Recombination, Rationality, Reductionism and Romantic Reactions: Culture, Computers, and the Genetic Algorithm

Social Studies of Science

Volumn 28, Issue 1, 1998, Pages 39-71

  Helmreich, Stefan ^a  

^a STANFORD UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ALGORITHM; ARTICLE; COMPUTER; COMPUTER SIMULATION; CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY; EUROPE; GENETICS; HISTORY; UNITED STATES;

ALGORITHMS; COMPUTER SIMULATION; COMPUTERS; CULTURE; EUROPE; GENETICS; HISTORY, 20TH CENTURY; UNITED STATES;

EID: 0031993141     PISSN: 03063127     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/030631298028001002     Document Type: Article

References (126)

1. For an overview, see Evolutionary Computation, Vol. 1, No. 1 (Spring 1993).
2. This research is reported in may dissertation: Stefan Helmreich, Anthropology Inside and Outside the Looking-Glass Worlds of Artificial Life (unpublished doctoral dissertation, Department of Anthropology, Stanford University, 1995). The ethnographic aspect of my project draws inspiration from sociologists and cultural anthropologists who have worked as participant-observers in laboratories: see, for example, Bruno Latour and Steve Woolgar, Laboratory Life (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1979); Karin Knorr-Cetina, The Manufacture of Knowledge (Oxford: Pergamon, 1981); Sharon Traweek, Beamtimes and Lifetimes (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1988); and Emily Martin, Flexible Bodies (Boston, MA: Beacon Books, 1994).
3. This research is reported in may dissertation: Stefan Helmreich, Anthropology Inside and Outside the Looking-Glass Worlds of Artificial Life (unpublished doctoral dissertation, Department of Anthropology, Stanford University, 1995). The ethnographic aspect of my project draws inspiration from sociologists and cultural anthropologists who have worked as participant-observers in laboratories: see, for example, Bruno Latour and Steve Woolgar, Laboratory Life (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1979); Karin Knorr-Cetina, The Manufacture of Knowledge (Oxford: Pergamon, 1981); Sharon Traweek, Beamtimes and Lifetimes (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1988); and Emily Martin, Flexible Bodies (Boston, MA: Beacon Books, 1994).
4. This research is reported in may dissertation: Stefan Helmreich, Anthropology Inside and Outside the Looking-Glass Worlds of Artificial Life (unpublished doctoral dissertation, Department of Anthropology, Stanford University, 1995). The ethnographic aspect of my project draws inspiration from sociologists and cultural anthropologists who have worked as participant-observers in laboratories: see, for example, Bruno Latour and Steve Woolgar, Laboratory Life (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1979); Karin Knorr-Cetina, The Manufacture of Knowledge (Oxford: Pergamon, 1981); Sharon Traweek, Beamtimes and Lifetimes (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1988); and Emily Martin, Flexible Bodies (Boston, MA: Beacon Books, 1994).
5. This research is reported in may dissertation: Stefan Helmreich, Anthropology Inside and Outside the Looking-Glass Worlds of Artificial Life (unpublished doctoral dissertation, Department of Anthropology, Stanford University, 1995). The ethnographic aspect of my project draws inspiration from sociologists and cultural anthropologists who have worked as participant-observers in laboratories: see, for example, Bruno Latour and Steve Woolgar, Laboratory Life (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1979); Karin Knorr-Cetina, The Manufacture of Knowledge (Oxford: Pergamon, 1981); Sharon Traweek, Beamtimes and Lifetimes (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1988); and Emily Martin, Flexible Bodies (Boston, MA: Beacon Books, 1994).
6. This research is reported in may dissertation: Stefan Helmreich, Anthropology Inside and Outside the Looking-Glass Worlds of Artificial Life (unpublished doctoral dissertation, Department of Anthropology, Stanford University, 1995). The ethnographic aspect of my project draws inspiration from sociologists and cultural anthropologists who have worked as participant-observers in laboratories: see, for example, Bruno Latour and Steve Woolgar, Laboratory Life (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1979); Karin Knorr-Cetina, The Manufacture of Knowledge (Oxford: Pergamon, 1981); Sharon Traweek, Beamtimes and Lifetimes (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1988); and Emily Martin, Flexible Bodies (Boston, MA: Beacon Books, 1994).
