The perception of face gender: The role of stimulus structure in recognition and classification

Memory and Cognition

Volumn 26, Issue 1, 1998, Pages 146-160

  O'Toole, Alice J ^a   Deffenbacher, Kenneth A ^b   Valentin, Dominique ^a   McKee, Karen ^a   Huff, David ^a   Abdi, Hervé ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS AT DALLAS   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA AT OMAHA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; CONTROLLED STUDY; DISCRIMINATIVE STIMULUS; FACE; FEMALE; GENDER; HUMAN; HUMAN EXPERIMENT; MALE; NORMAL HUMAN; RECOGNITION; VISUAL DISCRIMINATION;

EID: 0031936158     PISSN: 0090502X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3758/BF03211378     Document Type: Article

References (44)

1. ABDI, H. (1994). A neural network primer. Journal of Biological Systems, 2, 247-281.
2. ABDI, H., VALENTIN, D., EDELMAN, B., & O'TOOLE, A. J. (1995). More about the difference between men and women: Evidence from linear neural networks and the principal component approach. Perception, 24, 539-562.
3. ALLEY, T. R., & CUNNINGHAM, M. R. (1991). Averaged faces are attractive, but very attractive faces are not average. Psychological Science. 2, 123-125.
4. BROWN, E., & PERRETT, D. I. (1993). What gives a face its gender? Perception, 22, 829-840.
5. BRUCE, V., BURTON, A. M., DENCH, N., HANNA, E., HEALEY, P., MASON, O., COOMBES, A., FRIGHT, R., & LINNEY, A. (1993). Sex discrimination: How do we tell the difference between male and female faces? Perception, 22, 131-152.
6. BRUCE, V., ELLIS, H., GIBLING, F., & YOUNG, A. (1987). Parallel processing of the gender and familiarity of faces. Canadian Journal of Psychology, 41, 510-520.
7. BRUCE, V., & LANGTON, S. (1994). The use of pigmentation and shading information in recognising the sex and identities of faces. Perception, 23, 803-822.
8. BRUCE, V., & YOUNG, A. W. (1986). Understanding face recognition. British Journal of Psychology, 77, 305-327.
9. BURTON, A. M., BRUCE, V., & DENCH, N. (1993). What's the difference between men and women? Evidence from facial measurement. Perception, 22, 153-176.
10. CHRONICLE, E. P., CHAN, M., HAWKINGS, C., MASON, K., SMETHURST, K., STALLYBRASS, K., WESTROPE, K., & WRIGHT, K. (1995). You can tell by the nose - Judging sex from an isolated facial feature. Perception, 24, 969-973.
11. COTTRELL, G. W., & FLEMING, M. K. (1990). Face recognition using unsupervised feature extraction. In Proceedings of the International Conference on Neural Networks (pp. 322-325). Dordrecht: Kluwer.
12. ENLOW, D. (1982). Handbook of facial growth. Philadelphia: W. H. Saunders.
13. GOLDSTEIN, A. G., & CHANCE, J. E. (1980). Memory for faces and schema theory. Journal of Psychology, 105, 47-59.
14. GOLOMB, B. A., LAWRENCE, D. T., & SEJNOWSKI, T. J. (1991). SEXnet: A neural network identifies sex from human faces. In R. P. Lippmann, J. Moody, & D. S. Touretsky (Eds.), Advances in neural information processing systems 3 (pp. 572-577). San Mateo, CA: Morgan Kaufmann.
15. GRAY, M. S., LAWRENCE, D. T., GOLOMB, B. A., & SEJNOWSKI, T. J. (1995). A perceptron reveals the face of gender. Neural Computation, 7, 1160-1164.
16. HANCOCK, P. J. B., BURTON, A. M., & BRUCE, V. (1996). Face processing: Human perception and principal components analysis. Memory & Cognition, 24, 26-40.
17. KSHIRSAGAR, A. M. (1972). Multivariate analysis. New York: Marcel Dekker.
18. LANGLOIS, J. H., & ROGGMAN, L. A. (1990). Attractive faces are only average. Psychological Science, 1, 115-121.
19. LANGLOIS, J. H., ROGGMAN, L. A., & MUSSLEMAN, L. (1994). What is average and what is not average about attractive faces? Psychological Science, 5, 214-220.
20. LANGLOIS, J. H., ROGGMAN, L. A., MUSSLEMAN, L., & ACTON, S. (1991). A picture is worth a thousand words: A reply to "On the difficulty of averaging faces." Psychological Science, 2, 354-357.
