The motor unit in cerebral palsy

Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology

Volumn 40, Issue 4, 1998, Pages 270-277

  Rose, Jessica ^a,c   McGill, Kevin C ^b  

^a STANFORD UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^b VA PALO ALTO HEALTH CARE SYSTEM   (United States)

^c LUCILE PACKARD CHILDREN S HOSPITAL   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CEREBRAL PALSY; HUMAN; MOTOR UNIT; MUSCLE CELL; MUSCLE FATIGUE; NEUROMUSCULAR SYNAPSE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; SPASTICITY; SPINAL CORD INJURY; STROKE;

EID: 0031917088     PISSN: 00121622     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-8749.1998.tb15461.x     Document Type: Review

References (80)

1. Sutherland D, Olshen RA, Biden EN, Wyatt MP. (1988) Relevance to clinical practice. In: The Development of Mature Walking. Clinics in Developmental Medicine No. 104/5. London: MacKeith Press. p 188-91.
2. Akataki K, Mita K, Itoh K, Suzuki N, Watanabe M. (1996) Acoustic and electrical activities during voluntary isometric contraction of biceps brachii muscles in patients with spastic cerebral palsy. Muscle and Nerve 19: 1252-7.
3. Brown JK, Rodda J, Walsh EG, Wright GW. (1991) Neurophysiology of lower-limb function in hemiplegic children. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology 33: 1037-47.
4. Damiano DL, Vaughan CL, Abel MF. (1995) Muscle response to heavy resistance exercise in children with spastic cerebral palsy. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology 37: 731-9.
5. Olney SJ, MacPhail HA, Heeden DM, Boyce WF. (1990) Work and power in hemiplegic cerebral palsy gait. Physical Therapy 70: 431-8.
6. Rowland P. (1991) Diseases of the motor unit. In: Kandel ER, Schwartz JH, Jessel TM, editors. Principles of Neural Science. 3rd ed. Amdsterdam: Elsevier. p 244-5.
7. Deluca C, Erim Z. (1994) Common drive of motor units in regulation of muscle force. Trends in Neurosciences 17: 299-305.
8. Henneman E. (1990) Comments on the logical basis of muscle control. In: Binder MD, Mendell ZM, editors. The Segmental Motor System. New York: Oxford University Press. p IX.
9. Kernell D. (1990) Spinal motor neurons and their muscle fibers: mechanisms and long-term consequences of common activation patterns. In: Binder MD, Mendell ZM, editors. The Segmental Motor System. New York: Oxford University Press. p 47-8.
10. Erim Z, Deluca CJ, Mineo K, Zoki T. (1996) Rank ordered regulation of motor units. Muscle and Nerve 19: 563-73.
11. Gemperline JJ, Allen S, Walk D, Rymer WZ. (1995) Characteristics of motor unit discharge in subjects with hemiparesis. Muscle and Nerve 18: 1101-14.
12. Zajac FE.(1995) Coupling of recruitment order to the force produced by motor units: the 'size hypothesis' revisited. In: Gandevia SC, Enoka RM, McComas AJ, Stuart DG, Thomas CK, editors. Fatigue, Neural and Muscular Mechanisms. New York: Plenum Press. p 96-11.
13. Calcancie B, Bawa P. (1990) Motor unit recruitment in humans. In: Binder MD, Mendell LM, editors. The Segmental Motor System. New York: Oxford University Press. p 75-95.
14. Gamble JG. (1988) Nerve and Muscle. In: The Musculoskeletal System: Physiological Basics. New York: Raven Press. p 116-37.
15. Gollnick PD, Hodgson DR. (1986) The identification of fiber types in skeletal muscle: a continual dilemma. Exercise and Sports Science Review 14: 81-104.
16. Saltin B, Golnick PD. (1983) Skeletal muscle adaptability: significance for metabolism and performance. In: Geiger SR, Adrian RH, editors. Handbook of Physiology. Bethesda, MD: American Physiological Society. p 555-631.
17. Pinter MJ. (1990) The role of motoneuron membrane properties in the determination of recruitment order. In: Binder MD, Mendell ZM, editors. The Segmental Motor System. New York: Oxford University Press. p 165-81.
18. Lieber RL. (1986) Skeletal muscle adaptability. I: Review of basic properties. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology 28: 390-7.