7. David E. Goldberg, Genetic Algorithms in Search, Optimization, and Machine Learning (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1989), 21.
8. Diana E. Forsythe, 'Engineering Knowledge: The Construction of Knowledge in Artificial Intelligence', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 23, No. 3 (August 1993), 445-77.
9. See John Holland, 'Information Processing in Adaptive Systems', Information Processing in the Nervous System, Proceedings of the International Union of Physiological Sciences, Vol. 3 (1962), 330-39; Holland, 'Outline for a Logical Theory of Adaptive Systems', Journal of the Association for Computing Machinery, Vol. 3 (1962), 297-314; I. Rechenberg (trans. B.F. Toms), 'Cybernetic Solution Path of an Experimental Problem', Royal Aircraft Establishment Translation No. 1122 (Farnborough, Hants.: Ministry of Aviation, RAE, UK, 1965); Lawrence J. Fogel, Alvin J. Owens and Michael J. Walsh, Artificial Intelligence through Simulated Evolution (New York: John Wiley, 1966); J.D. Bagley, The Behavior of Adaptive Systems Which Employ Genetic and Correlation Algorithms (unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Michigan, 1967).
10. See John Holland, 'Information Processing in Adaptive Systems', Information Processing in the Nervous System, Proceedings of the International Union of Physiological Sciences, Vol. 3 (1962), 330-39; Holland, 'Outline for a Logical Theory of Adaptive Systems', Journal of the Association for Computing Machinery, Vol. 3 (1962), 297-314; I. Rechenberg (trans. B.F. Toms), 'Cybernetic Solution Path of an Experimental Problem', Royal Aircraft Establishment Translation No. 1122 (Farnborough, Hants.: Ministry of Aviation, RAE, UK, 1965); Lawrence J. Fogel, Alvin J. Owens and Michael J. Walsh, Artificial Intelligence through Simulated Evolution (New York: John Wiley, 1966); J.D. Bagley, The Behavior of Adaptive Systems Which Employ Genetic and Correlation Algorithms (unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Michigan, 1967).
11. See John Holland, 'Information Processing in Adaptive Systems', Information Processing in the Nervous System, Proceedings of the International Union of Physiological Sciences, Vol. 3 (1962), 330-39; Holland, 'Outline for a Logical Theory of Adaptive Systems', Journal of the Association for Computing Machinery, Vol. 3 (1962), 297-314; I. Rechenberg (trans. B.F. Toms), 'Cybernetic Solution Path of an Experimental Problem', Royal Aircraft Establishment Translation No. 1122 (Farnborough, Hants.: Ministry of Aviation, RAE, UK, 1965); Lawrence J. Fogel, Alvin J. Owens and Michael J. Walsh, Artificial Intelligence through Simulated Evolution (New York: John Wiley, 1966); J.D. Bagley, The Behavior of Adaptive Systems Which Employ Genetic and Correlation Algorithms (unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Michigan, 1967).
12. See John Holland, 'Information Processing in Adaptive Systems', Information Processing in the Nervous System, Proceedings of the International Union of Physiological Sciences, Vol. 3 (1962), 330-39; Holland, 'Outline for a Logical Theory of Adaptive Systems', Journal of the Association for Computing Machinery, Vol. 3 (1962), 297-314; I. Rechenberg (trans. B.F. Toms), 'Cybernetic Solution Path of an Experimental Problem', Royal Aircraft Establishment Translation No. 1122 (Farnborough, Hants.: Ministry of Aviation, RAE, UK, 1965); Lawrence J. Fogel, Alvin J. Owens and Michael J. Walsh, Artificial Intelligence through Simulated Evolution (New York: John Wiley, 1966); J.D. Bagley, The Behavior of Adaptive Systems Which Employ Genetic and Correlation Algorithms (unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Michigan, 1967).
