Current concepts on the clinical features, aetiology and management of idiopathic cervical dystonia

Brain

Volumn 121, Issue 4, 1998, Pages 547-560

  Dauer, William T ^a,b   Burke, Robert E ^a   Greene, Paul ^a   Fahn, Stanley ^a  

^a New York Presbyterian Hospital Columbia University Medical Center   (United States)

^b NEUROLOGICAL INSTITUTE   (United States)

Author keywords

Basal ganglia; Botulinum toxin; Dystonia; Movement disorders; Torticollis

Indexed keywords

BACLOFEN; BENZODIAZEPINE DERIVATIVE; BOTULINUM TOXIN; BOTULINUM TOXIN A; CHOLINERGIC RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; NEUTRALIZING ANTIBODY;

BASAL GANGLION; CHROMOSOME 18P; CLINICAL FEATURE; DYSPHAGIA; DYSPHONIA; DYSTONIA; FLU LIKE SYNDROME; GENE LOCUS; GENETIC LINKAGE; HUMAN; INJECTION SITE; INTRAMUSCULAR DRUG ADMINISTRATION; LETHARGY; MOTOR CORTEX; ONSET AGE; PAIN; PLASTICITY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RELAPSE; REMISSION; REVIEW; SIDE EFFECT; TREMOR; VERTIGO; VESTIBULAR DISORDER; XEROSTOMIA;

DIAGNOSIS, DIFFERENTIAL; DYSTONIA; HAND; HEAD; HUMANS; RECURRENCE; REMISSION, SPONTANEOUS; TORTICOLLIS; TREMOR;

EID: 0031955695     PISSN: 00068950     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/brain/121.4.547     Document Type: Review

References (156)

1. Abse DW. Hysteria and related mental disorders: an approach to psychological medicine. Bristol: Wright; 1966.
2. Anderson TJ, Rivest J, Stell R, Steiger MJ, Cohen H, Thompson PD, et al. Botulinum toxin treatment of spasmodic torticollis [see comments]. JR Soc Med 1992: 85: 524-9. Comment in: JR Soc Med 1995; 88: 239-40.
3. Anderson TJ, Rivest J, Stell R, Steiger MJ, Cohen H, Thompson PD, et al. Botulinum toxin treatment of spasmodic torticollis [see comments]. JR Soc Med 1992: 85: 524-9. Comment in: JR Soc Med 1995; 88: 239-40.
4. Arce CR, Russo L. Selective peripheral denervation: a surgical alternative in the treatment for spasmodic torticollis. Review of 55 patients [abstract]. Mov Disord 1992; 7 Suppl 1: 128.
5. Becker G, Naumann M, Scheubeck M, Hofmann E, Deimling M, Lindner A, et al. Comparison of transcranial sonography, magnetic resonance imaging, and single photon emission computed tomography findings in idiopathic spasmodic torticollis. Mov Disord 1997; 12: 79-88.
6. Bertrand CM. Selective peripheral denervation for spasmodic torticollis: surgical technique, results, and observations in 260 cases. Surg Neurol 1993; 40: 96-103.
7. Blackie JD, Lees AJ. Botulinum toxin treatment in spasmodic torticollis. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1990; 53: 640-3.
8. Blasi J, Chapman ER, Link E, Binz T, Yamasaki S. De Camilli P, et al. Botulinum neurotoxin A selectively cleaves the synaptic protein SNAP-25 [see comments]. Nature 1993; 365: 160-3. Comment in: Nature 1993; 365: 104-5.
9. Blasi J, Chapman ER, Link E, Binz T, Yamasaki S. De Camilli P, et al. Botulinum neurotoxin A selectively cleaves the synaptic protein SNAP-25 [see comments]. Nature 1993; 365: 160-3. Comment in: Nature 1993; 365: 104-5.
10. Borodic GE, Joseph M, Fay L, Cozzolino D, Ferrante RJ. Botulinum A toxin for the treatment of spasmodic torticollis: dysphagia and regional toxin spread. Head Neck 1990; 12: 392-9.
