Kinship and business: Paternal and maternal Kin in Chaozhou Chinese family firms

Business History

Volumn 40, Issue 1, 1998, Pages 26-49

  Choi, Chi Cheung ^a  

^a HONG KONG UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY   (Hong Kong)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

BUSINESS STRATEGY; FAMILY FIRM; KINSHIP; NETWORKING;

CHINA;

EID: 0031940790     PISSN: 00076791     EISSN: 17437938     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/00076799800000119     Document Type: Review

References (97)

1. M.-C. Bergere, The Golden Age of Chinese Bourgeoisie, 1911-1937 (Cambridge, 1989), pp. 165-7.
2. A. McElderry, 'Securing Trust and Stability: Chinese Finance in the Late Nineteenth Century', in R. Brown (ed.), Chinese Business Enterprise in Asia (London, 1995), p.28.
3. See S.G. Redding, 'Weak Organisations and Strong Linkages: Managerial Ideology and Chinese Family Business Networks', in G.G. Hamilton (ed.), Business Networks and Economic Development in East and Southeast Asia (Hong Kong, 1991); A. Dirlik, 'Critical Reflections on "Chinese Capitalism" as Paradigm', in R.A. Brown (ed.), Chinese Business Enterprise: Critical Perspectives on Business and Management, Vol.1 (London, 1996).
4. See S.G. Redding, 'Weak Organisations and Strong Linkages: Managerial Ideology and Chinese Family Business Networks', in G.G. Hamilton (ed.), Business Networks and Economic Development in East and Southeast Asia (Hong Kong, 1991); A. Dirlik, 'Critical Reflections on "Chinese Capitalism" as Paradigm', in R.A. Brown (ed.), Chinese Business Enterprise: Critical Perspectives on Business and Management, Vol.1 (London, 1996).
5. T. Hamashita, Chugoku Keizai Shi Kenkyu (Study on the Economic History of Modern China) (Tokyo, 1989), p.228. See also N. Ichikawa, Nanyoo Kakyoo no Dootai Bunseki (A Dynamic Analysis of the Overseas Chinese in Southeast Asia) (Kyushu, 1991).
6. T. Hamashita, Chugoku Keizai Shi Kenkyu (Study on the Economic History of Modern China) (Tokyo, 1989), p.228. See also N. Ichikawa, Nanyoo Kakyoo no Dootai Bunseki (A Dynamic Analysis of the Overseas Chinese in Southeast Asia) (Kyushu, 1991).
7. The Chens are natives of Qianxi village, Longdu district, which was under the jurisdiction of Raoping county before 1949. From 1949, the district become part the Chenghai county. The Gaos are natives of Yujiao [or Huajiao] village of Shanghua district, Chenghai county. The father of Gao Chuxiang (or Koh Mah Wah as he was known in Bangkok) moved to the county city in the beginning of the nineteenth century. For the history of the Longdu district see C.C. Choi, 'Shequ he ZongzuXu' ('Community and Lineage'), in C.C. Choi (comp.), Xu Shu Boshi Shuocang Tudiji Shangye Qiyue Wenshu: di yi ji: Qiantailong Tudi Qiyue Wenshu (Land Deeds and Business Documents Collected by Dr. James Hayes, volume 1: Land Deeds of the Kin Tye Lung Company) (Tokyo, 1995), pp.231-32. For a general description of the villages in Longdu and Shanghua districts see Chenghai Xian Renmin Zhengfu Qiaowu Bangong Shi (Overseas Chinese Affairs Office of the People's Government of the Chenghai County) (comp.), Chenghai Xian Huaqiao Zhi (Gazetteer of Overseas Chinese from Chenghai County) (Chenghai, 1986).
8. The Chens are natives of Qianxi village, Longdu district, which was under the jurisdiction of Raoping county before 1949. From 1949, the district become part the Chenghai county. The Gaos are natives of Yujiao [or Huajiao] village of Shanghua district, Chenghai county. The father of Gao Chuxiang (or Koh Mah Wah as he was known in Bangkok) moved to the county city in the beginning of the nineteenth century. For the history of the Longdu district see C.C. Choi, 'Shequ he ZongzuXu' ('Community and Lineage'), in C.C. Choi (comp.), Xu Shu Boshi Shuocang Tudiji Shangye Qiyue Wenshu: di yi ji: Qiantailong Tudi Qiyue Wenshu (Land Deeds and Business Documents Collected by Dr. James Hayes, volume 1: Land Deeds of the Kin Tye Lung Company) (Tokyo, 1995), pp.231-32. For a general description of the villages in Longdu and Shanghua districts see Chenghai Xian Renmin Zhengfu Qiaowu Bangong Shi (Overseas Chinese Affairs Office of the People's Government of the Chenghai County) (comp.), Chenghai Xian Huaqiao Zhi (Gazetteer of Overseas Chinese from Chenghai County) (Chenghai, 1986).