13. See John Holland, 'Information Processing in Adaptive Systems', Information Processing in the Nervous System, Proceedings of the International Union of Physiological Sciences, Vol. 3 (1962), 330-39; Holland, 'Outline for a Logical Theory of Adaptive Systems', Journal of the Association for Computing Machinery, Vol. 3 (1962), 297-314; I. Rechenberg (trans. B.F. Toms), 'Cybernetic Solution Path of an Experimental Problem', Royal Aircraft Establishment Translation No. 1122 (Farnborough, Hants.: Ministry of Aviation, RAE, UK, 1965); Lawrence J. Fogel, Alvin J. Owens and Michael J. Walsh, Artificial Intelligence through Simulated Evolution (New York: John Wiley, 1966); J.D. Bagley, The Behavior of Adaptive Systems Which Employ Genetic and Correlation Algorithms (unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Michigan, 1967).
14. John Holland, Adaptation in Natural and Artificial Systems (Ann Arbor, MI: The University of Michigan Press, 1975).
15. See Terry Winograd and Fernando Flores, Understanding Computers and Cognition (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1986); Winograd, 'Thinking Machines: Can There Be? Are We?', in James J. Sheehan and Morton Sosna (eds), Boundaries of Humanity: Humans, Animals, Machines (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1991), 198-223.
16. See Terry Winograd and Fernando Flores, Understanding Computers and Cognition (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1986); Winograd, 'Thinking Machines: Can There Be? Are We?', in James J. Sheehan and Morton Sosna (eds), Boundaries of Humanity: Humans, Animals, Machines (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1991), 198-223.
17. Notably Winograd & Flores, op. cit. note 7, and Rodney Brooks, 'Intelligence without Representation', Artificial Intelligence, Vol. 47 (1991), 139-59.
18. Goldberg, op. cit. note 3, 1.
19. Sherry Turkle, 'Romantic Reactions: Paradoxical Responses to the Computer Presence', in Sheehan & Sosna (eds), op. cit. note 7, 224-52.
20. David E. Goldberg, 'Zen and the Art of Genetic Algorithms', in J. David Schaffer (ed.), Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Genetic Algorithms (San Mateo, CA: Morgan Kaufmann 1989), 80-85, at 81.
21. Goldberg, op. cit. note 3, 27.
22. Stephanie Forrest, 'Genetic Algorithms: Principles of Natural Selection Applied to Computation', Science, Vol. 261 (13 August 1993), 872-78, at 873.
23. This is something Stephanie Forrest notes (ibid.). One could argue, as some have, that because each GA 'parent' is made of one 'chromosome' and is 'haploid', the conceptual difference between crossover and recombination is unimportant.
24. From Goldberg, op. cit. note 3, 69 (comments modified). I refer the reader to Goldberg for the full detail of procedures 'generation' and 'crossover'.
25. John Koza, Genetic Programming: On the Programming of Computers by Means of Natural Selection (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1992).
26. Ibid., 4.
27. Forrest, op. cit. note 13.
28. For example: 'nature does it better' (Goldberg, op. cit. note 3, 2); 'In nature, biological structures that are more successful in grappling with their environment survive and reproduce at a higher rate' (Koza, op. cit. note 16, 1); 'Like nature, [Holland's algorithms] knew nothing about the type of problem they were solving' (Lawrence Davis [ed.], Handbook of Genetic Algorithms [New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1991], 3).
29. Goldberg, op. cit. note 11, 80-81.
30. Ibid., 80.
31. Ibid., 82.
32. See Paul N. Edwards, 'The Army and the Microworld: Computers and the Politics of Gender Identity', Signs, Vol. 16, No. 1 (Autumn 1990), 102-27.
33. See Kevin Kelly, Out of Control: The Rise of Neo-Biological Civilization (Redwood City, CA: Addison-Wesley, 1994), a book on 'complexity science' that directly links naturalistic computation and ecological consciousness.
34. Koza, op. cit. note 16, 6.
35. These quotations from Chris Langton are taken from my own notes. Unless otherwise cited, quotations in the text from GA researchers are from my interviews and field notes.
36. Howard L. Kaye, The Social Meaning of Modern Biology (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1986), 53.
37. See Carolyn Merchant, The Death of Nature: Women, Ecology, and the Scientific Revolution (New York: Harper & Row, 1980).
