Aldose reductase in glucose toxicity: A potential target for the prevention of diabetic complications

Pharmacological Reviews

Volumn 50, Issue 1, 1998, Pages 21-33

  Yabe Nishimura, Chihiro ^a  

^a KYOTO PREFECTURAL UNIVERSITY OF MEDICINE   (Japan)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ALDEHYDE REDUCTASE; ALDOSE REDUCTASE INHIBITOR; GLUCOSE; SORBINIL; TOLRESTAT;

DIABETES MELLITUS; DIABETIC NEUROPATHY; ENZYME ANALYSIS; ENZYME LOCALIZATION; ENZYME SUBSTRATE; HEMODYNAMICS; HUMAN; INSULIN DEPENDENT DIABETES MELLITUS; NON INSULIN DEPENDENT DIABETES MELLITUS; NONHUMAN; OSMOREGULATION; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROTEIN FAMILY; REVIEW; TISSUE DISTRIBUTION;

ALCOHOL OXIDOREDUCTASES; ALDEHYDE REDUCTASE; DIABETES COMPLICATIONS; DIABETES MELLITUS; ENZYME INHIBITORS; HUMANS; HYPERGLYCEMIA; KIDNEY; MALE; PROTEIN STRUCTURE, TERTIARY; SEMINAL VESICLES; SUBSTRATE SPECIFICITY;

EID: 0031920049     PISSN: 00316997     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (123)

1. Akagi Y, Kador P, Kuwabara T, and Kinoshita J (1983) J Aldose reductase localization in human retinal mural cells. Invest Opthalmol & Visual Sci 24:1516-1519.
2. Arai K, Maguchi S, Fujii S, Ishibashi H, Oikawa K, and Taniguchi N (1987) Glycation and mactivation of human Cu-Zn-superoxide dismutase. Identification of the in vitro glycated sites J Biol Chem 262:16969-16972.
3. Bagnasco SM, Uchida S, Balaban RS, Kador PF, and Burg MB (1987) Induction of aldose reductase and sorbitol in renal inner medullary cells by elevated extracellular NaCI. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 84:1718-1720.
4. Barski OA, Gabbay KH, Grimshaw CE, and Bohren KM (1995) Mechanism of human aldehyde reductase: characterization of the active site pocket. Biochemistry 34: 11264-11275.
5. Bohren KM, Bullock B, Wennuth B, and Gabbay KH (1989) The aldo-keto reductase superfamily. cDNAs and deduced amino acid sequences of human aldehyde and aldose reductases J Biol Chem 264:9547-9551.
6. Borhani DW, Harter TM, and Petraah JM (1992) The crystal structure of the aldose reductase: NADPH binary complex. J Biol Chem 267:24841-24847.
7. Boulton AJ, Levin S, and Comstock J (1990) A multicentre trial of the aldose-reductase inhibitor, tolrestat, in patients with symptomatic diabetic neuropathy. Diabetologia 33:431-437.
8. Brownlee M, Cerami A, and Vlaasara H (1988) Advanced products of nonenzymatic glycosylation and the pathogenesis of diabetic vascular diseases. Diabetes Metab Rev 4:437-451.
9. Brownlee M, Vlasaara H, and Cerami A (1984) Nonenzymatic glycooylation and the Pathogenesis of diabetic complications Ann Interum Med 101-527-537.
10. Burg MB (1995) Molecular basis of osmotic regulation. Am J Physiol 268:F983-996.
11. Cameron NE and Cotter MA (1992) Impaired contraction and relaxation in aorta from streptozotocin-diabetic rats: role of polyol pathway activity Diabetologia 35:1011-1019.
12. Cameron NE, and Cotter MA (1994) The relationship of vascular changes to metabolic factors in diabetes mellitus and their role in the development of peripheral nature complications Diabetes Metab Rev 10:189-224.
13. Camerson NE, Cotter MA, Dines KC, and Maxfield EK (1993) Pharmacological manipulation of vascular endothelium function in non-diabetic and streptozotocin-diabetic rats: effects on nerve conduction, hypoxic resistance and endoneurial pillarization. Diabetologia 35:516-522.