9. See Y.Q. Zhang, 'Taiguo Huaqiao Gao Chuxiang yu Hongli Jiazu di Yeji' ('Achievements of the Thai Chinese Gao Chuxiang and Chen Hongli Families'), Shantou Wenshi (Literacy and History of Shantou), Vol.8 (1990), pp.26-41.
10. See Lin Xi, 'Cong Xianggang di Yuanfa Hang Tanqi' ('Talking from Yuan Fat Hong in Hong Kong'), Da Cheng, Nos.117-21 (1983). Lin Xi is the pseudonym of Gao Zhenbai, a grandson of Gao Chuxiang. See also K.C. Fok, 'Lineage Ties, Business Partnership and Financial Agency: The Many Roles of a Hong Kong Commercial Network' (unpublished paper presented at the Preliminary Workshop for the 11th International Economic History Congress at Milan, Atami, Japan, March 1994).
11. See Lin Xi, 'Cong Xianggang di Yuanfa Hang Tanqi' ('Talking from Yuan Fat Hong in Hong Kong'), Da Cheng, Nos.117-21 (1983). Lin Xi is the pseudonym of Gao Zhenbai, a grandson of Gao Chuxiang. See also K.C. Fok, 'Lineage Ties, Business Partnership and Financial Agency: The Many Roles of a Hong Kong Commercial Network' (unpublished paper presented at the Preliminary Workshop for the 11th International Economic History Congress at Milan, Atami, Japan, March 1994).
12. See A. Suehiro, Capital Accumulation in Thailand, 1850-1985 (Tokyo, 1989); K. Phipatseritham and K. Yoshihara (eds.), Business Groups in Thailand (Singapore, 1983). 9. Suehiro, Capital Accumulation, p.87.
13. See A. Suehiro, Capital Accumulation in Thailand, 1850-1985 (Tokyo, 1989); K. Phipatseritham and K. Yoshihara (eds.), Business Groups in Thailand (Singapore, 1983). 9. Suehiro, Capital Accumulation, p.87.
14. See A. Suehiro, Capital Accumulation in Thailand, 1850-1985 (Tokyo, 1989); K. Phipatseritham and K. Yoshihara (eds.), Business Groups in Thailand (Singapore, 1983). 9. Suehiro, Capital Accumulation, p.87.
15. For discussion of the great economic depression in the 1930s, see D. Faure, The Rural Economy of Pre-liberation China (Hong Kong, 1986).
16. For example, see Lin Xi, 'Yijiu Sansan Nian Shantou Jinrong Fengchao' ('The 1933 Financial Crisis in Shantou'), Da Cheng, No.22, pp.1-4; Lin Xi, 'Yuan Fat Hong' and Lin Xi, Tingyu Lou Suibi (Essays Written in the Rain Hearing Building) (Hong Kong, 1991), pp.259-68, 271-5, 277-92. See also interview by the author with Xu Chuanru, a descendant of Chuxiang, 9 Feb. 1993.
17. For example, see Lin Xi, 'Yijiu Sansan Nian Shantou Jinrong Fengchao' ('The 1933 Financial Crisis in Shantou'), Da Cheng, No.22, pp.1-4; Lin Xi, 'Yuan Fat Hong' and Lin Xi, Tingyu Lou Suibi (Essays Written in the Rain Hearing Building) (Hong Kong, 1991), pp.259-68, 271-5, 277-92. See also interview by the author with Xu Chuanru, a descendant of Chuxiang, 9 Feb. 1993.
18. For example, see Lin Xi, 'Yijiu Sansan Nian Shantou Jinrong Fengchao' ('The 1933 Financial Crisis in Shantou'), Da Cheng, No.22, pp.1-4; Lin Xi, 'Yuan Fat Hong' and Lin Xi, Tingyu Lou Suibi (Essays Written in the Rain Hearing Building) (Hong Kong, 1991), pp.259-68, 271-5, 277-92. See also interview by the author with Xu Chuanru, a descendant of Chuxiang, 9 Feb. 1993.