11. Borodic GE, Pearce LB, Smith K, Joseph M. Botulinum A toxin for spasmodic torticollis: multiple vs single injection points per muscle. Head Neck 1992; 14: 33-7.
12. Borodic G, Johnson E, Goodnough M, Schantz E. Botulinum toxin therapy, immunological resistance, and problems with available materials. [Review]. Neurology 1996; 46: 26-9.
13. Brans JW, Lindeboom R, Snoek JW, Zwarts MJ, van Weerden TW, Brunt ER, et al. Botulinum toxin versus trihexyphenidyl in cervical dystonia: a prospective, randomized, double-blind controlled trial. Neurology 1996; 46: 1066-72.
14. Brasil-Neto JP, Valls-Sole J, Pascual-Leone A, Cammarota A, Amassian VE, Cracco R, et al. Rapid modulation of human cortical motor outputs following ischaemic nerve block. Brain 1993; 116: 511-25.
15. Braun V, Richter HP. Selective peripheral denervation for the treatment of spasmodic torticollis. Neurosurgery 1994; 35: 58-63.
16. Braun V, Richter HP, Schroder JM. Selective peripheral denervation for spasmodic torticollis: is the outcome predictable? J Neurol 1995; 242: 504-7.
17. Bressman SB, Warner TT, Almasy L, Uitti RJ, Greene PE, Heiman GA, et al. Exclusion of the DYT1 locus in familial torticollis. Ann Neurol 1996; 40: 681-4.
18. Bronstein AM, Rudge P. Vestibular involvement in spasmodic torticollis. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1986; 49: 290-5.
19. Bullitt E. Induction of c-Fos-like protein within the lumbar spinal cord and thalamus of the rat following peripheral stimulation. Brain Res 1989; 493: 391-7.
20. Burke RE, Fahn S, Jankovic J, Marsden CD, Lang AE, Gollomp S, et al. Tardive dystonia: late-onset and persistent dystonia caused by amipsychotic drugs. Neurology 1982; 32: 1335-46.
21. Burke RE, Fahn S, Marsden CD. Torsion dystonia: a double-blind, prospective trial of high-dosage trihexyphenidyl. Neurology 1986; 36: 160-4.
22. Byl NN, Merzenich MM, Jenkins WM. A primate genesis model of focal dystonia and repetitive strain injury: I. Learning-induced dedifferentiation of the representation of the hand in the primary somatosensory cortex in adult monkeys. Neurology 1996; 47: 508-20.
23. Cammarota A, Gershanik OS, Garcia S, Lera G. Cervical dystonia due to spinal cord ependymoma: involvement of cervical cord segments in the pathogenesis of dystonia. Mov Disord 1995; 10: 500-3.
24. Chan J, Brin MF, Fahn S. Idiopathic cervical dystonia: clinical characteristics. Mov Disord 1991; 6: 119-26.
25. Chudler EH, Dong WK. The role of the basal ganglia in nociception and pain. [Review]. Pain 1995; 60: 3-38.
26. Claus D. Druschky A, Erbguth F. Botulinum toxin: influence on respiratory heart rate variation. Mov Disord 1995; 10: 574-9.
27. Cleveland SE. Personality dynamics in torticollis. J Nerv Ment Dis 1959; 129: 150-61.
28. Cohen LG, Bandinelli S, Findley TW, Hallett M. Motor reorganization after upper limb amputation in man. A study with focal magnetic stimulation. Brain 1991; 114: 615-27.
29. Colebatch JG, Di Lazzaro V, Quartarone A, Rothwell JC, Gresty M. Click-evoked vestibulocollic reflexes in torticollis. Mov Disord 1995; 10: 455-9.
30. Comella CL, Tanner CM, DeFoor-Hill L, Smith C. Dysphagia after botulinum toxin injections for spasmodic torticollis: clinical and radiologic findings. Neurology 1992; 42: 1307-10.
31. Comella CL, Stebbins GT, Miller S. Specific dystonic factors contributing to work limitation and disability in cervical dystonia [abstract]. Neurology 1996; 46 (2 Suppl): A295.