14. Cameron NE, Cotter MA, Dines KC, Maxfield EK, Carey F, and Mirrleea DJ (1994) Aldose reductase inhibition, nerve perfusion, oxygenation and function in streplozotocin-diabetic rata: dose-response considerations and independence from a myo-inositol mechanism. Diabetologia 37:51-663.
15. Carper D, Nishimura C, Shinohara T, Dietzchold B, Wistow G, Craft C, Kador P, and Kinoshita JH (1987) Aldose reductase and p-crystallin belong to the same protein superfamily as aldehyde reductase. FEES Lett 220:209-213.
16. Carper DA, Wistow G, Nishimura C, Graham C, Watanabe K, Fujii Y, Hayashi H, and Hayaishi O (1989) A superfamily of NADPH-dependent reductases in eukaryotes and prokaryotes. Exp Eye Res 49:377-388.
17. Chakrabarti S and Sima AA (1989) Effect of aldose reductase inhibition and insulin treatment on retinal capillary basement membrane thickening in BB rats. Diabetes 38:1181-1186.
18. Chakrabarti S, Sima AA, Nakajima T, Yagihashi S, and Greene DA (1987) Aldose reductase in the BB rat: isolation, immunological identification and localization in the retina and peripheral nerve Diabetologia 30:244-251.
19. Chung S and LaMendola J (1989) Cloning and sequence determination of human placental aldose reductase gene. J Biol. Chem 264:14770-14777.
20. Corbett JA, Tilton RG, Chang K, Haaan KS, Ido Y, Wang JL, Sweetland MA, Lancaster JRJ, Williamson JR, and McDaniel ML (1992) Aminoguanidine, a novel inhibitor of nitric oxide formation, prevents diabetic vascular dysfunction. Diabetes 41:552-556.
21. Craven PA, Davidson CM, and DeRubertis FR (1990) Increase in diacylglycerol mass in isolated glomeruli by glucose from de nouv synthesis of glycerolipids Diabetes 39:667-674.
22. Daoudal S, Tournaire C, Halere A, VeyssiOere G, and Jean C (1997) Isolation of the mouse aldose reductase promoter and identification of a tonicity-responsive element. J Biol Chem 272:2615-2619.
23. Diabetes Control and Complications Trial Research Group (1993) The effect of intensive treatment of diabetes on the development and progression of long-term complications in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. N Engl J Med 329:977-986.
24. Donohue PJ, Alberts GF, Hampton BS, and Winkles JA (1994) A delayed-early gene activated by fibroblast growth factor-1 encodes a protein related to aldose reductase. J Biol Chem 269:8604-8609.
25. Dyck PJ, Karnes JL, O'Brien P, Okazaki H, Lais A, and Engelstad J (1986) The spatial distribution of fiber loss in diabetic polyneuropathy suggests ischemia. Ann Neural 19:440-449.
26. Fagerberg SE (1959) Diabetic neuropathy: a clinical and histologic study on the significance of vascular affections. Acta Med Scand 164:1-80.
27. Fagius J, Brattberg A, Jameson S, and Berne C (1985) Limited benefit of treatment of diabetic polyneuropathy with an aldose reductase inhibitor: a 24-week controlled trial. Diabetologia 28:323-329.
28. Feather MS, Flynn TG, Munro KA, Kubiseski TJ, and Walton DJ (1995) Catalysis of reduction of carbohydrate 2-oxoaldehydes (osones) by mammalian aldose reductase and aldehyde reductase. Biochim Biophys Acta 1244:10-16.
29. Ferraretto A, Negri A, Giuliani A, De GL, Fuhrman CAM, and Ronchi S (1993) Aldose reductase is involved in long-term adaptation of EUE cells to hyperosmotic stress. Biochim Biophys Acta 1175:283-288.
30. Ferraris JD, Williams CK, Jung KY, Bedford JJ, Burg MB, and Garcia-Perez A (1996) ORE, a eukaryotic minimal essential osmotic response element. The aldose reductase gene in hyperosmotic stress. J Biol Chem 271:18318-18321.
31. Frank RN, Keirn RJ, Kennedy A, and Frank KW (1983) Golactoro-induced retinal capillary basement membrane thickening: prevention by Sorbinil. Invest Opthalmol & Visual Sci 24:1519-1524.