19. R. A. Brown, Capital and Entrepreneurship in South-East Asia (New York, 1994), p.136.
20. For the early trade in Chaozhou, see Y.Q. Zhang, 'Zhanglin Gangpu yu Hongtou Chuan' ('Zhanglin Port and the Red-head Junks'), Shantou Wenshi, Vol.8 (1990), pp. 205-15.
21. See Choi,'Community and Lineage', especially 237-41.
22. Interview, 6 Feb. 1993, and other occasions.
23. Yuan Fa Sheng company was owned by the Gaos of Chenghai county. The company was sold to Gao Chuxiang in the beginning of the 1850s. Chuxiang renamed the company Yuan Fat Hong. See Lin Xi, 'Yuan Fat Hong', Vol.117, p.48.
24. See C.C. Choi, 'Competition among Brothers: The Kin Tye Lung Company and its Associate Companies', in R.A. Brown (ed.), Chinese Business Enterprise in Asia (London, 1995), p.98.
25. Ibid.
26. The ancestral hall is named Guzu Jiamiao ('family hall dedicated to ancestor Gu'). It was one of the six ancestral halls in the village and the only sub-branch hall of the first major branch. See Choi, 'Community and Lineage', pp.240-41.
27. See C.C. Choi, 'Cong Tudi Qiyue kan Xiangcun Shehui Guanxi' ('Rural Social Relations as seen from Land Deeds'), in Choi (ed.), Land Deeds, p.269.
28. For instance, Xuanming's son Cizong (or Zhiyin as he was known in Hong Kong), was regarded as 'a well-known Chinese merchant ... in Bonham Strand (Hong Kong), as well as in the Strait'. South China Morning Post, 9 Oct. 1931.
29. Interview, 11 Aug. 1992. The factory was called Li Sheng.
30. See Xing Bao, No.533, 12 Nov. 1891. Also interviews with Chen Zuochang and Chen Qingyuan. The latter's father, Guiye, was one of the nine shareholders who withdrew his shares in the 1920s. Interview, 19 July 1994.
31. See Wills of Ciyun (alias Zhidan), HKRS (Hong Kong Records Series) 144, D&S 4/4070. See also Choi, 'Competition', p.96.
32. See Choi, 'Competition', pp.103-8.
33. Ibid.
34. Ibid., p. 108.
35. 'List of Persons holding shares in KinTyeLong, 1975-1992', Hong Kong Company Registry, no. 14575.
36. Choi, 'Competition', pp.98-102.
37. Cihong's eldest son was adopted. Limei was the first son born to Cihong. Interview, 27 Aug. 1990.
38. Choi, 'Competition', p.107, table 6.3.
39. C.C. Choi, 'Huaren Jiazu Qiye di Jiegou: Qiantailong yu Yuanfahang di Bijiao Yanjiu' ('Structure of Chinese Families Firms: A Comparative Study of the Kin Tye Lung and Yuan Fat Hong'), in H.S. Lim (ed), Dongnan ya Huaren yu Zhongguo Jingji yu Shehui (Southeast Asian Chinese and Chinese Economy and Society) (Singapore, 1995), p. 103.
40. See Chenghai Xian, Overseas Chinese, p. 104.
41. Ibid., p. 140.
42. Wills of Shouming [Tan Siew Meng], HKRS 144, D&S 6A/626. Nang Thongpoon Wanglee was daughter of the Lansam family, one of the wealthiest Chinese families in Bangkok. See Suehiro, Capital, p. 113.