38. Goldberg, op. cit. note 3, 149. Not everyone working with the GA is as taken with nature as researchers like David Goldberg. One physicist said to me: 'I don't buy into those arguments that because nature does it this way, that's the best way of doing it or whatever. . . I mean, nature is not optimal by a long way and by any reasonable criteria'.
39. Goldberg, op. cit. note 11, 80.
40. But not all: see Kenneth De Jong, 'Genetic Algorithms: A 10 Year Perspective', in John J. Grefenstette (ed.), Proceedings of the First International Conference on Genetic Algorithms (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1985), 169-77, at 170.
41. Tom Ray, 'Is It Alive or Is It GA?', in Richard K. Belew and Lashon B. Booker (eds), Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference on Genetic Algorithms (San Mateo, CA: Morgan Kaufmann, 1991), 527-35, at 527.
42. James G. Lennox, 'Teleology', in Evelyn Fox Keller and Elisabeth A. Lloyd (eds), Keywords in Evolutionary Biology (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1992), 324-33, at 328.
43. L. Davis, 'What is a Genetic Algorithm?', in Davis (ed.), op. cit. note 19, 1-22, at 5.
44. Goldberg, op. cit. note 3, 309.
45. See Edward O. Wilson, Sociobiology (Cambridge, MA: Belknap/Harvard University Press, 1975), 67.
46. Richard Dawkins, The Selfish Gene (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1976).
47. Forrest, op. cit. note 13, 872.
48. Donna Haraway, 'The Biological Enterprise: Sex, Mind, and Profit from Human Engineering to Sociobiology', in her Simians, Cyborgs, and Women (New York: Routledge, 1991), 43-08, at 46.
49. See Richard Dawkins, 'Replicator Selection and the Extended Phenotype', in Elliott Sober (ed.). Conceptual Issues in Evolutionary Biology (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1984), 125-41.
50. See Evelyn Fox Keller and Elisabeth A. Lloyd, 'Introduction to Keywords in Evolutionary Biology', in Keller & Lloyd (eds), op. cit. note 33, 1-6.
51. Goldberg, op. cit. note 3, 61.
52. Ibid., 22.
53. Haraway, op. cit. note 39.
54. Susan Oyama, The Ontogeny of Information (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 27
55. Richard Lewontin, Biology as Ideology: The Doctrine of DNA (New York: Harper Collins, 1991), 48.
56. Ernst Mayr, Evolution and the Diversity of Life (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1976), 23.
57. Evelyn Fox Keller, 'Language and Ideology in Evolutionary Theory, Part I', in her Secrets of Life, Secrets of Death: Essays on Language, Gender and Science (New York: Routledge, 1992), 113-27, at 115.
58. See W.D. Hamilton, 'The Genetical Evolution of Social Behavior', Journal of Theoretical Biology, Vol. 7, No. 1 (July 1964), 1-51.
59. Evelyn Fox Keller, 'Language and Ideology in Evolutionary Theory: Reading Cultural Norms into Natural Law', in Sheehan & Sosna (eds), op. cit. note 7, 85-102, at 96.
60. Koza, op. cit. note 16, 37.
61. Dawkins, op. cit. note 37, ix.
62. Dawkins has recently made his equations between DNA and information processing more explicit, and has become a champion of Artificial Life: see Richard Dawkins, River Out of Eden (New York: Basic Books, 1995).
63. Norman Packard, 'Intrinsic Adaptation in a Simple Model for Evolution', in Christopher Langton (ed.), Artificial Life (Redwood City, CA: Addison-Wesley, 1989), 141-55, at 142.
64. John Holland, 'Genetic Algorithms', Scientific American (July 1992), 66-72, at 67.
65. Davis, op. cit. note 34, 2.
66. Melanie Mitchell and Stephanie Forrest, 'Genetic Algorithms and Artificial Life', Artificial Life, Vol. 1, No. 3 (Spring 1994), 267-90, at 282.
67. Richard Lewontin, 'Adaptation', in Sober (ed.), op. cit. note 40, 235-51, at 237.
68. And see Kaye, op. cit. note 27.
69. Stephen Jay Gould, Ever Since Darwin (New York: W.W. Norton, 1979), esp. Chapter 12, 103-10.
70. John Dupre, 'Global versus Local Perspectives on Sexual Difference', in Deborah Rhode (ed.), Theoretical Perspectives on Sexual Difference (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1990), 47-62, at 53-54.