32. Giugliano D, Marfella R, Quatraro A, De RN, Salvatore T, Cozzolino D, Ceriello A, and Torella R (1993) Tolrestat for mild diabetic neuropathy. A 52-week, randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Ann Intern Med 118:7-11.
33. Giugliano D, Misso L, and Acampora R (1995) Tolrestat in the primary prevention of diabetic neuropathy. Diabetes Care 18:536-541.
34. Gonzalez RG, Barnett P, Aguayo J, Cheng HM, and Chylack LTJ (1984) Direct measurement of polyol pathway activity in the ocular lens. Diabetes 33:196-199.
35. Greene DA and Sima AAF (1993) Effects of aldose reductase inhibitors on the progression of nerve damage. Diabetic Med 10:31S-32S
36. Greene DA, Lattimer SA, and Sima AA (1987) Sorbitol, phoaphoinositides, and sodium-potassium-ATPase in the pathogenesis of diabetic complications. N Engl J Med 316:599-606.
37. Greene DA, Sima AA, Stevens MJ, Feldman EL, Killen PD, Henry DN, Thomas T, Dananberg J, and Lattimer SA (1993) Aldose reductase inhibitors: an approach to the treatment of diabetic nerve damage. Diabetes Metab Rev 9:189-217.
38. Gui T, Tanimoto T, Kokai Y, and Nishimura C (1995) Presence of a closely related subgroup in the aldo-ketoreductaee family of the mouse. Eur J Biochem 227:448-453.
39. Hamada Y, Kitoh R, and Raskin P (1991) Crucial role of aldose reductase activity and plasma glucose level in sorbitol accumulation in erythrocytes from diabetic patients. Diabetes 40:1233-1240.
40. Hamada Y, Kitoh R, and Raskin P (1993) Association of erythrocyte aldose reductase activity with diabetic complications in type 1 diabetes. Diabetic Med 10:33-38.
41. Hammes HP, Martin S, Federlin K, Geisen K, and Brownlee M (1991) Aminoguanidine treatment inhibits the development of experimental diabetic retinopathy. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 88:11555-11558.
42. Hayman S and Kinoshita JH (1965) Isolation and properties of lens aldose reductase J Biol Chem 240:877-882.
43. Henry DN, Del MM, Greene DA, and Killen PD (1993) Altered aldose reductase gene regulation in cultured human retinal pigment epithelial cells. J Clin Invest 92: 617-623.
44. Hers HG (1956) Le Mechanisme de la transformation de glucose en fructose par les vesicules seminales. Biochim Biophys Acta 22202-203.
45. Hohman TC, Nishimura C, and Robison WG, Jr (1989) Aldose reductase and polyol in cultured pericytes of human retinal capillaries. Exp Eye Res 48:55-60.
46. Hunt JV, Bottoms MA, and Mitchinson MJ (1993) Oxidative alterations in the experimental glycation model of diabetes mellitus are due to protein-glucose adduct oxidation. Some fundamental differences in proposed mechanisms of glucose oxidation and oxidant production. Biochem J 291:529-535.
47. Ido Y, McHowat J, Chang KC, Arrigoni-Martelli E, Orfalian Z, Kilo C, Corr PB, and Williamson JR (1994) Neural dysfunction and metabolic imbalances in diabetic rats. Prevention by acetyl-L-carnitine. Diabetes 43:1469-1477.
48. Ishii H, Jirousek MR, Koya D, Takagi C, Xia P, Clermont A, Bursell S-E, Kern TS, Balias LM, Heath WF, Stramm LE, Feener EP, and King GL (1996) Amelioration of vascular dysfunctions in diabetic rats by an oral PKC β inhibitor Science 272:728-731.
49. Ito T, Nishimura C, Takahashi Y, Saito T, and Omori Y (1997) The level of erythrocyte aldose reductage: a risk factor for diabetic neuropathy? Diabetes Res Clin Pract 36:161-167.
50. Iwata N, Hara S, Nishimura C, Takahashi M, Mukai T, Takayama M, and Endo T (1996) Hormonal regulation of aldose reductase in rat ovary during the estrous cycle. Eur J Biochem 236:444-446.
