Sources of lead in Saudi arabia: A Review

Journal of Environmental Pathology, Toxicology and Oncology

Volumn 17, Issue 1, 1998, Pages 17-35

  Al Saleh, Iman ^a  

^a KING FAISAL SPECIALIST HOSPITAL AND RESEARCH CENTER   (Saudi Arabia)

Author keywords

Health hazards of lead; Lead; Lead toxicity

Indexed keywords

COSMETIC; HERBACEOUS AGENT; LEAD; PAINT; WATER;

AIR; BLOOD TOXICITY; BREAST MILK; DUST; ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE; FOOD; HUMAN; INDUSTRY; LAW; LEAD BLOOD LEVEL; LEAD POISONING; NEPHROTOXICITY; NEUROTOXICITY; POLLUTION; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; SAUDI ARABIA; SMOKING; SOIL;

ADOLESCENT; ADULT; CHILD; CHILD, PRESCHOOL; ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE; ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTANTS; FOOD CONTAMINATION; HUMANS; INFANT; INFANT, NEWBORN; LEAD; LEAD POISONING; SAUDI ARABIA;

EID: 0031915924     PISSN: 07318898     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (123)

1. Center for Disease Control (CDC), Preventing lead poisoning in young children: A statement by the Center for Disease Control, Atlanta: US Department of Health and Human Service/Public Health Service/Center for Disease Control, 1991.
2. Center for Disease Control (CDC), Preventing lead poisoning in young children: A statement by the Center for Disease Control, Atlanta: US Department of Health and Human Service/Public Health Service/Center for Disease Control, 1985.
3. Committee on Environmental Hazards: Committee on Accident and Poison Preventation. Statement on childhood lead poisoning. Pediatrics 1987; 79(3):457-465.
4. Al-Saleh I. The biochemical and clinical consequences of lead poisoning: A review. Medicinal Research Reviews 1994; 14(4):415-486.
5. Parry VJ. Warefare. In: Holt PM, Lambton AKS, Lewis B (eds), The Cambridge History of Islam, Volume 2, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970: 824-851.
6. Hamarneh SK. Origins of pharmacy and therapy in the near east. The Naito Foundation, English Publications, Tokyo, Japan, Series 1, No. 2, 1973.
7. Cook MA. Economic development. In: Schacht J, Bosworth CE (eds.), The Legacy of Islam, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1974: 210-243.
8. Al-Ruwaithy MA. Population of Saudi Arabia: Geographic and demographic. 1978.
9. The Middle East and North Africa, London: Europa Publication Ltd., 1989.
10. Al-Saif J. Traffic developments in Saudi Arabia: National highway safety program. Saudi Arabian national centre for science and technology, March 9-10, 1984.
11. MFNECDS, Ministry of Finance and National Economy Central Department of Statistics, The Statistical Indicator, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, 1987.
12. Moore MR. Sources of lead exposure. In: Lansdown R, Yule W (eds), Lead Toxicity History and Environmental Impact, Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986: 129-189.
13. Al-Saleh I, Taylor A. Lead concentration in the atmosphere and soil of Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Sci Total Environ 1994; 141:261-267.
14. EEC (European Economic Community), Proposal for a council directive on air quality standards for lead. Off J Eur Commun 1975; 18:29-32.
15. USEPA (United States Environmental Protection Agency), National primary and secondary ambient air quality standards for lead, 40 CFR50.12 Code of Federal Regulations. US Government Printing Press, Washington, D.C., 1987.
16. Annest JL. Trends in blood lead levels of the United States population. In: Jones RR, Rutter MJ. (eds.) Lead versus Health, Chichester: Wiley, 1983: 33-58.
17. Ohi G, Seki H, Minowa K, Ohsawa K, Mizoguchi I, Sugimori F. Lead pollution in Tokyo - the pigeon reflects its amelioration. Environ Res 1981; 26:125-129.
18. Sinn W. Relationship between lead concentration in the air and blood lead levels of people living and working in the centre of a city (Frankfurt blood lead study). II. Correlations and conclusions. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 1981; 48:1-23.