71. Some genetic algorithmists have proposed looking closely at the science of animal breeding: see Heinz Mühlenbein and Dirk Schlierkamp-Voosen, 'The Science of Breeding and its Application to the Breeder Genetic Algorithm BGA', paper availability announced in the Evolutionary Programming Digest, Vol. 1, No. 18 (1993), distributed over the Internet and obtained through anonymous ftp from ftp.gmd.de.
72. Haraway, op. cit. note 39, 64.
73. Koza, op. cit. note 16, 6-7.
74. On the concept of satisficing, see Herbert A. Simon, The Sciences of the Artificial (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1969), 35-37.
75. See Daniel J. Kevles, In the Name of Eugenics (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1985), 13.
76. Michel Foucault (trans. Robert Hurley), The History of Sexuality, Vol. 1 (New York: Vintage Books, 1978), 24.
77. See Ian Hacking, 'Biopower and the Avalanche of Printed Numbers', Humanities in Society, Vol. 5, Nos 3/4 (1982), 279-95, at 279.
78. Kevles, op. cit. note 66; the argument I am referring to occupies roughly the first third of the book's text.
79. Koza, op. cit. note 16, 25.
80. Gibbons Burke, 'Good Trading a Matter of Breeding?', Futures, Vol. 12, No. 5 (October 1993), 26-29, at 26.
81. Andrew Jenks, 'Datadance with a Double Helix: Studying Complex Problems with Genetic Math', unpaginated article reprint from Washington Technology, Vol. 9, No. 2 (1994).
82. Foucault, op. cit. note 67, 141.
83. Donna Haraway, 'Animal Sociology and a Natural Economy of the Body Politic: A Political Physiology of Dominance', in op. cit. note 39, 7-20, at 7.
84. To have a sequestered germ-line means that changes to somatic cells do not affect the germ cells involved in the transmission of genetic material. Analogies between GAs (in which organisms are modelled as equivalent to a haploid chromosome) and populations of animals with sequestered germ-cell lineages are thus rather imperfect at the organism level. In light of this observation, Melanie Mitchell once told me that GAs are actually 'more like bacteria sex than human sex'. If GAs were elaborated with this analogy more frequently in mind, they might look quite different.
85. Holland, op. cit. note 55, 68.
86. Davis, op. cit. note 34, 16.
87. In Lisp, these 'parental programs' would look like this: (OR (NOT D1) (AND D0 D1)), and (OR (OR D1 (NOT D0)) (AND (NOT D0) (NOT D1))).
88. Goldberg, op. cit. note 3, 16.
89. Koza, op. cit. note 16, 23.
90. Holland, op. cit. note 55, 68.
91. Marilyn Strathern, After Nature: English Kinship in the Late Twentieth Century (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 21.
92. Ibid., 39.
93. Holland, op. cit. note 55, 66. One of my informants discussed the utility of sex in abstract terms: 'It's an ergodic mixer allowing unconscious "communication" among widely different trial attempts'.
94. Robert E. Smith, Stephanie Forrest and Alan S. Perelson, 'Searching for Diverse, Cooperative Populations with Genetic Algorithms' (Santa Fe Institute preprint 92-06-027, 1992), 4.
95. See Larry J. Eshelman and J. David Schaffer, 'Preventing Premature Convergence in Genetic Algorithms by Preventing Incest', in Belew & Booker (eds), op. cit. note 32, 115-22, at 115.
96. See Larry Yaeger, 'Polyworld: Life in a New Context', in Christopher Langton (ed.), Artificial Life III (Redwood City, CA: Addison-Wesley, 1994), 263-98.
97. Goldberg, op. cit. note 3, 162-65.
98. See Carol Delaney, 'The Meaning of Paternity and the Virgin Birth Debate', Man, Vol. 21 (1986), 494-513, and Delaney, The Seed and the Soil (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1991).