51. Iwata N, Inazu N, and Satoh T (1990) The purification and properties of aldose reductase from rat ovary. Arch Biochem Biophys 282:70-77.
52. Jez JM, Flynn GF, and Penning TM (1996) A nomenclature system for the aldo-keto reductase superfamily, in Enzymology and Molecular Biology of Carbonyl Metabolism 6 (Weiner H, Lindahl R, Crabb DW, and Flynn TG, eds) pp 579-589, Plenum Press, New York.
53. Judzewitsch RG, Jaspan JB, Polonsky KS, Weinberg CR, Halter JB, Halar E, Pfeifer MA, Vukadinovic C, Bernstein L, Schneider M, Liang KY, Gabbay KH, Rubenstein AH, and Porte D, Jr (1983) Aldose reductase inhibition improves nerve conduction velocity in diabetic patients. N Engl J Med 308:119-125.
54. Kaneko M, Carper D, Nishimura C, Millen J, Bock M, and Hohman TC (1990) Induction of aldose reductase expression in rat kidney mesangial cells and Chinese hamster ovary cells under hypertonic conditions. Exp Cell Res 188:135-140.
55. 2 in human umbilical vein endothelial cells cultured in high glucose medium. Diabetologia 37:264-269.
56. Kennedy A, Frank RN, and Varma SD (1983) Aldose reductase activity in retinal and cerebral microvessels and cultured vascular cells. Invest Opthalmol & Visual Sci 24:1250-1258.
57. Khanna M, Qin K-N, Wang RW, and Cheng K-C (1995) Substrate specificity, gene structure, and tissue-specific distribution of multiple human 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase. J Biol Chem 270:20162-20168.
58. Kinoshita JH and Nishimura C (1988) The involvement of aldose reductase in diabetic complications Diabetes Metab Rev 4:323-337.
59. Ko BCB, Ruepp B, Bohren KM, and Gabbay KH (1997) Identification and characterization of multiple osmotic response sequences in the human aldose reductase gene. J Biol Chem 272:16431-16437.
60. Kolb NS, Hunsaker LA, and Vander Jagt DL (1994) Aldose reductase-catalyzed reduction of acrolein: implications in cyclophosphamide toxicity. Mol Pharmacol 45:797-801.
61. Kondo KH, Kai MH, Setoguchi Y, Eggertsen G, Sjoblom P, Sctoguchi T, Okuda KI, and Bjorkhem (1994) Cloning and expression of cDNA of human delta 4-3-oxosteroid 5 beta-reductase and substrate specificity of the expressed enzyme Eur J Biochem 219:357-363.
62. Krentz AJ, Honigsberger L, Ellis SH, Hardman M, and Nattrass M (1992) A 12-month randomized controlled study of the aldose reductase inhibitor ponalrestat in patients with chronic symptomatic diabetic neuropathy, Diabetic Med 9:463-468.
63. Lee T-S, Saltsman KA, Ohashi H, and King GL (1989) Activation of protein kinase C by elevation of glucose concentration: proposal for a mechanism in the development of diabetic vascular complications. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 86:5141-5145.
64. Matsuura K, Deyashiki Y, Bunai Y, Ohya I, and Kara A (1996) Aldose reductase is a major reductase for isocaproaldehyde, a product of side-chain cleavage of cholesterol, in human and animal adrenal glands. Arch Biochem Biophys 328:265-271.
65. McCord JM (1985) Oxygen-derived free radicals in postischemic tissue injury. N Engl J Med 312:159-163.
66. Morrison AD, Clements RS, Travis SB, Oski F, and Winegrad AJ (1970) Glucose utilization by the polyol pathway in human erythrocytes. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 40:199-205.
67. Nagata M, Hohman TC, Nishimura C, Drea CM, Oliver C, and Robison WG, Jr (1989) Polyol and vacuole formation in cultured canine lens epithelial cells. Exp Eye Res 48:667-677.
68. Newrick PG, Wilson AJ, Jakubowski J, Boulton AJM, and Ward JD (1986) Sural nerve oxygen tension in diabetes. Br Med J 293:1053-1054.
69. Nicolucci A, Carinci F, Graepel JG, Hohman TC, Ferris F, and Lachm JM (1996) The efficacy of tolrestat in the treatment of diabetic peripheral neuropathy. A metaanalysis of individual patient data. Diabetes Care 19:1091-1096.