43. Articles of the Kin Tye Lung Company Limited (Hong Kong Company Registry no. 14575), articles 3, 35, 42, 45 and 46.
44. For the internal structure of the company, see Choi, 'Competition', pp.103-8.
45. Wang Minzhang argued that the success of the Wanglee enterprise was because Wanglee used 'Outsiders, instead of relatives or lineage members in important positions like treasurers, general managers, managers of the rice mills'. M.Z. Wang, 'Hongli Jiazu Ziben di Lishi' ('History of the Family Capital of Wanglee'), Shantou Wenshi, Vol.8 (1990), p. 19. Wang listed two cases: the first one was a Chen Zhongwu who worked for Wanglee for more than 50 years and was promoted to manager of the insurance section of the Wanglee bank. The other was a Chen Yuewu, who also served Wanglee for more than 50 years, and was a treasurer of the Wanglee limited company. However, a cross-check with the genealogy and interviews with fellow lineage members in Bangkok and Qianxi revealed that both Chen Zhongwu and Chen Yuewu were members of the first major branch of the Chen lineage in Qianxi. Chen Zhongwu's great-great grand father was brother of Xuanming and Xuanyi's grandfather. Chen Yuewu's great grand father was Xuanming and Xuanyi's father's younger brother. Their genealogical orders are as follows: Xuanming and Xuanyi's father: 1-1-2-1-1-4-1 Chen Zhongwu: 1-1-2-1-1-1-3-2-2-3 Chen Yuewu: 1-1-2-1-1-4-2-4-1-3 See Z.C. Chen and X.Z. Chen (comp.), Qianmei Chenshi Huixian Gong Zupu (Genealogy of the Ancestor Huixian of the Chens of Qianmei village), (manuscript, 1992), pp.15 and 31. Interview, 19 July 1994.
46. Wang Minzhang argued that the success of the Wanglee enterprise was because Wanglee used 'Outsiders, instead of relatives or lineage members in important positions like treasurers, general managers, managers of the rice mills'. M.Z. Wang, 'Hongli Jiazu Ziben di Lishi' ('History of the Family Capital of Wanglee'), Shantou Wenshi, Vol.8 (1990), p. 19. Wang listed two cases: the first one was a Chen Zhongwu who worked for Wanglee for more than 50 years and was promoted to manager of the insurance section of the Wanglee bank. The other was a Chen Yuewu, who also served Wanglee for more than 50 years, and was a treasurer of the Wanglee limited company. However, a cross-check with the genealogy and interviews with fellow lineage members in Bangkok and Qianxi revealed that both Chen Zhongwu and Chen Yuewu were members of the first major branch of the Chen lineage in Qianxi. Chen Zhongwu's great-great grand father was brother of Xuanming and Xuanyi's grandfather. Chen Yuewu's great grand father was Xuanming and Xuanyi's father's younger brother. Their genealogical orders are as follows: Xuanming and Xuanyi's father: 1-1-2-1-1-4-1 Chen Zhongwu: 1-1-2-1-1-1-3-2-2-3 Chen Yuewu: 1-1-2-1-1-4-2-4-1-3 See Z.C. Chen and X.Z. Chen (comp.), Qianmei Chenshi Huixian Gong Zupu (Genealogy of the Ancestor Huixian of the Chens of Qianmei village), (manuscript, 1992), pp.15 and 31. Interview, 19 July 1994.
47. Xing Bao No.533, 12 Nov. 1891. Genealogical order of the nine founders of the company is as follows: Name (Name in genealogy) Genealogical order Branch Kechang not indentified not identified Zixiang (Cixiang) 1-1-2-1-1-4-1-2-2 five families Zongyuan (Cizong) 1-1-2-1-1-4-1-1-3 five families Meiji (Limei) 1-1-2-1-1-4-1-2-1-2 five families Zhaohe (Xuanhe) 1-1-3-3-1-1-1-1 first branch Xiongji (Cixiong) 1-1-3-2-4-2-1-3-1 first branch Chaoji (Xuanchao) 1-1-2-1-1-4-5-3 five families Quanji (Xuanquan) 1-1-5-1-1-1-2-2 first branch Cifu 1-1-2-1-1-3-1-3-1 five families Sources: Xing Bao, 12 Nov. 1891; Chen and Chen, Genealogy. 40. Ibid.
48. Xing Bao No.533, 12 Nov. 1891. Genealogical order of the nine founders of the company is as follows: Name (Name in genealogy) Genealogical order Branch Kechang not indentified not identified Zixiang (Cixiang) 1-1-2-1-1-4-1-2-2 five families Zongyuan (Cizong) 1-1-2-1-1-4-1-1-3 five families Meiji (Limei) 1-1-2-1-1-4-1-2-1-2 five families Zhaohe (Xuanhe) 1-1-3-3-1-1-1-1 first branch Xiongji (Cixiong) 1-1-3-2-4-2-1-3-1 first branch Chaoji (Xuanchao) 1-1-2-1-1-4-5-3 five families Quanji (Xuanquan) 1-1-5-1-1-1-2-2 first branch Cifu 1-1-2-1-1-3-1-3-1 five families Sources: Xing Bao, 12 Nov. 1891; Chen and Chen, Genealogy. 40. Ibid.