19. Csongradi J, Bleck E, Ford WF. (1979) Gait electromyography in normal and spastic children, with special reference to quadriceps femoris and hamstring muscles. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology 21: 738-48.
20. Rose J, Haskell WL, Gamble JG, Hamilton RL, Brown DA, Rinsky LA. (1994) Muscle pathology and clinical measures of disability in children with cerebral palsy.Journal of Orthopaedic Research 12: 758-68.
21. Winters TF, Gage JR, Hicks R. (1987) Gait patterns in spastic hemiplegia in children and young adults.Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery 69: 437-41.
22. Bar-Or O. (1983) Pediatric Sports Medicine for the Practitioner: from Physiologic Principles to Clinical Applications. New York: Springer Verlag. p 230.
23. Tardieu C, Huet E, Bret MD, Tardieu G. (1982) Muscle hypoextensibility in children with cerebral palsy: clinical and experimental observations. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation 63: 97-102.
24. O'Dwyer NJ, Neilson PD, Nash J. (1989) Mechanisms of muscle growth related to muscle contracture in cerebral palsy. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology 31: 543-7.
25. Castle ME, Reyman TA, Schneider M. (1979) Pathology of spastic muscle in cerebral palsy. Clinical Orthopedics 142: 223-33.
26. Ito J, Araki A, Tanka H, Tasaki T, Cho K, Yamazaki R. (1996) Muscle histopathology in spastic cerebral palsy. Brain and Development 18: 299-303.
27. Milner-Brown HS, Penn RD. (1979) Pathophysiological mechanisms in cerebral palsy. Journal of Neurology. Neurosurgery and Psychiatry 42: 606-18.
28. Romanini L, Villani C, Meloni C, Calvisi V. (1989) Histological and morphological aspects of muscle in infantile cerebral palsy. II Clinica Orthopedica. Roma: Universita Degli Studi La Sapienza.
29. Lieber RL. (1988) Time course and cellular control muscle fiber transformation following chronic stimulation. In: ISI Atlas of Science, Plants and Animals. Vol. 1. Philadelphia: Institute for Scientific Information. p 189-94.
30. Grimby G, Broberg C, Krotkiewska I, Krotkiewski M. (1976) Muscle fiber composition in patients with traumatic cord lesion. Scandinavian Journal of Rehabilitation Medicine 8: 37-42.
31. Lieber RL. (1986) Skeletal muscle adaptability. II: Muscle properties following spinal-cord injury. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology 28: 533-42.
32. Dattola R, Girlanda P, Vita G, Santoro M, Roberto MI, Toscano A, Venuto C, Bardello A, Messina C. (1993) Muscle rearrangement in patients with hemiparesis after stroke: an electrophysiological and morphological study. European Journal of Neurology 33: 109-14.
33. Dietz V, Ketelsen UP, Berger W, Quintern J. (1986) Motor unit involvement in spastic paresis: relationship between leg muscle activation and histochemistry.Journal of the Neurological Sciences 75: 89-103.
34. Edstrom L. (1968) Histochemical changes in upper motor lesions. Parkinsonism and disuse: differential effect on white and red muscle fibers. Experientia 24: 916-8.
35. Edstrom L, Grimby L, Hannerz J. (1973) Correlation between recruitment order of motor units and muscle atrophy pattern in upper motoneuron lesion: significance of spasticity. Experientia 29: 560-1.
36. Edstrom L. (1970) Selective changes in the sizes of red and white muscle fibres in upper motor lesions and Parkinsonism. Journal of Neurological Sciences 11: 537-50.
37. Lieber RL. (1986) Skeletal muscle adaptability. III: Muscle properties following chronic electrical stimulation. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology. 28: 662-70.
38. Jakobsson K, Grimby L, Edstrom L. (1992) Motoneuron activity and muscle fibre type composition in hemiparesis. Scandinavian Journal of Rehabilitation Medicine 24: 115-9.
39. Rosenfalck A, Andreassen S. (1980) Impaired regulation of force and firing pattern of single motor units in patients with spasticity.Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry 43: 907-16.