32. Consky ES, Lang AE. Clinical assessments of patients with cervical dystonia. In: Jankovic J, Hallett M, editors. Therapy with botulinum toxin. New York: Marcel Dekker; 1994. p. 211-37.
33. Davis DH, Ahlskog JE, Litchy WJ, Root LM. Selective peripheral denervation for torticollis: preliminary results [see comments]. Mayo Clin Proc 1991; 66: 365-71. Comment in: Mayo Clin Proc 1991; 66: 433-5, Comment in: Mayo Clin Proc 1991; 66: 969-71.
34. Davis DH, Ahlskog JE, Litchy WJ, Root LM. Selective peripheral denervation for torticollis: preliminary results [see comments]. Mayo Clin Proc 1991; 66: 365-71. Comment in: Mayo Clin Proc 1991; 66: 433-5, Comment in: Mayo Clin Proc 1991; 66: 969-71.
35. Davis DH, Ahlskog JE, Litchy WJ, Root LM. Selective peripheral denervation for torticollis: preliminary results [see comments]. Mayo Clin Proc 1991; 66: 365-71. Comment in: Mayo Clin Proc 1991; 66: 433-5, Comment in: Mayo Clin Proc 1991; 66: 969-71.
36. de Ceballos ML, Baker M, Rose S, Jenner P, Marsden CD. Do enkephalins in basal ganglia mediate a physiological motor rest mechanism? Mov Disord 1986; 1: 223-33.
37. Defazio G, Livrea P, Guanti G, Lepore V, Ferrari E. Genetic contribution to idiopathic adult-onset blepharospasm and cranial-cervical dystonia. Eur Neurol 1993; 33: 345-50.
38. Deuschl G, Heinen F, Kleedorfer B, Wagner M, Lucking CH, Poewe W. Clinical and polymyographic investigation of spasmodic torticollis. J Neurol 1992; 239: 9-15.
39. Duane DD. Spasmodic torticollis. [Review]. Adv Neurol 1988; 49: 135-50.
40. Emmerson J. Botulinum toxin for spasmodic torticollis in a patient with myasthenia gravis [letter]. Mov Disord 1994; 9: 367.
41. Erbguth F, Claus D, Engelhardt A, Dressier D. Systemic effect of local botulinum toxin injections unmasks subclinical Lambert-Eaton myasthenic syndrome [letter]. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1993; 56: 1235-6.
42. Fahn S. High dosage anticholinergic therapy in dystonia. Neurology 1983; 33: 1255-61.
43. Fahn S, Williams DT. Psychogenic dystonia. Adv Neurol 1988; 50: 431-55.
44. Fahn S, Marsden CD, Calne DB. Classification and investigation of dystonia. In: Marsden CD, Fahn S, editors. Movement disorders 2. London: Butterworths; 1987. p. 332-58.
45. Fletcher NA, Harding AE, Marsden CD. The relationship between trauma and idiopathic torsion dystonia. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1991; 54: 713-7.
46. Friedman AJH. Clozapine treatment of psychosis in patients with tardive dystonia: report of three cases. Mov Disord 1994; 9: 321-4.
47. Friedman A, Fahn S. Spontaneous remissions in spasmodic torticollis. Neurology 1986; 36: 398-400.
48. Friedman AH, Nashold BS Jr, Sharp R, Caputi F, Arruda J. Treatment of spasmodic torticollis with intradural selective rhizotomies. J Neurosurg 1993; 78: 46-53.
49. Ganzini L, Casey DE, Huffman WF, McCall AL. The prevalence of metoclopramide-induced tardive dyskinesia and acute extrapyramidal movement disorders. Arch Intern Med 1993; 153: 1469-75.
50. Gelb DJ, Yoshimura DM, Olney RK, Lowenstein DH, Aminoff MJ. Change in pattern of muscle activity following botulinum toxin injections for torticollis [see comments]. Ann Neurol 1991; 29: 370-6. Comment in: Ann Neurol 1992; 32: 411-2.