49. Xing Bao No.533, 12 Nov. 1891. Genealogical order of the nine founders of the company is as follows: Name (Name in genealogy) Genealogical order Branch Kechang not indentified not identified Zixiang (Cixiang) 1-1-2-1-1-4-1-2-2 five families Zongyuan (Cizong) 1-1-2-1-1-4-1-1-3 five families Meiji (Limei) 1-1-2-1-1-4-1-2-1-2 five families Zhaohe (Xuanhe) 1-1-3-3-1-1-1-1 first branch Xiongji (Cixiong) 1-1-3-2-4-2-1-3-1 first branch Chaoji (Xuanchao) 1-1-2-1-1-4-5-3 five families Quanji (Xuanquan) 1-1-5-1-1-1-2-2 first branch Cifu 1-1-2-1-1-3-1-3-1 five families Sources: Xing Bao, 12 Nov. 1891; Chen and Chen, Genealogy. 40. Ibid.
50. Xing Bao No.533, 12 Nov. 1891. Genealogical order of the nine founders of the company is as follows: Name (Name in genealogy) Genealogical order Branch Kechang not indentified not identified Zixiang (Cixiang) 1-1-2-1-1-4-1-2-2 five families Zongyuan (Cizong) 1-1-2-1-1-4-1-1-3 five families Meiji (Limei) 1-1-2-1-1-4-1-2-1-2 five families Zhaohe (Xuanhe) 1-1-3-3-1-1-1-1 first branch Xiongji (Cixiong) 1-1-3-2-4-2-1-3-1 first branch Chaoji (Xuanchao) 1-1-2-1-1-4-5-3 five families Quanji (Xuanquan) 1-1-5-1-1-1-2-2 first branch Cifu 1-1-2-1-1-3-1-3-1 five families Sources: Xing Bao, 12 Nov. 1891; Chen and Chen, Genealogy. 40. Ibid.
51. Chenghai Xian, Overseas Chinese, p. 105.
52. See Xinjiapo Zhonghua Zongshang Hui (Singapore Chinese Chamber of Commerce), Xinjiapo Zhonghua Zongshang Hai Tekan (Special Bulletin of the Singapore Chinese Chamber of Commerce) (Singapore, 1931 ), n.p.
53. Interview, 19 July 1994. Cizong was known in Hong Kong as Zhiyin and in Singapore as Zongyuan. One of my informants is the grandson of another major partner of the company, Guiye [or Cizhen] who was also a member of the five families (grandson of Xuanming's natal uncle).
54. Limei's will, see HKRS 144, D&S 4/3594.
55. See Xingzhou Ribao, 1 Nov. 1946, p.2.
56. Interview, Mr. Chen Songyui, 28 Dec. 1995. Unless otherwise mentioned, information of this section is based on this interview.
57. See private correspondence between Shouyan and Songyui. The author wish to thank Mr Henri Chen, Kenggou's grandson, who kindly allowed access to the documents.
58. Unless otherwise mentioned, information of this section is provided by Mr Chen Songyui and his brothers during interviews conducted from 1993 to 1996 by the author.
59. For Chen Sanyu, refer to Chenghai Xian, Overseas Chinese, p. 105. Also his obituary in Xingzhou Ribao, 20 May 1952.
60. For Chen Sanyu, refer to Chenghai Xian, Overseas Chinese, p. 105. Also his obituary in Xingzhou Ribao, 20 May 1952.
61. For Yu Zhian (Er Cher Ann), refer to interviews by Heng Hiang Khng, 16 Jan. 1986-20 Feb. 1986, in 000623/06/01-06, Oral History Department, Singapore.
62. A manager's salary in the 1930s was 40 Singapore dollars. It increased tenfold in the 1950s. See below for salaries of different posts in Tan Guan Lee in the 1950s (in Singapore dollars): coolie head: 8 cook: 10 scout: 10 cashier: 100 treasurer: 300 manager: 400 Source: interview: Mr Chen Songyui, 28 Dec. 1995.
63. Private correspondence between Chen Kenggou and Chen Shouzhen, 20 Aug. 1936. Thanks are due to Mr Henri Chen, Kenggou's grandson, who allowed access to the private documents.
64. Private correspondence between Songyui and Shouyan, 1949.
65. This criteria was emphasised repeatedly by Mr Chen Songyui during interviews conducted from 1993 to 1996 by the author.
66. Chen Chengqu, also a member of the five families, was Cizong's brother's grandson. His generation order is 1-1-2-1-1-4-1-1-2-4-1, while Cizong's generation order is 1-1-2-1-1-4-1-1-3.