70. Nishimura C, Furue M, Ito T, Omori Y, and Tanimoto T (1993) Quantitative determination of human aldose reductase by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Immunoassay of human aldose reductase. Biochem Pnarmacol 46:21-28.
71. Nishimura C, Graham C, Hohman TC, Nagata M, Robison WG, Jr, and Carper D (1988) Characterization of mRNA and genes for aldose reductase in rat Biochem Biophys Res Commun 153:1051-1059.
72. Nishimura C, Hamada Y, Tachikawa T, Ishikawa T, Gui T, Tsubouchi J, Hotta N, Tanimoto T, and Urakami T (1994a) Enzyme immunoassay for erythrocyte aldose reductase. Clin Chem 40:889-894.
73. Nishimura C, Hotta Y, Gui T, Seko A, Fujimaki T, Ishikawa T, Hayakawa M, Kanai A. and Saito T (1997) The level of erythrocyte aldose reductase is associated with the severity of diabetic retinopathy. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 37:173-177.
74. Nishimura C, Lou MF, and Kinoshita JH (1987) Depletion of myo-inositol and amino acids in galactosemic neuropathy. J Neurochem 49:290-295.
75. Nishimura C, Matsuura Y, Kokai Y, Akera T, Carper D. Morjana N, Lyons C, and Flynn TG (1990) Cloning and expression of human aldose reductase. J Biol Chem 265:788-9792.
76. Nishimura C, Saito T, Ito T, Otmori Y, and Tanimoto T (1994b) High levels of erythrocyte aldose reductase and diabetic retinopathy in NIDDM patients. Diabetologia 37:328-330.
77. Nishimura C, Yamaoka T, Mizutani M, Yamashita K, Akera T, and Taaimoto T (1991) Purification and characterization of the recombinant human aldose reductase expressed in baculovirus system Biochim Biophys Acta 1078:171-178.
78. O'Hare JP, Morgan MH, Alden P, Chissel S, OBrien LA, and Corrall RJ (1988) Aldose reductase inhibition in diabetic neuropathy: clinical and neurophysiological studies of one year's treatment with sorbinil. Diabetic Med 5:537-542.
79. Pailhoux EA, Martinez A, Veyssiere GM, and Jean CG (1990) Androgen-dependent protein from mouse vas deferens. cDNA cloning and protein homology with the aldo-keto reductase superfamily. J Biol Chem 268:19932-19936.
80. Petrash JM, Harter TM, and Murdock GL (1996) A potential role for aldose reductase in steroid metabolism, in Enzymology and Molecular Biology of Carbonyl Metabolism 6 (Weiner H, Lindahl R, Crabb DW, and Flynn TG, eds) pp 465-473, Plenum Press, New York.
81. Pfeifer MA, Schumer MP, and Gelber DA (1996) Aldose reductase inhibitors: the end of an erea or the need for different trial designs? Diabetes 46:S82-S89.
82. Pugliese G, Tilton GT, and Williamson JR (1991) Glucose-induced metabolic imbalances in the pathogenesis of diabetic vascular disease. Diabetes Metab Rev 7:35-59.
83. Ratliff DM, Vander Jagt DJ, Eaton RP, and Vander Jagt DL (1996) Increased levels of methylglyoxal-metabolizing enzymes in mononuclear and polymorphonuclear cells from insulin-dependent diabetic patients with diabetic complications: aldose reductase, glyoxalase I, and glyoxalase II - a clinical research center study. J Clin Endocrinol & Metab 81:488-492.
84. + channels altered by presence of beta subunit. Nature 369:289-294.
85. Robison WG, Jr, Kador PF and Kinoshita JH (1983) Retinal capillaries: basement membrane thickening by galactosemia prevented with aldose reductase inhibitor Science 221:1177-1179.
86. Robison WG, Jr, Nagata M, Laver N, Hohman TC, and Kinoshita JH (1989) Diabetic-like retinopathy in rats prevented with an aldose reductase inhibitor. Invest Opthalmol & Visual Sci 30:2285-2292.