51. Gelb DJ, Yoshimura DM, Olney RK, Lowenstein DH, Aminoff MJ. Change in pattern of muscle activity following botulinum toxin injections for torticollis [see comments]. Ann Neurol 1991; 29: 370-6. Comment in: Ann Neurol 1992; 32: 411-2.
52. Gilbert GJ. Familial spasmodic torticollis. Neurology 1977; 27: 11-3.
53. Girlanda P, Vita G, Nicolosi C, Milone S, Messina C. Botulinum toxin therapy: distant effects on neuromuscular transmission and autonomic nervous system. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1992; 55: 844-5.
54. Goldman S, Ahlskog JE. Posttraumatic cervical dystonia. Mayo Clin Proc 1993; 68: 443-8.
55. Gowers WR. A manual of diseases of the nervous system. London: J & A Churchill; 1886-88.
56. Greene P. Baclofen in the treatment of dystonia. [Review]. Clin Neuropharmacol 1992; 15: 276-88.
57. Greene P, Shale H, Fahn S. Analysis of open-label trials in torsion dystonia using high dosages of anticholinergics and other drugs. Mov Disord 1988; 3: 46-60.
58. Greene P, Kang U, Fahn S, Brin M, Moskowitz C, Flaster E. Double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of botulinum toxin injections for the treatment of spasmodic torticollis. Neurology 1990; 40: 1213-8.
59. Greene P, Fahn S, Diamond B. Development of resistance to botulinum toxin type A in patients with torticollis. Mov Disord 1994; 9: 213-7.
60. 125I-labeled neurotoxin from Clostridium botulinum A: preparation, binding to synaptosomes and ascent to the spinal cord. Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch Pharmakol 1974; 281: 47-56.
61. Hallett M. Is dystonia a sensory disorder? [editorial]. Ann Neurol 1995; 38: 139-40.
62. Hambleton P, Cohen HE, Palmer BJ, Melling J. Antitoxins and botulinum toxin treatment. BMJ 1992; 304: 959-60.
63. Herdegen T, Leah JD, Manisali A, Bravo R, Zimmerman M. c-JUN-like immunoreactivity in the CNS of the adult rat: basal and transynaptically induced expression of an immediate-early gene. Neuroscience 1991; 41: 643-54.
64. Herz E, Glaser GH. Spasmodic torticollis. Arch Neurol Psychiat 1949; 61: 227-39.
65. Hierholzer J, Cordes M, Schelosky L, Richter W, Keske U, Venz S, et al. Dopamine D2 receptor imaging with iodine-123-iodobenzamide SPECT in idiopathic rotational torticollis [published erratum appears in J Nucl Med 1995; 36: 568]. J Nucl Med 1994; 35: 1921-7.
66. Hornykiewicz O, Kish SJ, Becker LE, Farley I, Shannak K. Brain neurotransmitters in dystonia musculorum deformans. N Engl J Med 1986; 315: 347-53.
67. Iadarola MJ, Berman KF, Byas-Smith M, Gracely RH, Max M, Seffiro T, et al. Positron emission tomography (PET) studies of pain and allodynia in normals and patients with chronic neuropathic pain [abstract]. Soc Neurosci Abstr 1993; 19: 1074.
68. Ikoma K, Samii A. Mercuri B, Wassermann EM, Hallett M. Abnormal cortical motor excitability in dystonia. Neurology 1996; 46: 1371-6.
69. Jahanshahi M. Psychosocial factors and depression in torticollis. J Psychosom Res 1991; 35: 493-507.
70. Jahanshahi M, Marion MH, Marsden CD. Natural history of adult-onset idiopathic torticollis. Arch Neurol 1990; 47: 548-52.
71. Jankovic J. Post-traumatic movement disorders: central and peripheral mechanisms [see comments]. [Review]. Neurology 1994; 44: 2006-14. Comment in: Neurology 1995; 45: 1950, Comment in: Neurology 1995; 45: 1950-1.
72. Jankovic J. Post-traumatic movement disorders: central and peripheral mechanisms [see comments]. [Review]. Neurology 1994; 44: 2006-14. Comment in: Neurology 1995; 45: 1950, Comment in: Neurology 1995; 45: 1950-1.