40. Shahani BT, Wierzbicka MM, Parker SW. (1991) Abnormal single motor unit behavior in the upper motor neuron syndrome. Muscle and Nerve 14: 64-9.
41. Tang A, Rymer WZ. (1981) Abnormal force-EMG relations in paretic limb of hemiparetic human subjects. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry 44: 690-8.
42. Bigland-Ritchie B, Cafarelli E, Vollestad NK. (1986) Fatigue of submaximal static contractions. Acta Physiologica Scandinavica 128: (Suppl. 556) 137-48.
43. Bigland-Ritchie B, Johansson R, Lippold OCJ, Woods JJ. (1983) Contractile speed and EMG changes during fatigue of sustained maximal voluntary contractions.Journal of Neuropbysiology 50: 313-24.
44. Binder-Macleod SA. (1995) Variable-frequency stimulation patterns for the optimization of force during muscle fatigue. Muscle wisdom and the catch-like property. In: Gandevia SC, Enoka RM, McComas AJ, Stuart DG, Thomas CK, editors. Fatigue, Neural and Muscular Mechanisms. New York: Plenum Press. p 229-31.
45. Grimby L, Hannerz J, Hedman B. (1981) The fatigue and voluntary discharge properties of single motor units in man. Journal of Physiology 316: 545-54.
46. Marsden CD, Meadows JC, Merton DA. (1993). 'Muscular wisdom' that minimizes fatigue during prolonged effort in man: peak rates of motoneuron discharge and slowing of discharge during fatigue. In: Desmedt JE, editor. Advances in Neurology. Vol. 39. New York: Raven Press. p 169-212.
47. Thomas CK, Enoka RM, Gandevia SC, McComas AJ, Stuart DG. (1995) The scientific contributions of Brenda Bigland-Ritchie. In: Gandevia SC, Enoka RM, McComas AJ, Stuart DG, Thomas CK, editors. Fatigue, Neural and Muscular Mechanisms. New York: Plenum Press. p 16.
48. Hagbarth KE, Macefield V. (1995) The fusimotor system: its role in fatigue. In: Gandevia SC, Enoka RM, McComas AJ, Stuart DG, Thomas CK, editors. Fatigue, Neural and Muscular Mechanism. New York: Plenum Press. p 261-2.
49. Stuart DG, Enoka RM. (1990) Henneman's contributions in historical perspective. In: Binder MD and Mendell ZM, editors. The Segmental Motor System. New York: Oxford University Press. p 7-8.
50. Dorfman LJ, Howard JE, McGill KC. (1990) Triphasic behavioral response of motor units to submaximal fatiguing exercise. Muscle and Nerve 13: 621-8.
51. Lin J-P, Brown JK, Brotherstone R. (1994) Assessment of spasticity in hemiplegic cerebral palsy. II: Distal lower-limb reflex excitability and function. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology 36: 290-303.
52. Rack MH, Ross HF, Thilmann A. (1984) The ankle stretch reflexes in normal and spastic subjects, the response to sinusoidal movement. Brain 107: 637-54.
53. Houk JC, Crago PE, Rymer WZ. (1981) Function of the spindle dynamic response in stiffness regulation: a predictive mechanism provided by non-linear feedback. In: Taylor A, Prochazka A, editors. Muscle Receptors and Movement. London: MacMillan. p 299-309.
54. Sutherland DH. (1984) Research objectives.Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology 26: 567-8. (Editorial.)
55. Ghez C. (1991) Posture. In: Kandel ER, Schwartz JH, Jessel TM, editors. Principles of Neural Science. 3rd ed. Amsterdam: Elsevier. p 606.
56. Lin J-P, Brown JK. (1992) Peripheral and central mechanisms of hindfoot equinus in childhood hemiplegia. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology 34: 949-65.
57. Giullani C. (1991) Dorsal rhizotomy for children with cerebral palsy: support for concepts of motor control. Physical Therapy 71: 248-59.
58. Dietz V, Berger W. (1983) Normal and impaired regulation of muscle stiffness in gait: a new hypothesis about muscle hypertonia. Experimental Neurology 79: 680-7.
59. Lin J-P, Brown JK, Walsh EG. (1996) The maturation of motor dexterity: or why Johnny can't go any faster. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology 38: 244-54.