99. See Carol Delaney, 'The Meaning of Paternity and the Virgin Birth Debate', Man, Vol. 21 (1986), 494-513, and Delaney, The Seed and the Soil (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1991).
100. Goldberg, op. cit. note 3, 181-82.
101. See, for example, Ruth Bleier, Science and Gender (New York: Pergamon Press, 1984); Bleier, Feminist Approaches to Science (New York: Pergamon Press, 1986); Jane Collier and Sylvia Yanagisako (eds), Toward a Unified Analysis of Gender and Kinship (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1987); Anne Fausto-Sterling, Myths of Gender (New York: Basic Books, 1985); Ruth Hubbard, The Politics of Women's Biology (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1990).
102. See, for example, Ruth Bleier, Science and Gender (New York: Pergamon Press, 1984); Bleier, Feminist Approaches to Science (New York: Pergamon Press, 1986); Jane Collier and Sylvia Yanagisako (eds), Toward a Unified Analysis of Gender and Kinship (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1987); Anne Fausto-Sterling, Myths of Gender (New York: Basic Books, 1985); Ruth Hubbard, The Politics of Women's Biology (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1990).
103. See, for example, Ruth Bleier, Science and Gender (New York: Pergamon Press, 1984); Bleier, Feminist Approaches to Science (New York: Pergamon Press, 1986); Jane Collier and Sylvia Yanagisako (eds), Toward a Unified Analysis of Gender and Kinship (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1987); Anne Fausto-Sterling, Myths of Gender (New York: Basic Books, 1985); Ruth Hubbard, The Politics of Women's Biology (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1990).
104. See, for example, Ruth Bleier, Science and Gender (New York: Pergamon Press, 1984); Bleier, Feminist Approaches to Science (New York: Pergamon Press, 1986); Jane Collier and Sylvia Yanagisako (eds), Toward a Unified Analysis of Gender and Kinship (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1987); Anne Fausto-Sterling, Myths of Gender (New York: Basic Books, 1985); Ruth Hubbard, The Politics of Women's Biology (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1990).
105. See, for example, Ruth Bleier, Science and Gender (New York: Pergamon Press, 1984); Bleier, Feminist Approaches to Science (New York: Pergamon Press, 1986); Jane Collier and Sylvia Yanagisako (eds), Toward a Unified Analysis of Gender and Kinship (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1987); Anne Fausto-Sterling, Myths of Gender (New York: Basic Books, 1985); Ruth Hubbard, The Politics of Women's Biology (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1990).
106. Drew McDermott, 'Artificial Intelligence Meets Natural Stupidity', in John Haugeland (ed.), Mina Design (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1981), 143-60, at 144.
107. Goldberg, op. cit. note 3, 181.
108. See Fausto-Sterling, op. cit. note 91.
109. Monique Wittig, 'The Category of Sex', in her The Straight Mind (Boston, MA: Beacon Press, 1992), 1-8, at 5.
110. Judith Butler, Gender Trouble (New York: Routledge, 1989).
111. See David Schneider, American Kinship (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1968). Note that one need not be white or middle-class to participate in the cultural imaginary normatively leashed to those historical-demographic categories.
112. Lingyan Shu and Jonathan Schaeffer, 'HCS: Adding Hierarchies to Classifier Systems', in Belew & Booker (eds), op. cit. note 32, 339-45.
113. Ibid., 339-40 (emphasis in original).
114. Ibid., 340.
115. Marilyn Strathern, Reproducing the Future: Anthropology, Kinship, and the New Reproductive Technologies (New York: Routledge, 1992), 16.
116. Schneider, op. cit. note 97, 23.
117. Holland, op. cit. note 55, 69.
118. Ibid.
119. Goldberg, op. cit. note 3, 30.
120. Ibid., 23.
121. Ibid., 222.
122. Ibid.
123. Haraway, op. cit. note 39, 59.
124. See David Harvey, The Condition of Postmodernity (Oxford & Cambridge, MA: Blackwell, 1989), esp. Chapter 9, 'From Fordism to Flexible Accumulation', 141-72.
125. Strathern, op. cit. note 101, esp. her Introduction, 'Artificial Life', 1-12.
126. Forsythe, op. cit. note 4, 470.