73. Jankovic J. Post-traumatic movement disorders: central and peripheral mechanisms [see comments]. [Review]. Neurology 1994; 44: 2006-14. Comment in: Neurology 1995; 45: 1950, Comment in: Neurology 1995; 45: 1950-1.
74. Jankovic J, Schwartz KS. Clinical correlates of response to botulinum toxin injections. Arch Neurol 1991; 48: 1253-6.
75. Jankovic J, Schwartz KS. Longitudinal experience with botulinum toxin injections for treatment of blepharospasm and cervical dystonia. Neurology 1993; 43: 834-6.
76. Jankovic J, Schwartz K. Response and immunoresistance to botulinum toxin injections. Neurology 1995; 45: 1743-6.
77. Jankovic J, Stone L. Dystonic tics in patients with Tourette's syndrome. Mov Disord 1991; 6: 248-52.
78. Jankovic J, Van der Linden C. Dystonia and tremor induced by peripheral trauma: predisposing factors. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1988; 51: 1512-9.
79. Jankovic J, Svendson CN, Bird ED. Brain neurotransmitters in dystonia [letter]. N Engl J Med 1987; 316: 278-9.
80. Jankovic J, Leder S, Warner D, Schwartz K. Cervical dystonia: clinical findings and associated movement disorders. Neurology 1991; 41: 1088-91.
81. Jankovic J, Schwartz K, Donovan DT. Botulinum toxin treatment of cranial-cervical dystonia, spasmodic dysphonia, other focal dystonias and hemifacial spasm. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1990; 53: 633-9.
82. Jayne D, Lees AJ, Stern GM. Remission in spasmodic torticollis. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1984; 47: 1236-7.
83. Jho HD, Jannetta PJ. Microvascular decompression for spasmodic torticollis. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 1995; 134: 21-6.
84. Jones AK, Brown WD, Friston KJ, Qi LY, Frackowiak RS. Cortical and subcortical localization of response to pain in man using positron emission tomography. Proc R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 1991; 244: 39-44.
85. Kaji R, Rothwell JC, Katayama M, Ikeda T, Kubori T, Kohara N, et al. Tonic vibration reflex and muscle afferent block in writer's cramp. Ann Neurol 1995; 38: 155-62.
86. Kang UJ, Burke RE, Fahn S. Natural history and treatment of tardive dystonia. Mov Disord 1986; 1: 193-208.
87. Kiwak KJ, Deray MJ, Shields WD. Torticollis in three children with syringomyelia and spinal cord tumor. Neurology 1983; 33: 946-8.
88. Kramer PL, de Leon D, Ozelius L, Risch N, Bressman SB, Brin MF, et al. Dystonia gene in Ashkenazi Jewish population is located on chromosome 9q32-34 [see comments]. Ann Neurol 1990; 27: 114-20. Comment in: Ann Neurol 1991; 29: 340-1.
89. Kramer PL, de Leon D, Ozelius L, Risch N, Bressman SB, Brin MF, et al. Dystonia gene in Ashkenazi Jewish population is located on chromosome 9q32-34 [see comments]. Ann Neurol 1990; 27: 114-20. Comment in: Ann Neurol 1991; 29: 340-1.
90. Kramer PL, Heiman GA, Gasser T, Ozelius LJ, de Leon D, Brin MF, et al. The DYT1 gene on 9q34 is responsible for most cases of early limb-onset idiopathic torsion dystonia in non-Jews. Am J Hum Genet 1994; 55: 468-75.
91. Lal S. Pathophysiology and pharmacotherapy of spasmodic torticollis: a review. Can J Neurol Sci 1979; 6: 427-35.
92. Lang AE, Sheehy MP, Marsden CD. Anticholinergics in adult-onset focal dystonia. Can J Neurol Sci 1982; 9: 313-9.
93. Lanteri-Minet M, Weil-Fugazza J, de Pommery J, Menetrey D. Hindbrain structures involved in pain processing as revealed by the expression of c-Fos and other immediate early gene proteins. Neuroscience 1994; 58: 287-98.