19. Facchetti S, Geiss F, Gaglione P, Colombo A, Garibaldi G, Spallanzani G, Gilli G. Isotopic lead experiment: Status report, EUR 8352 EN. In: Environment and quality of life, Commission of the European Communities, Luxembourg, 1982.
20. DHSS, Department of health and social security, Lead and Health. London: HMSO, 1980.
21. DOE, Department of the Environment, Central Directorate of Environmental Protection, UK blood lead monitoring programme 1984-1987. Results for 1985. Pollution Report No. 24, London: HMSO, 1987.
22. DOE, Department of the Environment, Central Directorate of Environmental Protection, UK blood lead monitoring programme 1984-1987. Results for 1986. Pollution Report No. 26, London: HMSO, 1988.
23. El-Shobokshy MS. The monitoring of inhalable lead particles emitted from vehicles at different atmospheric stability classes. J Aerosol Sci 1983; 14(3):248-252.
24. El-Shobokshy MS. A preliminary analysis of the inhalable particulate lead in the ambient atmosphere of the city of Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Atmos Environ 1984; 18(10):2125-2130.
25. MEPA. Ambient air quality data report, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia: MEPA, August, 1985.
26. Nasralla MM. Lead in Jeddah urban dust. Environ Pollut (series B) 1984; 8:133-141.
27. Khattak MN. Inorganic constituents in Dahran atmospheric aerosols. J Air Pollut Control Assoc 1982; 32:176-178.
28. deTreville RTP. Natural occurrence of lead. Arch Environ Health 1964; 8:212-221.
29. Twitchell KS. Saudi Arabia with an Account of the Development of its Natural Resources, 3rd ed., New Jersey: Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1958.
30. Hassan HMA, Mustfa HT, Rihan TL. Lead and chromium concentrations in the potable water of the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol 1989; 43:529-533.
31. WHO, World Health Organization. Guidelines for drinking-water quality. Second edition. Vol. 1 Recommendations. Geneva, 1993.
32. Haque KN. Feeding pattern of children under two years of age in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Ann Trop Paediatr 1983; 3(3):129-132.
33. Mahaffey KR. Nutritional factors in lead poisoning. Nutr Rev 1981; 39(10):353-362.
34. Mahaffey KR. Role of nutrition in preventation of pediatric lead toxicity. In: Chisolm JJ, O'Hara DM (eds), Lead Absorption in Children: Management of Clinical and Environmental Aspects. Baltimore: Urban and Schwartzenberg, 1982: 62-78.
35. Abdullah MA, Swailem A, Tana SA. Nutritional status of preschool children in central Saudi Arabia. Ecol Food Nutr 1982; 12:103-107.
36. Sebai ZA. The Health of the Family in a Changing Arabia: A Case Study of Primary Health Care. Tihama Publications. 1981.
37. Cronin AJ, Hanmer O, Mokhtar H. Vitamin D status in pregnant Saudi women and their newborn and the effects of vitamin D supplemention. In: The 8th Saudi Medical Conference: Riyadh, 30th Oct.-3rd Nov., 1983, 154.
38. Elidrissy ATH, Serinius F, Swailim A. Low perinatal vitamin D level and its relation to infantile rickets in Saudi Arabia. In: The 8th Saudi Medical Conference: Riyadh, 30th Oct-3rd Nov., 1983, 155.
39. Woodhouse NJY, Norton W. Low vitamin D in Saudi Arabia. KFSH Med J 1982; 2:127-131.
40. Sedrani SH, Al-Arabi K, Abanmy A, Elidrissy A. Vitamin D status of Saudi I. Effect of age, sex, and living accomodation. Saudi Medical J 1992; 13(2):151-158.
41. Ali AR, Smales OC, Aslam M. Surma and lead poisoning. Br Med J 1978; ii:915-916.
42. Warley MA, Blackledge P, O'Gorman P. Lead poisoning from eye cosmetic (letter). Br Med J 1968; i:117.
43. Green SDR, Lealman GT, Aslam M, Davies SS. Surma and blood lead concentrations. Public Health 1979; 93:371-376.
44. Aslam M, Davis SS, Healy MA. Heavy metals in some Asian medicines and cosmetics. Public Health 1979; 93:274-284.
45. Aslam M, Healy MA, Davis SS, Ali AR. Surma and blood lead in children. Lancet 1980; I:658-659.
