quoted in Olazaran (1996), op. cit. note 3, 621.
118. Charles Rosen (telephone interview with author, 6 August 1993).
119. Nils Nilsson (telephone interview with author, 14 September 1993).
120. Minsky & Papert, op. cit. note 19, 19.
121. Jeremy Bernstein, 'Profiles: AI (Interview with Marvin Minsky)', New Yorker (14 December 1981), 50-126.
122. The criticisms made by Minsky and Papert took a number of forms: see Minsky & Papert, op. cit. note 19, 239. For instance, there were many conference paper versions of parts of the book (see, for example, ibid., 242), and Minsky taught graduate courses on the subject (M. Minsky, interview with author, 23 August 1993).
123. Papert explains this sort of rhetoric by arguing that there has been a culture in AI and cognitive science of seeking universal mechanisms of cognition, and that this culture is in turn partly a strategic response to an institutional environment, particularly in government sponsorship, which seeks general solutions: Papert, op. cit. note 18.
124. See, for example, Jack D. Cowan, 'Neural Networks: The Early Days', in David S. Touretzky (ed.), Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems, Vol. 2 (San Mateo, CA: Morgan Kaufmann, 1990), 143-68.
125. Minsky & Papert, op. cit. note 19, 4. In other words, one of the key characteristics of Minsky and Papert's critique was its tactical deployment of specificity and generality.
126. Ibid., 73.
127. Olazaran (1991), op. cit. note 3, 158-60.
128. Minsky & Papert, op. cit. note 19, 136-39.
129. Marvin L. Minsky, 'Steps Toward Artificial Intelligence', Proceedings of the IRE, Vol. 49 (1961), 8-30, at 8.
130. My interpretation of Minsky's work has been greatly helped by personal exchanges with Robert H. Baran, and by access to Baran's 'Artificial Intelligence and Rosenblatt's Idea' (unpublished manuscript in electronic format, 1993).
131. Specifically, a single-layer, feedforward network with important constraints. Minsky and Papert note that their investigation, while pointing out that training is an important problem in such networks, stops short of a full discussion. Nevertheless, Minsky and Papert put the burden of proof on neural-net researchers to upset their strong doubts about the potential of multilayer nets (centring on the problem of training): 'we consider it an important research problem to elucidate (or reject) our intuitive judgement that the extension [to multiple layers] is sterile': Minsky & Papert, op. cit. note 19, 232.
132. Nagy, op. cit. note 39.
133. Olazaran (1991), op. cit. note 3, 160-65.
134. See, for example: Terrence J. Sejnowski and Halbert White, 'Introduction', in Sejnowski and White (eds), The Mathematical Foundations of Learning Machines (San Mateo, CA: Morgan Kaufmann, 1990), vii-xxi; Cowan, op. cit. note 47; Papert, op. cit. note 18.
135. For instance, Rosenblatt's research group ran simulations of neural network models on IBM 7090/94 systems: see Nagy, op. cit note 39, 317.
136. The Mark I Perceptron was the largest example of this sort of design, which featured an array of photosensitive cells for visual input connected by a tangle of plug boards wired 'at random' by hand to over 500 stepping motors governing potentiometers: see John C. Hay and Albert E. Murray, Mark I Perceptron Operator's Manual (Project PARA) (Buffalo, NY: Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory, Inc., Report VG-1196-G-5, 1960);
137. Hay and Charles W. Wightman, 'The Mark I Perceptron', Research Trends (Buffalo, NY: Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory, Inc., Spring 1960), 1-5.
138. Record-keeping and archive maintenance in the relevant office was spotty at best during the period under examination: see Norberg & O'Neill, op. cit. note 28, 11. For the following account, the transcripts of interviews conducted by the staff of the Charles Babbage Institute for the study by Norberg and O'Neill were consulted, and archives at Carnegie-Mellon and Cornell Universities, the Cornell Aeronautics Laboratory and MIT were explored. In addition, consultations with many experts were helpful in identifying unproductive avenues of research, as well as sources of information reflected in the references cited. Important consultations which are not reflected in the works and interviews cited below were held with the following individuals: John Holland, George Nagy, Arthur L. Norberg, Richard D. O'Brien and Severo Ornstein.
139. An argument for practical complementarities between AI work and particular approaches to computing is made in a similar way by Edwards, op. cit. note 2, Chapter 8.