87. Rondeau JM, Tete F, F., Podjamy A, Reymann JM, Earth P, Biellmann JF, and Moras D (1992) Novel NADPH-binding domain revealed by the crystal structure of aldose reductase. Nature 355:469-472.
88. Sato S and Kador PF (1990) Inhibition of aldehyde reductase by aldose reductase inhibitors Biochem Pharmacol 40:1033-1042.
89. Sato Y, Hotta N, Sakamoto N, Matsuoka S, Ohishi N, and Yagi K (1979) Lipid peroxide level in plasma of diabetic patients. Biochem Med 21:104-107.
90. Sima AA, Bril V, Nathaniel V, McEwen TA, Brown MB, Lattimer SA, and Greene DA (1988) Regeneration and repair of myelinated fibers in sural-nerve biopsy specimens from patients with diabetic neuropathy treated with sorbinil. N Engl J Med 319:548-555.
91. +)-ATPase in the slowing of nerve conduction in the streptozotorin diabetic rat J Clin Invest 94:853-859.
92. Stevens VJ, Vlassara H, Abati A, and Cerami A (1977) Nonenzymatic glycosylation of hemoglobin J Biol Chem 252:2998-3002.
93. Stolz A, Hammond L, Lou H, Takikawa H, Ronk M, and Shively JE (1993) cDNA Cloning and expression of the human hepatic bile acid-binding protein. J Biol Chem 268:10448-10457.
94. Tabakoff B, Anderson R, and Alivisatos SGA (1973) Enzymatic reduction of "biogenic" aldehydes in brain. Mol Pharmacol 9:428-437.
95. Tamarev AS, Zinovieva RD, Dolgilevich SM, Luchin SD, Krayev AS, Skryabin KG, and Gause GGJ (1984) A novel type of crystallin in the frog eye lens. 35-kDa polypeptide is not homologous to any of the major classes of lens crystallins. FEBS Lett 171:297-302.
96. Terubayashi H, Sato S, Niahimura C, Kador PF, and Kinoshita JH (1989) Localization of aldose and aldehyde reductase in the kidney. Kidney Int 36:843-851.
97. Tomlinson DR, Moriarty RJ, and Mayer JH (1984) Prevention and reversal of defective axonal transport and motor nerve conduction velocity in rats with experimental diabetes by treatment with the aldose reductase inhibitor Sorbinil. Diabetes 33:470-476.
98. Tuck RR, Schmelzer JD, and Low PA (1984) Endoneurial blood flow and oxygen tension in the sciatic nerve of rats with experimental diabetic neuropathy. Brain 107:935-950.
99. Turner AJ and Tipton KF (1972) The characterization of two reduced nicotinamideadenine dinucleotide phosphate-linked aldehyde reductases from pig brain. Biochem J 130:765-772.
100. Urzhumtsev A, Téte-Favier F, Mitschler A, Barbanton J, Barth P, Urzhumtseva L, Biellmann J-F, Podjarny AD, and Moras D (1997) A 'specificity' pocket inferred from the crystal structures of the complexes of aldose reductase with the pharmaceutically important inhibitors tolrestat and sorbinil Structure 5:601-612.
101. van Heyningen R (1959) Formation of polyols by the lens of the rat with 'sugar' cataract Nature 468:194-195.
102. Vander Jagt DL, Hunsaker LA, Robinson B, Stangebye LA, and Deck LM (1990) Aldehyde and aldose reductases from human placenta Heterogeneous expression of multiple enzyme forms. J Biol Chem 266:10912-10918.
103. Vander Jagt DL, Kolb NS, Vander Jagt TJ, Chino J, Martinez KJ, Hunsaker LA, and Royer RE (1995) Substrate specificity of human aldose reductase: identification of 4-hydroxynonenal as an endogenous substrate. Biochim Biophys Acta 1249:117-126.
104. Vander Jagt DL, Robinson B, Taylor KK, and Hunsaker LA (1992) Reduction of trioscs by NADPH-dependent aldo-keto reductases Aldose reductase, methylglyoxal, and diabetic complications. J Biol Chem 267:4364-4369.