94. Leenders K, Hartvig P, Forsgren L, Holmgren G, Almay B, Eckernas SA, et al. Striatal [11C]-N-methyl-spiperone binding in patients with focal dystonia (torticollis) using positron emission tomography. J Neural Transm Park Dis Dement Sect 1993; 5: 79-87.
95. Lees AJ. Tics and related disorders. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone; 1985.
96. Lesser RP, Fahn S. Dystonia: a disorder often misdiagnosed as a conversion reaction. Am J Psychiatry 1978; 135: 349-52.
97. Leube B, Rudnicki D, Ratzlaff T, Kessler KR, Benecke R, Auburger G. Idiopathic torsion dystonia: assignment of a gene to chromosome 18p in a German family with adult onset, autosomal dominant inheritance and purely focal distribution. Hum Mol Genet 1996; 5: 1673-7.
98. Lieberman JA, Saltz BL, Johns CA, Pollack S, Kane JM. Clozapine effects on tardive dyskinesia. Psychopharmacol Bull 1989; 25: 57-62.
99. Lorenzana L, Cabezudo JM, Porras LF, Polaina M, Rodriguez-Sanchez JA, Garcia-Yagüe LM. Focal dystonia secondary to cavernous angioma of the basal ganglia: case report and review of the literature [see comments]. [Review]. Neurosurgery 1992; 31: 1108-12. Comment in: Neurosurgery 1993; 32: 1056.
100. Lorenzana L, Cabezudo JM, Porras LF, Polaina M, Rodriguez-Sanchez JA, Garcia-Yagüe LM. Focal dystonia secondary to cavernous angioma of the basal ganglia: case report and review of the literature [see comments]. [Review]. Neurosurgery 1992; 31: 1108-12. Comment in: Neurosurgery 1993; 32: 1056.
101. Lowenstein DH, Aminoff MJ. The clinical course of spasmodic torticollis. Neurology 1988; 38: 530-2.
102. Marsden CD, Fahn S. Movement Disorders 3. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann; 1994.
103. Matthews WB, Beasley P, Parry-Jones W, Garland G. Spasmodic torticollis: a combined clinical study. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1978; 41: 485-92.
104. Meares R. Natural history of spasmodic torticollis, and effect of surgery. Lancet 1971; 2: 149-50.
105. Meige H, Feindel EC. Tics and their treatment. London: Appleton; 1907.
106. Mezaki T, Kaji R, Kohara N, Kimura J. Development of general weakness in a patient with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis after focal botulinum toxin injection. Neurology 1996; 46: 845-6.
107. Micheli F, Pardal MF, Gatto M, Torres M, Paradiso G, Parera IC, et al. Flunarizine- and cinnarizine-induced extrapyramidal reactions. Neurology 1987; 37; 881-4.
108. Mitchell SW. Injuries of nerves and their consequences. Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott; 1872.
109. Molho ES, Factor SA. Basal ganglia infarction as a possible cause of cervical dystonia. Mov Disord 1993; 8: 213-6.
110. Moore AP, Blumhardt LD. A double blind trial of botulinum toxin 'A' in torticollis, with one year follow up. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1991; 54: 813-6.
111. Naumann M, Becker G, Toyka KV, Supprian T, Reiners K. Lenticular nucleus lesion in idiopathic dystonia detected by transcranial sonography. Neurology 1996; 47: 1284-90.
112. Nutt JG, Muenter MD, Aronson A, Kurland LT, Melton LJ 3d. Epidemiology of focal and generalized dystonia in Rochester, Minnesota. Mov Disord 1988; 3: 188-94.
113. Obeso JA, Rothwell JC, Lang AE, Marsden CD. Myoclonic dystonia. Neurology 1983; 33: 825-30.
114. Ozelius L, Kramer PL, Moskowitz CB, Kwiatkowski DJ, Brin MF, Bressman SB, et al. Human gene for torsion dystonia located on chromosome 9q32-q34. Neuron 1989; 2: 1427-34.