60. Mendel LM, Collins WF, Korber RH. (1990) How are la synapses distributed on spinal motoneurons to permit orderly recruitment. In: Binder MD, Mendell ZM, editors. The Segmental Motor System. New York: Oxford University Press. p 309-11.
61. Meglan D, Todd F. (1994) Kinetics of human locomotion. In: Rose J, Gamble JG, editors. Human Walking. 2nd ed. Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins. p 94.
62. Perry J. (1992) Ankle and foot gait deviations. In: Gait Analysis: Normal and Pathological Function. New York: McGraw-Hill. p 195.
63. Bleck EE. (1991) Spastic hemiplegia. In: Orthopaedic Management in Cerebral Palsy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p 240-57.
64. Gooch JL, Sandell TV. (1996) Botulinum toxin for spasticity and athetosis in children with cerebral palsy. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation 77: 508-11.
65. Koman LA, Mooney JF, Smith B, Goodman A, Mulvaney T. (1994) Management of spasticity in cerebral palsy with botulinum-A toxin: report of a preliminary, randomized, double blind trial. Journal of Pediatric Orthopaedics 14: 299-303.
66. Taylor P. (1996) Agents acting at the neuromuscular junction and autonomic ganglia. In Hardman JG, Limbird LE, Molinoff PB, Ruddon RW, editors. Goodman and Gilman's The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics. 9th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill. p 185-6.
67. Carmick J. (1995) Managing equinus in children with cerebral palsy: electrical stimulation to strengthen the triceps surae muscle. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology 37: 965-75.
68. Pape KE, Kirsch SE, Galil A, Bobulton JE, White MA, Chipman M. (1993). Neuromuscular approach of the motor deficits of cerebral palsy: a pilot study. Journal of Pediatric Orthopaedics 13: 628-33.
69. Levin MF, Hui-Chan CY. (1992) Relief of hemiparetic spasticity by TENS is associated with improvement in reflex and voluntary motor functions. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology 85: 131-42.
70. Robinson CJ, Kett NA, Bolam JM. (1988) Spasticity in spinal-cord injured patients: short-term effects of surface electrical stimulation. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation 69: 598-604.
71. Seib TR Price R, Reyes MR, Lehmann JF. (1994) The quantitative measurement of spasticity: effects of cutaneous electrical stimulation. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation 75: 746-50.
72. Hui-Chan CYW, Levin MF. (1993) Stretch reflex latencies in spastic hemiparetic subjects are prolonged after transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation. Canadian Journal of Neurological Sciences 20: 97-106.
73. Potisk KP, Gregoric M, Vodonik L. (1995) Effects of transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) on spasticity in patients with hemiplegia. Scandinavian Journal of Rehabilitation Medicine 27:169-74.
74. Dimitrijevic MM, Dimitrijevic MR, Illis LS, Nakajima K, Sharkey PC. (1986) Spinal-cord stimulation for the control of spasticity in patients with chronic spinal-cord injury: I. Clinical observations. Central Nervous System Trauma 3: 129-44.
75. Alfieri V. (1982) Electrical treatment of spasticity. Scandinavian Journal of Rehabilitation Medicine 14: 177-82.
76. Hazelwood ME, Brown JK, Rowe PJ, Slater PM. (1994) The use of therapeutic electrical stimulation in the treatment of hemiplegic cerebral palsy. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology 36: 661-73.
77. Folio MR, Fewell RR. (1983) Peabody Developmental Motor Scales and Activity Cards (manual). Allen, TX: DLM Teaching Resources.
78. Eklund G, Steen M. (1969) Muscle vibration therapy in children with cerebral palsy. Scandinavian Journal of Rehabilitation Medicine 1: 35-7.
79. Mao CC, McGill KC, Dorfman LJ. (1990) Muscle vibration facilitates orderly recruitment of motor units. Electromyography and Clinical Neurophysiology 30: 245-52.
80. Carnack DH, editor. (1987) Hams Histology. 9th ed. Philadelphia: JP Lippincott. p 398.