105. Vander Jagt DL, Torres JE, Hunsaker LA, Deck LM, and Royer RE (1996) Physiological substrates of human aldose and aldehyde reductases, in Enzymology and Molecular Biology of Carbonyl Metabolism 6 (Weiner H. Lindahl K, Crabb DW, and Flynn TG, eds) pp 491-497, Plenum Press, New York
106. Varma SD and Kinoshita JH (1974) The absence of cataracts in mice with congenital hyperglycemia Exp Eye Res 19:577-582.
107. Wang K, Bohren KM, and Gabbay KH (1993) Characterization of the human aldose reductase gene promoter J Biol Chem 268:16052-16058.
108. Warren JC, Murdock GL, Ma Y, Goodman SR, and Zimmer WE (1993) Molecular cloning of testicular 20 alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase: identity with aldose reductase. Biochemtstry 32:1401-1406.
109. Wermuth B and Monder C (1983) Aldose and aldehyde reductase exhibit isocortico-steroid reductase activity Eur J Biochem 131:423-426.
110. Wermuth B, Burgisser H, Bohren K, and von Wartburg J-P (1982) Purification and characterization of human brain aldose reductase. Eur J Biochem 127:279-284.
111. Wermuth B, Omar A, Forster A, di Francesco C, Wolf M, von Wartburg JP, Bullock B, and Gabbay KH (1987) Primary structure of aldehyde reductase from human liver, in Enzymology and Molecular Biology of Carbonyl Metabolism: Aldehyde Dehydrogenase, Aldo-Keto Reductase, and Alcohol Dehydrogenase (Weiner H and Flynn TG, eds) pp 297-307, Alan R. Liss, New York.
112. Williams B (1995) Glucose-induced vascular smooth muscle dysfunction: the role of protein kinase C J Hypertens 13:477-486.
113. Wilson DK, Bohren KM, Gabbay KH, and Quiocho FA (1992) An unlikely sugar substrate site in the 1.65 Á structure of the human aldose reductase holoenzyme implicated in diabetic complications. Science 257:81-84.
114. Wilson DK, Nakano T, Petrash JM, and Quiocho FA (1995) 1.7 A structure of FR-1. a fibroblast growth factor-induced member of the aldo-keto reductase family. complexed with coenzyme and inhibitor. Biochemistry 34:14323-14330.
115. Wilson DK, Nakano T, Petrash JM, and Quiocho FA (1996) Structure studies of aldo-keto reductase inhibition, in Enzymology and Molecular Biology of Carbonyl Metabolism 6 (Weiner H. Lindah) R. Crabb DW, and Flynn TG, eds) pp 435-442. Plenum Press, New York.
116. Wilson DK, Tarle I, Petrash JM, and Quiocho FA (1993) Refined 1.8 Á structure of human aldose reductase completed with the potent inhibitor zopolrestat. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 90:9847-9851.
117. Winters CJ, Molowa DT, and Guzelian PS (1990) Isolation and characterization of cloned cDNAs encoding human liver chlordecone reductase. Biochemistry 29: 1080-1087.
118. Yagihashi S (1995) Pathology and pathogenetic mechanisms of diabetic neuropathy Diabetes Metab Rev 11:193-225.
119. Yagihashi S, Kamijo M, Baba M, Yagihashi N, and Nagai K (1992) Effect of aminoguanidine on functional and structural abnormalities in peripheral nerve of STZ-induced diabetic rats. Diabetes 41:47-52.
120. Yagihashi S, Yamagishi S, Wada R, Sugimoto K, Baba M, Wong HG, Fujimoto J, Nishimura C, and Kokai Y (1996) Galactosemic neuropathy in transgenic mice for human aldose reductase Diabetes 45:56-59.
121. Yamaoka T, Nishimura C, Yamashita K, Itakura M, Yarnada T, Fujimoto J, and Kokai Y (1995) Acute onset of diabetic pathological changes in transgenic mice with human aldose reductase cDNA. Diabetologia 38:255-261.
122. Zeindl-Eberhart E, Jungblut PK, Otto A, and Rabes HM (1994) Identification of tumor-associated protein variants during rat hepatocarcinogenesis. Aldose reductasr. J Biol Chem 269:14589-14594.
123. Zhu X and Eichberg J (1993) Molecular species composition of glycerophospholipids in rat sciatic nerve and its alteration in streptozotocin-induced diabetes. Biochim Biophys Acta 1168:1-12.