115. Panizza M, Lelli S, Nilsson J, Hallett M. H-reflex recovery curve and reciprocal inhibition of H-reflex in different kinds of dystonia. Neurology 1990; 40: 824-8.
116. Pascual-Leone A, Cammarota A, Wassermann EM, Brasil-Neto JP, Cohen LG, Hallett M. Modulation of motor cortical outputs to the reading hand of braille readers. Ann Neurol 1993; 34: 33-7.
117. Patterson RM, Little SC. Spasmodic torticollis. J Nerv Ment Dis 1943; 98: 571-99.
118. Pearce LB, Borodic GE, Johnson EA, First ER, MacCallum R. The median paralysis unit: a more pharmacologically relevant unit of biologic activity for botulinum toxin. Toxicon 1995; 33: 217-27.
119. Poewe W, Wissel J. Experience with botulinum toxin in cervical dystonia. In: Jankovic J, Hallett M, editors. Therapy with botulinum toxin. New York: Marcel Dekker; 1994. p. 211-37.
120. Rivest J, Marsden CD. Trunk and head tremor as isolated manifestations of dystonia [see comments]. Mov Disord 1990; 5: 60-5. Comment in: Mov Disord 1990; 5: 353-4.
121. Rivest J, Marsden CD. Trunk and head tremor as isolated manifestations of dystonia [see comments]. Mov Disord 1990; 5: 60-5. Comment in: Mov Disord 1990; 5: 353-4.
122. Rondot P, Marchand MP, Dellatolas G. Spasmodic torticollis - review of 220 patients. Can J Neurol Sci 1991; 18: 143-51.
123. Schiavo G, Rossetto O, Catsicas S, Polverino de Laureto P, DasGupta BR, Benfenati F, et al. Identification of the nerve terminal targets of botulinum neurotoxin serotypes A, D, and E. J Biol Chem 1993a; 268: 23784-7.
124. Schiavo G, Shone CC, Rossetto O, Alexander FC, Montecucco C. Botulinum neurotoxin serotype F is a zinc endopeptidase specific for VAMP/synaptobrevin. J Biol Chem 1993b; 268: 11516-9.
125. Schiavo G, Rossetto O, Montecucco C. Clostridial neurotoxins as tools to investigate the molecular events of neurotransmitter release. [Review]. Semin Cell Biol 1994; 5: 221-9.
126. Schneider S, Feifel E, Ott D, Schumacher M. Lucking CH, Deuschl G. Prolonged MRI T2 times of the lentiform nucleus in idiopathic spasmodic torticollis. Neurology 1994; 44: 846-50.
127. Schott GD. The relationship of peripheral trauma and pain to dystonia. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1985; 48; 698-701.
128. Schulze-Bonhage A, Ferbert A. Cervical dystonia as an isolated sign of a basal ganglia tumour [letter]. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1995; 58: 108-9.
129. Simpson LL. The origin, structure, and pharmacological activity of botulinum toxin. Pharmacol Rev 1981; 33: 155-88.
130. Stell R, Bronstein AM, Marsden CD. Vestibulo-ocular abnormalities in spasmodic torticollis before and after botulinum toxin injections. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1989; 52: 57-62.
131. Stojanovic M, Cvetkovic D, Kostic VS. A genetic study of idiopathic focal dystonias. J Neurol 1995; 242: 508-11.
132. Suchowersky O, Calne DB. Non-dystonic causes of torticollis. Adv Neurol 1988; 50: 501-8.
133. Tarlov E. On the problem of the pathology of spasmodic torticollis in man. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1970; 33: 457-63.
134. Tempel LW, Perlmutter JS. Abnormal cortical responses in patients with writer's cramp [published erratum appears in Neurology 1994; 44: 2411]. Neurology 1993; 43: 2252-7.