140. Richard H. van Atta, Seymour J. Deitchman and Sidney G. Reed, DARPA Technical Accomplishments, Volume III: An Overall Perspective and Assessment of the Technical Accomplishments of the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency: 1958-1990 (Washington, DC: Institute for Defense Analyses, IDA Paper P-2538, 1991), 1; Barber Associates, The Advanced Research Projects Agency, 1958-1974 (Washington, DC: Richard J. Barber Associates, Inc., AD-A154 363, Defense Technical Information Center, 1975).
141. Richard H. van Atta, Seymour J. Deitchman and Sidney G. Reed, DARPA Technical Accomplishments, Volume III: An Overall Perspective and Assessment of the Technical Accomplishments of the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency: 1958-1990 (Washington, DC: Institute for Defense Analyses, IDA Paper P-2538, 1991), 1; Barber Associates, The Advanced Research Projects Agency, 1958-1974 (Washington, DC: Richard J. Barber Associates, Inc., AD-A154 363, Defense Technical Information Center, 1975).
142. Norberg & O'Neill, op. cit. note 28, 35. The report citation is as follows: 'F.H. Tyaack, "Progress Report: Survey of the Information Sciences", IDA-IM-198, 23 May 1960, contract No. SD-50, RG 330-74-107, Box 1, Folder: unspecified, NARA [National Archives and Records Administration]'.
143. Norberg & O'Neill, op. cit. note 28, 5.
144. J.C.R. Licklider, in a series of interviews compiled and edited by Robert S. Engelmore, 'AI Development: DARPA and ONR Viewpoints', in Bartee (ed.), op. cit. note 3, 213-90, at 220.
145. Norberg & O'Neill, op. cit. note 28, 24; J.C.R. Licklider, 'Man-Computer Symbiosis', IRE Transactions on Human Factors in Electronics, HFE-1, Vol. 1 (March 1960), 4-11. Licklider's paper was widely cited in the years following its publication: see Edwards, op. cit. note 2, 283.
146. Norberg & O'Neill, op. cit. note 28, 24. An overview of the MIT research complex is presented in: Henry Etzkowitz, 'The Making of an Entrepreneurial University: The Traffic Among MIT, Industry and the Military, 1860-1960', in Everett Mendelsohn, Merritt R. Smith and Peter Weingart (eds), Science, Technology and the Military, Sociology of the Sciences Yearbook, No. 13 (Dordrecht: Kluwer, 1988), 515-40.
147. Norberg & O'Neill, op. cit. note 28, 105-14; Robert W. Taylor, An Interview with Robert W. Taylor, interview conducted by W. Aspray, 28 February 1989, transcript in electronic format (Minneapolis, MN: Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, 1989).
148. Based on a chart, 'IPTO Program Areas and Specific Emphases', Norberg & O'Neill, op. cit. note 28, 49.
149. The IPTO office staff consisted mainly of the director, a secretary and a military officer assistant. Each director also had the assistance of his successor a few months before the official transfer of power. In 1967, Taylor began to assign the supervision of some programmes to programme managers.
150. Licklider, interviewed in Engelmore, op. cit. note 65, 216.
151. Marvin Denicoff, interviewed in Engelmore, op. cit. note 65, 276-77.
152. J.C.R. Licklider, An Interview with J.C.R. Licklider, interview conducted by W. Aspray and A.L. Norberg, 28 October 1988, transcript in electronic format (Minneapolis, MN: Charles Babbage Insitute, University of Minnesota, 1988).
153. Licklider, interviewed in Engelmore, op. cit. note 65, 220.
154. Joel S. Yudken and Barbara Simons, A Field in Transition: Current Trends and Issuer in Academic Computer Science (Stanford, CA: Project on Funding Policy in Computer Science, Final Report, 1989), 9.
155. Norberg & O'Neill, op. cit. note 28, 93.
156. However, AI did not appear as a line item on budgets until 1968. Instead, AI work was officially supported in conjunction with basic and applied research under other categories: see R.H. van Atta, S.G. Reed and S.J. Deitchman, DARPA Technical Accomplishments: An Historical Review of Selected DARPA Projects (Washington, DC: Institute for Defense Analyses, IDA Paper P-2192, 1990), 21-4 and 21-5.
157. The lower and upper bounds of this range are represented respectively by Fleck, op. cit. note 3, 180, and Norberg & O'Neill, op. cit. note 28, 303.
158. This expression is used figuratively by Flamm in the title of his book, op. cit. note 26. It is used literally, to all appearances, in some newspaper articles, and in Manuel De Landa, War in the Age of Intelligent Machines (New York: Zone Books, 1991), passim.