46. Parry C, Eaton J. Kohl: A lead-hazardous eye makeup from the Third World to the First World. Environ Health Perspect 1991; 94:121-123.
47. Aslam T, Aslam M. Surma (Eye cosmetic): The gift that can be dangerous. JAMA 1996; 28:181-185.
48. Baer R, Ackerman A. Toxic Mexican folk remedies for the treatment of empacho: The case of azarcon, greta, and albayaidle. J Ethnopharmacol 1988; 24:31-39.
49. Baer R, Gaecia de Alba J, Cueto L. Lead as a Mexican folk remedy: implications for the United States. In: Childhood lead poisoning: Current Perspectives 1989; 111-119.
50. Bose A, Vashistha K, O'Loughlin BJ. Azarcon por Empacho: another cause of lead toxicity. Pediatrics 1983; 72:106-108.
51. Center for Disease Control (CDC), Lead poisoning from lead tetraoxide used as a folk remedy, Colorado, USPHS-CDC. MMWR 1982; 30:647-648.
52. Center for Disease Control (CDC), Lead poisoning from Mexican folk remedies - California. MMWR 1983; 32(42):554-555.
53. Center for Disease Control (CDC), Folk remedy-associated lead poisoning in Hmong children-Minnesota. MMWR 1983; 32(42):555-556.
54. Healy MA, Aslam M, Bamgboye OA. Traditional medicine and lead-containing preparations in Nigeria. Public Health 1984; 98:26-32.
55. Fernando NP, Healy MA, Aslam M, Davis SS, Hussein A. Lead poisoning and traditional practices: the consequences for world health. A Study in Kuwait. Public Health 1981; 95:250-260.
56. Shaltout AA, Ghawaby MM, Hassan MF, Hunt MCJ, Fernando N, Devarajan LV, Kollberg H, Guthrie R. High incidence of lead poisoning revealed by erythrucyte protoporphyrin (EPP) screening in Arabian children. Ann Trop Pediatr 1985; 5:207-210.
57. Shaltout A, Yaish SA, Fernando N. Lead encephalopathy in infants in Kuwait. A study of 20 infants with particular reference to clinical presentation and source of lead poisoning. Ann Trop Pediatr 1981; 1:209-215.
58. Shaltout AA, Guthrie R, Moussa M, Kandil H, Hassan MF, Dosai L, Hunt MCJ, Fernando NP. Erythrocyte protoporphyrin screening for lead poisoning in Bedouin children. A study from Kuwait. J Trop Pediatr 1989; 35(2):87-91.
59. Ghafour SY, Khuffash FA, Ibrahim HS, Reavey PC. Congenital lead intoxication with seizures due to prenatal exposure. Clin Pediatr 1984; 23(5): 282-283.
60. Rahman H, Alkhayat A, Menon N. Lead poisoning in infancy-unusual causes in the U.A.E. Ann Trop Paediatr 1986; 6:213-217.
61. Woolf DA. Blood lead levels in Omani children admitted to hospital. J Trop Ped 1990; 36: 314-315.
62. Woolf DA. Etiology of acute lead encephalopathy in Omani infants. J Trop Ped 1990; 36:328-330.
63. Sokas R, Absood G, Ward J. Lead levels in breast milk: a preliminary report from Al-Ain. Emirates Med J 1994; 12:235-239.
64. Moloney GE. Local healers of Qasim. In: Sabai ZA (ed), Community Health in Saudi Arabia, King Saud University, 1982.
65. El-Sheikh AM. Survey of the most important medicinal plants in Qasim and their uses. In: Sebai ZA (ed), Community Health in Saudi Arabia, King Saud University, 1982.
66. Al-Khawajah AM. Alkohl use in Saudi Arabia. Extent of use and possible lead toxicity. Trop Geograph Med 1992; 44(4):373-377.
67. Al-Hazzaa SA, Krahn PM. Kohl: a hazardous eyeliner. Int Ophthalmology 1995; 19(2):83-88.
68. Al-Kaff A, Al-Rajhi A, Tabbara K, El-Yazigi A. Kohl - the traditional eyeliner: use and analysis. Ann Saudi Med 1993; 13(1):26-30.
69. McNiel JR, Reinhard MC. Lead poisoning from house remedies. Clin Pediatr 1967; 6(3):150-156.
70. Abdullah MA. Lead poisoning among children in Saudi Arabia. J Trop Med Hyg 1984; 987:67-70.
71. Abu Melha A, Ahmed NA, El-Hassan AY. Traditional remedies and lead toxication. Trop Geograph Med 1987; 39(1):100-103.
72. Ruddock JC. Lead poisoning to children. JAMA 1924; 82:1682-1684.
73. Strong RA. Meningitis, caused by lead poisoning, in a child of nineteen months. Arch Pediatr 1920; 37:532-537.
74. Barltrop D, Killala NJP. Factors influencing exposure of children to lead. Arch Dis Child 1969; 44:476-479.