135. Thiel A, Dressier D, Kistel C, Ruther E. Clozapine treatment of spasmodic torticollis. Neurology 1994; 44: 957-8.
136. Thompson JH. A wry-necked family. Lancet 1896; 2: 25.
137. Tibbetts RW. Spasmodic torticollis. J Psychosom Res 1971; 15: 461-9.
138. Tolosa E, Montserrat L, Bayes A. Blink reflex studies in focal dystonias: enhanced excitability of brainstem interneurons in cranial dystonia and spasmodic torticollis. Mov Disord 1988; 3: 61-9.
139. Trugman JM, Leadbetter R, Zalis ME, Burgdorf RO, Wooten GF. Treatment of severe axial tardive dystonia with clozapine: case report and hypothesis. Mov Disord 1994; 9: 441-6.
140. Truong DD, Dubinsky R, Hermanowicz N, Olson WL, Silverman B, Koller WC. Posttraumatic torticollis. Arch Neurol 1991; 48: 221-3.
141. Truong DD, Sandroni P, van den Noort S, Matsumoto RR. Diphenhydramine is effective in the treatment of idiopathic dystonia [see comments]. Arch Neurol 1995; 52: 405-7. Comment in: Arch Neurol 1996; 53: 405.
142. Truong DD, Sandroni P, van den Noort S, Matsumoto RR. Diphenhydramine is effective in the treatment of idiopathic dystonia [see comments]. Arch Neurol 1995; 52: 405-7. Comment in: Arch Neurol 1996; 53: 405.
143. Tsui JK, Eisen A, Stoessl AJ, Calne S, Calne DB. Double-blind study of botulinum toxin in spasmodic torticollis. Lancet 1986; 2: 245-7.
144. Uitti RJ, Maraganore DM. Adult onset familial cervical dystonia: report of a family including monozygotic twins. Mov Disord 1993; 8: 489-94.
145. Van den Bergh P, Francart J, Mourin S, Kollmann P, Laterre EC. Five-year experience in the treatment of focal movement disorders with low-dose Dysport botulinum toxin. Muscle Nerve 1995; 18: 720-9.
146. van't Groenewout JL, Stone MR, Vo VN, Truong DD, Matsumoto RR. Evidence for the involvement of histamine in the antidystonic effects of diphenhydramine. Exp Neurol 1995; 134: 253-60.
147. Waddy HM, Fletcher NA, Harding AE, Marsden CD. A genetic study of idiopathic focal dystonias. Ann Neurol 1991; 29: 320-4.
148. Warner TT, Fletcher NA, Davis MB, Ahmad F, Conway D, Feve A, et al. Linkage analysis in British and French families with idiopathic torsion dystonia. Brain 1993; 116: 739-44.
149. Waterston JA, Swash M, Watkins ES. Idiopathic dystonia and cervical spondylotic myelopathy. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1989; 52: 1424-6.
150. Zeman W. Pathology of the torsion dystonias (dystonia musculorum deformans). Neurology 1970; 20: 79-88.
151. Zeman W, Kaelbling R, Pasamanick B. Idiopathic dystonia musculorum deformans. II. The formes frustes. Neurology 1960; 10: 1068-75.
152. Zhang RX, Mi ZP, Qiao JT. Changes of spinal substance P, calcitonin gene-related peptide, somatostatin, Met-enkephalin and neurotensin in rats in response to formalin-induced pain. Regul Pept 1994; 51: 25-32.
153. Ziegler DK. Prolonged relief of dystonic movements with diazepam. Neurology 1981; 31: 1457-8.
154. Zuber M, Sebald M, Bathien N, de Recondo J, Rondot P. Botulinum antibodies in dystonic patients treated with type A botulinum toxin: frequency and significance [see comments]. Neurology 1993; 43: 1715-8. Comment: in Neurology 1995; 45: 204.
155. Zuber M, Sebald M, Bathien N, de Recondo J, Rondot P. Botulinum antibodies in dystonic patients treated with type A botulinum toxin: frequency and significance [see comments]. Neurology 1993; 43: 1715-8. Comment: in Neurology 1995; 45: 204.
156. Zweig RM, Hedreen JC, Jankel WR, Casanova MF, Whitehouse PJ, Price DL. Pathology in brainstem regions of individuals with primary dystonia. Neurology 1988; 38: 702-6.