67. Interview, 28 July 1994.
68. McElderry, 'Securing Trust and Stability', p.28.
69. See Lin Xi, 'Financial Crisis', 'Yuan Fat Hong' and 'Essays'. Unless otherwise mentioned, sources for this section are from Lin Xi's recollections. See also Fok, 'Lineage Ties', pp.2-19.
70. See Lin Xi, 'Financial Crisis', 'Yuan Fat Hong' and 'Essays'. Unless otherwise mentioned, sources for this section are from Lin Xi's recollections. See also Fok, 'Lineage Ties', pp.2-19.
71. Suehiro, Capital Accumulation, p.83.
72. The Gaos had trading companies in Singapore (Yuan Fa Chan), Kobe, Japan (Wen Fa Hang) and Canton (Cheng Fa Hang), a trading enterprise (Yuan Fa Sheng Hang, or Koh Mah Wah and companies as it was known in Bangkok) including five rice mills in Bangkok, a plantation in Johor, Malaysia and in Shantou several public utilities companies (water, electricity), textile factory and Chinese banks. They also owned warehouses in Hong Kong and Canton. See Lin Xi, 'Yuan Fat Hong'.
73. Lin Xi, 'Yuan Fat Hong', Vol.117, pp.51-2
74. Suehiro, Capital Accumulation, p.84-5. According to Suehiro, Koh Man Wah and the Phisanbut family jointly founded the first Chinese owned steam-power rice mill in Thailand. In 1898, they owned three of the 42 rice mills in Bangkok. By 1908, they owned four, and 1920, five large rice mills producing 13 per cent of the total production capacity.
75. Ibid, p.84.
76. Ibid.
77. Zhang, 'Achievements', pp.31-3.
78. As suggested by Wellington Chan, in order to minimise risk and maximise opportunities, many Chinese businesses tend to have their shares and directors intertwined with each other. See W.K.K. Chan, 'Chinese Business Networking and the Pacific Rim: The Family Firm, Roles Past and Present', Journal of American-East Asian Relations, 2nd issue, Vol.1, pp. 171-90.
79. For instance, the 'common company', the forth and fifth branch of the family had shares in the Yuan Zhang Sheng rice mill in Bangkok. The 'common company' also had shares in the Yu De Sheng, a Nanbei hang company owned by Chen Chunquan, his son and Shunqin.
80. For example the Yu De Sheng and Fu Tai Xiang in Hong Kong, and Cheng Fa Hang in Canton.
81. See Choi, 'Structure of Chinese Family Firms', pp.98-9.
82. Lugang Chaozhou Shanghui (Hong Kong Chaozhou Chamber of Commerce), Lugang Chaozhou Shanghui Sanshi Zhounian Jinian Tekan (Special Bulletin Commemorating the Thirtieth Anniversary of the Chaozhou Chamber of Commerce) (Hong Kong, 1951), p.2.
83. Ibid., n.p.
84. See Lin Xi, 'Yuan Fat Hong', Vol.118, p.47 and 50.
85. Ibid., Vol.118, p.48-9.
86. Ibid., Vol.118, p.50.
87. Ibid., Vol.119, pp.35-6.
88. Interview with Mr Xu Chuanru. In order to avoid being purged during the Land Reform, Xu was adopted by his father's sister and took his adopted father's surname. Interviews, 12 Dec. 1992 and 15 March 1993.
89. Lin Xi, 'Essays', p.262.
90. Lin Xi, 'Yuan Fat Hong', Vol. 121, p.57. See also a stone tablet written by Chuxiang's seventh son Xuexiu (or Huishi). The tablet, dated Guanxu 25 year (1899), can still be found in the ancestral hall.
91. For the cultural symbols of the Chens in Qianxi, see Choi Chi-Cheung, 'Cultural Symbols and Business in Southern China, 1850-1950', presented at the Chinese Business History Conference, Hong Kong University, 12-13 July 1996.
92. See, for instance, Zhang, 'Achievements'. See also Chenghai Xian, Overseas Chinese, pp.843-4.
93. See, for instance, Zhang, 'Achievements'. See also Chenghai Xian, Overseas Chinese, pp.843-4.
94. The field study at Yujiao (or Huajiao) was conducted on 5-10 March 1996.
95. Lin Xi, 'Financial Crisis', p.4.
96. Lin Xi, 'Yuan Fat Hong', Vol. 119, pp.34ff.
97. McElderry, 'Securing Trust and Stability', p.28.