21. LIGHT, L. L., HOLLANDER, S., & KAYRA-STUART, F. (1981). Why attractive people are harder to remember. Personality & Social Psychology, 7, 269-276.
22. LIGHT, L. L., KAYRA-STUART, F., & HOLLANDER, S. (1979). Recognition memory for typical and unusual faces. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Memory & Learning, 5, 212-228.
23. MORTON, J., & JOHNSON, M. H. (1991). CONSPEC and CONLERN: A two-process theory of infant face recognition. Psychological Review, 98, 164-181.
24. NUNNALLY, J. C. (1978). Psychometric theory (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
25. O'TOOLE, A. J., ABDI, H., DEFFENBACHER, K. A., & VALENTIN, D. (1993). Low-dimensional representation of faces in higher dimensions of the face space. Journal of the Optical Society of America A, 10, 405-410.
26. O'TOOLE, A. J., ABDI, H., DEFFENBACHER, K. A., & VALENTIN, D. (1995). A perceptual learning theory of the information in faces. In T. Valentine (Ed.), Cognitive and computational aspects of face recognition (pp. 159-182). London: Routledge.
27. O'TOOLE, A. J., DEFFENBACHER, K. A., VALENTIN, D., & ABDI, H. (1994). Structural aspects of face recognition and the other-race effect. Memory & Cognition, 22, 208-224.
28. O'TOOLE, A. J., PETERSON, J., & DEFFENBACHER, K. A. (1996). An other-race effect for categorizing faces by sex. Perception, 25, 669-676.
29. O'TOOLE, A. J., VETTER, T., TROJE, N. F., & BÜLTHOFF, H. H. (1997). Sex classification is better with three-dimensional structure than with image intensity information. Perception, 26, 75-84.
30. PERRETT, D. I., MAY, K. A., & YOSHIKAWA, S. (1994). Facial shape and judgements of female attractiveness. Nature, 368, 239-242.
31. PITTENGER, J. B. (1991). On the difficulty of averaging faces. Psychological Science, 2, 351-353.
32. RHODES, G. (1988). Looking at faces: First-order and second-order features as determinants of facial appearance. Perception, 17, 43-63.
33. ROBERTS, T., & BRUCE, V. (1988). Feature saliency in judging the sex and familiarity effaces. Perception, 17, 475-481.
34. ROWLAND, D. A., & PERRETT, D. I. (1995). Manipulating facial appearance through shape and color. IEEE Transactions on Computer Graphics & Applications, 15, 70-76.
35. SHEPHERD, J. W. (1981). Social factors in face recognition. In G. M. Davies, H. D. Ellis, & J. W. Shepherd (Eds.), Perceiving and remembering faces (pp. 55-79). London: Academic Press.
36. SHEPHERD, J. W., & ELLIS, H. D. (1973). The effect of attractiveness on recognition memory for faces. American Journal of Psychology, 86, 627-633.
37. SIROVICH, L., & KIRBY, M. (1987). Low-dimensional procedure for the characterization of human faces. Journal of the Optical Society of America A, 3, 519-524.
38. SNODGRASS, J. G., & CORWIN, J. (1988). Pragmatics of recognition memory: Applications to dementia and amnesia. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 117, 34-50.
39. TURK, M., & PENTLAND, A. (1991). Eigenfaces for recognition. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 3, 71-86.
40. VALENTIN, D., ABDI, H., & O'TOOLE. A. J. (in press). Principal component and neural network analysis of face images: Explorations into the nature of information available for classifying faces by gender. Journal of Mathematical Psychology.
41. VALENTINE, T. (1991). A unified account of the effects of distinctiveness, inversion, and race on face recognition. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 43A, 161-204.
42. VALENTINE, T., & BRUCE, V. (1986). Recognizing familiar faces: The role of distinctiveness and familiarity. Canadian Journal of Psychology, 40, 300-305.
43. VOKEY, J. R., & READ, J. D. (1992). Familiarity, memorability, and the effect of typicality on the recognition of faces. Memory & Cognition, 20, 291-302.
44. YAMAGUCHI, M. K., HIRUKAWA, T., & KANAZAWA, S. (1995). Judgment of gender through facial parts. Perception, 24, 563-575.