159. Norberg & O'Neill, op. cit. note 28, 299.
160. J.C.R. Licklider, quoted in Norberg & O'Neill, op. cit. note 28, 102.
161. Robert W. Taylor, interview with the author (5 October 1993).
162. Karl Wildes, A Century of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science at MIT, 1882-1982 (Cambridge, MA: MIT, 1985), 344.
163. Ibid., 345
164. Licklider, interviewed by Engelman, op. cit. note 65, 220.
165. Crevier, op. cit. note 3, 65.
166. Wildes, op. cit. note 83, 347. In 1968, Licklider succeeded Fano as director of the centre: ibid., 351.
167. Ibid., 348. See also Jan Hurst, Michael S. Mahoney, John T. Gilmore, Lawrence G. Roberts and Robin Forrest, 'The Early Years in Computer Graphics at MIT, Lincoln Lab and Harvard', Computer Graphics, Vol. 23, No. 4 (December 1989), 39-73.
168. Norberg & O'Neill, op. cit. note 28, 44-47; McCorduck, op. cit. note 3, 247. Funding was for student salaries and for computing time: Crevier, op. cit. note 3, 65.
169. John McCarthy, quoted in Edwards, op. cit. note 2, Chapter 8, 258.
170. Minsky & Papert, op. cit. note 19, 246.
171. Norberg & O'Neill, op. cit. note 28, 111.
172. J.C.R. Licklider, 'Artificial Intelligence, Military Intelligence, and Command and Control', in Edward Bennett, James Degan and Joseph Spiegel (eds), Military Information Systems: The Design of Computer-Aided Systems for Command (New York: Praeger, for the MITRE Corporation, 1964), 118-22, at 120.
173. J.C.R. Licklider, 'Interactive Information Processing', in Julius T. Tou (ed.), Computer and Information Sciences, Vol. 2 (New York: Academic Press, 1967), 1-14, at 4.
174. Exemplary projects represent many of the IPTO-sponsored researchers, including John McCarthy and Marvin Minsky for graphic display and typewriter text input programs: ibid., 10.
175. Marvin Denicoff, quoted in Olazaran (1991), op. cit. note 3, 171. This is corroborated by several sources, particularly: Edward Feigenbaum, An Interview with Edward Feigenbaum, interview conducted by W. Aspray, 3 March 1989, transcript in electronic format (Minneapolis, MN: Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, 1989).
176. Taylor, interview, loc. cit. note 82.
177. Lawrence G. Roberts, consultation with author (2 October 1993). See, for example, L.G. Roberts, Machine Perception of Three-Dimensional Solids (Cambridge, MA: Lincoln Laboratory, Technical Report 315, 1963).
178. Louis Fein, 'The Artificial Intelligentsia', Wescott Technical Papers, Vol. 7 (11.1, Part 7, 1963), 1-17, at 2.
179. Charles Rosen, telephone interview with author (10 March 1994).
180. Louis Fein, 'The Role of the University in Computers, Data Processing, and Related Fields', Communications of the ACM, Vol. 2, No. 9 (September 1959), 7-14; Paul Ceruzzi, 'Electronics Technology and Computer Science, 1945-1975: A Coevolution', Annals of the History of Computing, Vol. 10, No. 4 (1989), 257-75.
181. Louis Fein, 'The Role of the University in Computers, Data Processing, and Related Fields', Communications of the ACM, Vol. 2, No. 9 (September 1959), 7-14; Paul Ceruzzi, 'Electronics Technology and Computer Science, 1945-1975: A Coevolution', Annals of the History of Computing, Vol. 10, No. 4 (1989), 257-75.
182. Fein, op. cit. note 99, 2.
183. Ibid.
184. Ibid., 7.
185. Ibid., 9.
186. Ibid.
187. Ibid., 12.
188. Ibid.
189. Ibid., 13.
190. Ibid.
191. Ibid., 15.
192. Ibid.
193. Ibid., 16.
194. Olazaran (1991), op. cit. note 3, 116.
195. Minsky, interview, loc. cit. note 45.
196. This information was gleaned from searches of the INSPEC bibliographic database, years 1969-79.
197. Hecht-Nielsen, op. cit. note 17, 17.
198. Minsky, interview, loc. cit. note 45.
199. Olazaran (1991), op. cit. note 3, 166-86.
200. Fleck, op. cit. note 3.
201. Feigenbaum, interview, loc. cit. note 96.