75. Stark AD, Quah RF, Meigs JW, Delouise ER. The relationship of environmental lead to blood-lead levels in children. Environ Res 1982; 27: 372-383.
76. Chisolm JJ, Mellits ED, Quaskey SA. The relationship between the level of lead absorption in children and the age, type and condition of housing. Environ Res 1985; 38:31-45.
77. Clark CS, Bornschein RL, Succop PS, Wue Hee PB, Hammond PB, Peace B. Condition and type of housing as an indicator of potential environmental lead exposure and pediatric blood lead levels. Environ Res 1985; 38:46-53.
78. Rabinowitz M, Leviton A, Bellinger D. Home furnishing, lead paint, and infant blood lead levels. Am J Public Health 1985; 75:403-404.
79. Vostal JJ, Taves E, Sayre JW, Charney E. Lead analysis of house dust: A method for the detection of another source of lead exposure in inner city children. Environ Health Perspect 1974; 7:91-97.
80. Bogden JD, Louria DB. Soil contamination from lead in paint chips. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol 1975; 14:289-293.
81. Charney E, Syre J, Coulter M. Increased lead absorption in inner city children: Where does the lead come from? Pediatrics 1980; 65(2):222-231.
82. Que-Hee SS, Peace BC, Clark CS, Boyle JR, Bornschein RL, Hammond PB. Evolution of efficient methods to sample lead sources, such as house dust and hand dust in the homes of children. Environ Res 1985; 38:77-95.
83. Al-Saleh I, Coate L. Paint: as another possible source of lead exposure in Saudi Arabia. Bull Environ Contam Tox 1995; 55(3):347-351.
84. SASO, Saudi Arabian Standards Organization (1986). Paints and varnishes, SSA 470 SASO, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
85. NAS, National Academy of Sciences. Committee on lead in the human environment, Washington, D.C. 1980.
86. McLaughlin M, Stopps GJ. Smoking and lead. Arch Environ Health 1973; 26:131-136.
87. Zielhuis RL, Stuik EJ, Herber RFM, Salle HJA, Verberk MM, Posma FD, Jagen JH. Smoking habits and levels of lead and cadmium in blood in urban women. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 1977; 39:53-58.
88. Grandjean P, Olsen NB, Hollnagel H. Influence of smoking and alcohol consumption on blood lead levels. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 1981; 48:391-397.
89. Shaper AG, Pocock SJ, Walker M, Wale CP, Clayton B, Delves HT, Hinkes L. Effects of alcohol and smoking on blood lead in middle-aged British men. Br Med J 1982; 284:299-302.
90. McIntosh MJ, Moore MR, Goldberg GS, Fell GS, Cunnungham C, Halls DJ. Studies of lead and cadmium exposure in Glasgow, U.K. Ecol Dis 1982; 1(2/3):177-184.
91. Elinder CG, Friberg L, Birger L, Jawaid M. Lead and cadmium levels in blood samples from the general population of Sweden. Environ Res 1983; 30:233-253.
92. Pocock SJ, Shaper AG, Walker M, Wale CJ, Clayton B, Delves T, Flacey RF, Packham RF, Powell P. Effects of tap water lead, water hardness, alcohol, and cigarettes on blood lead concentrations. J Epidemiol Commun Health 1983; 37:1-7.
93. Chiba M, Masironi R. Toxic and trace elements in tobacco and tobacco smoke. Bull WHO 1992; 70(2):269-275.
94. Al-Saleh I. Lead exposure in Saudi Arabia and its relationship to smoking. Biometals 1995; 8(3):243-245.
95. Walmsley J. Joint ventures in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. 2nd ed., London: Graham and Trotman, 1985.
96. Lin-Fu JS. Vulnerability of children to lead exposure and toxicity. N Engl J Med 1973; 289(24): 1289-1293.
97. Ziegler EE, Edwards BB, Jensen RL, Mahaffey KR, Fomon SJ. Absorption and retention of lead by infants. Pediatr Res 1978; 12:29-34.
98. Stark AD, Meigs JW, Quah RF, DeLouise ER. Family operational co-factors in the epidemiology of childhood lead poisoning. Arch Environ Health 1978; 33(5):222-226.
99. Al-Saleh IA. Investigations of the Prevalence and Sources of Lead Exposure in Saudi Children, PhD thesis, 1990.
100. Al-Saleh I, Devol E, Taylor A. The distribution of blood lead in 1047 Saudi Arabian children with respect to province, sex, and age. Arch Environ Health 1994; 49(6):471-476.
101. Billick IH, Curran AS, Shier DR. Analysis of pediatric blood lead levels in New York City for 1970-1976. Environ Health Perspect 1979; 31: 183-190.
102. Mahaffey KR, Annest JL, Roberts J, Murphy RS. National estimates of blood lead levels: United States 1976-1980 association with selected demographic and socioeconomic factors. N Engl J Med 1982; 307(10):573-579.
103. Al-Saleh I, De Vol E, Taylor A. A characterization of the blood lead concentrations in Saudi Arabian children. Ann Clin Biochem 1994; 31:469-472.
104. World Health Organization. WHO (1980) Technical Report, 647.
105. Joselow MM, Flores J. Application of the zinc protoporphyrin (ZP) test as a monitor of occupational exposure to lead. Am Ind Hyg Assoc J 1977; 38:63-66.
106. Grunder FI, Moffit AK. Evaluation of zinc protoporphyrin in an occupational environment. Am Ind Hyg Assoc J 1979; 40:686-694.
107. Lerner S, Gartside P, Roy B. Free erythrocyte protoporphyrin, zinc protoporphyrin and blood lead in newly reexposed smelter workers: a prospective study. Am Ind Hyg Assoc J 1982; 43(7): 516-519.
108. Peter F, Bourdeau J. Screening for undue lead absorption: correlation between lead and erythrocyte protoporphyrin. Can J Public Health 1983; 74:356-359.
109. Al-Saleh I, Taylor A, Hinton R. Usefulness of erythrocyte protoporphyrin as primary screening test for lead exposure in children. Int J Environ Health Res 1992; 2:184-191.
110. Al-Saleh I, Shinwari N. The usefulness of zinc protoporphyrin as iron deficiency screening tool for Saudi children. Int J Environ Health Res 1997; 7:55-61.
111. Al-Saleh I, Mustafa A, Dufour L, Taylor A, Hinton R. Childhood lead exposure in the city of Arar, Saudi Arabia. Arch Environ Health 1996; 51(1): 73-82.
112. Al-Saleh I, Fellow C, Delves T, Taylor A. Identification of sources of lead exposure among children in Arar, Saudi Arabia. Ann Clin Biochem 1993; 30:142-145.
113. Schroeder SR. Child-caregiver environmental factors related to lead exposure and IQ. In: Smith MA, Grant LD, Sors AI (eds), Lead Exposure and Child Development: An International Assessment, ECC and Environmental Protection Agency, 1989, 166-182.
114. Yaish HM, Niazi GA, Al-Soby A. Lead poisoning among Saudi children. Ann Saudi Med 1993; 13(5):395-401.
115. Baumann A. Uber die Durchlassigkeit der Placeta fur Blei. Arch F Gynakol 1933; 153:584-592.
116. Barltrop D. Transfer of lead to human fetus. In: Barltrop D and Burland WL (eds). Mineral Metabolism in Pediatrics. Philadelphia: Davis Co., 1969: 135-151.
117. Al-Saleh I, Khalil M, Taylor A. Lead, erythrocyte protopophyrin and haematological parameters in normal maternal and umbilical cord blood from subjects of the Riyadh region. Arch Environ Health 1995; 50(1):66-73.
118. Moghraby SA, Abdullah MA, Karrar O, Akiel AS, Shawaf TA, Majid YA. Lead concentrations in maternal and cord blood in women users of surma eye cosmetics. Ann Trop Paediatr 1989; 9:49-53.
119. Healy MA, Harrison PG, Aslam M, Davis SS, Wilson CG. Lead sulfide and traditional preparations: Routes for ingestion, and solubility and reactions in gastric fluid. J Clin Hosp Pharm 1982; 7:169-173.
120. Younes B, Al-meshari A, Al-Hakeem A, Al-Saleh S, Al-Zamel F, Al-shammari F, Alwarthan A. Lead concentrations in breast milk of nursing mothers living in Riyadh. Ann Saudi Med 1995; 15(3):249-251.
121. Ahmad P, Kutbi II, Abulfaraj WH, Ahmed M. Measurements of hair lead concentrations in children of four cities in Saudi Arabia. Environ Int 1988; 14:237-242.
122. Ahmed M, Ahmad P, Kutbi II. Lead pollution in urban and rural Saudi Arabian children. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol 1989; 43:660-666.
123. Jarallah JS, Noweir KM, Al-Shammari SA, Al-Saleh IA, Al-Zahrani MA, Al-Ayed MH. Lead exposure among school children in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: a case-control study. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol 1993; 50:730-735.