Myocardial stunning in the neonate

British Journal of Anaesthesia

Volumn 80, Issue 3, 1998, Pages 371-383

  Booker, P D ^a  

^a ALDER HEY CHILDREN'S NHS FOUNDATION TRUST   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Anaesthesia, paediatric; Complications, myocardial stunning; Surgery, cardiovascular

Indexed keywords

ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATASE (CALCIUM); ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE; CALCIUM CHANNEL; CALCIUM ION; CARDIOPLEGIC AGENT; CONTRACTILE PROTEIN; INSULIN; LACTIC ACID; MAGNESIUM ION; NITRIC OXIDE; REDUCED NICOTINAMIDE ADENINE DINUCLEOTIDE; SODIUM ION;

CALCIUM CELL LEVEL; CALCIUM HOMEOSTASIS; CARDIOPLEGIA; CORONARY ARTERY; CRYOANESTHESIA; ENERGY CONSUMPTION; GLYCOLYSIS; HEART DEPOLARIZATION; HEART MITOCHONDRION; HEART MUSCLE CONTRACTURE; HEART MUSCLE FIBER MEMBRANE; HEART MUSCLE ISCHEMIA; HEART PROTECTION; HEART SURGERY; HUMAN; NEWBORN DISEASE; NONHUMAN; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REOXYGENATION; REPERFUSION INJURY; REVIEW; SODIUM CALCIUM EXCHANGE; STUNNED HEART MUSCLE; VASCULAR ENDOTHELIUM;

EID: 0031905756     PISSN: 00070912     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/bja/80.3.371     Document Type: Review

References (117)

1. Abd-Elfattah AS, Ding M, Wechsler AS. Myocardial stunning and preconditioning: age, species and model related differences: role of AMP-5′-nucleotidase in myocardial injury and protection. Journal of Cardiac Surgery 1993; 8: 257-261.
2. Agata Y, Hiraishi S, Oguchi K, Misawa H, Horiguchi Y, Fujino N, Yashiro K, Shimada N. Changes in left ventricular output from fetal to early neonatal life. Journal of Pediatrics 1991; 119: 441-445.
3. Akita T, Abe T, Kato S, Kodama I, Toyama J. Protective effects of diltiazem and ryanodine against ischemiareperfusion injury in neonatal rabbit hearts. Journal of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery 1993; 106: 55-66.
4. Aoki M, Kawata H, Mayer JE jr. Coronary endothelial injury by cold crystalloid cardioplegic solution in neonatal lambs. Circulation 1992; 86: II-346-II-351.
5. Aoki M, Nomura F, Kawata H, Mayer JEJ. Effect of calcium and preischemic hypothermia on recovery of myocardial function after cardioplegic ischemia in neonatal lambs. Journal of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery 1993; 105: 207-213.
6. 2+ exchange activity and exchanger immunoreactivity in developing rabbit hearts. American Journal of Physiology 1992; 263: H1506-1513.
7. Artman M, Ichikawa H, Avkiran M, Coetzee WA. Sodium/ calcium exchange current density in cardiac myocytes from rabbits and guinea pigs during postnatal development. American Journal of Physiology 1995; 268: H1714-1722.
8. Baker EJ, Baker JE. Calcium and cardioplegic protection of the ischemic immature heart: impact of hypoxemia from birth. Annals of Thoracic Surgery 1994; 58: 1123-1130.
9. Baker EJ, Boerboom LE, Olinger GN, Baker JE. Tolerance of the developing heart to ischemia: impact of hypoxemia from birth. American Journal of Physiology 1995; 268: H1165-1173.
10. 2+ activation. Biochemistry 1994; 33: 8464-8471.
11. Bassani JWM, Qi M, Samarel AM, Bers DM. Contractile arrest increases sarcoplasmic reticulum calcium uptake and SERCA2 gene expression in cultured neonatal rat heart cells. Circulation Research 1994; 74: 991-997.
12. Bellinger DC, Jonas RA, Rappaport LA, Wypij D, Wernovsky G, Kuban CK, Barnes PD, Holmes GL, Hickey PR, Strand RD, Walsh AZ, Helmers SL, Constantinou JE, Carrazana EJ, Mayer JE, Hanley FL, Castaneda AR, Ware JH, Newburger JW. Developmental and neurologic status of children after heart surgery with hypothermie circulatory arrest or low-flow cardiopulmonary bypass. New England Journal of Medicine 1995; 332: 549-555.
13. Bolling K, Kronon M, Allen BS, Ramon S, Wang T, Hartz RS, Feinberg H. Myocardial protection in normal and hypoxically stressed neonatal hearts: the superiority of hypocalcemic versus normocalcemic blood cardioplegia. Journal of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery 1996; 112: 1193-1201.
14. Bolling SF, Bove EL, Gallagher KP. ATP precursor depletion and postischaemic myocardial recovery. Journal of Surgical Research 1991; 5O: 629-633.
15. Bolling SF, Olszanski DA, Bove EL, Childs KF. Enhanced myocardial protection during global ischemia with 5′-nucleotidase inhibitors. Journal of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery 1992; 103: 73-77.
16. Braunwald E, Kloner RA. The stunned myocardium: prolonged, postischemic ventricular dysfunction. Circulation 1982; 66: 1146-1149.
17. Buckberg GD. Studies of hypoxemic/reoxygenation injury: I. Linkage between cardiac function and oxidant damage. Journal of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery 1995; 110: 1164-1170.
18. Buckberg GD. Update on current techniques of myocardial protection. Annals of Thoracic Surgery 1995; 60: 805-814.
19. Cairns SP, Westerblad H, Allen DG. Changes in myoplasmic pH and calcium concentration during exposure to lactate in isolated rat ventricular myocytes. Journal of Physiology (London) 1993; 464: 561-574.
20. 2+ current in rabbit heart. Journal of Molecular and Cell Cardiology 1996; 28: 635-642.
21. Cleveland JC, Meldrum DR, Rowland RT, Banerjee A, Harken AH. Preconditioning and hypothermic cardioplegia protect human heart equally against ischemia. Annals of Thoracic Surgery 1997; 63: 147-152.
22. Cleveland JC jr, Wollmering MM, Meldrum DR, Rowland RT, Rehring RT, Sheridan BC, Harken AH, Banerjee A. Ischemic preconditioning in human and rat ventricle. American Journal of Physiology 1996; 271: H1786-1794.
23. Colan SD, Parness PA, Spevak PJ, Sanders SP. Developmental modulation of myocardial mechanics: age- and growthrelated alterations in afterload and contractility. Journal of the American College of Cardiology 1992; 19: 619-629.
24. Corno AF, Bethencourt DM, Laks H, Haas GS, Bhuta S, Davtyan HG, Flynn WM, Drinkwater DC, Laidig C, Chang P. Myocardial protection in the neonatal heart. A comparison of topical hypothermia and crystalloid and blood cardioplegic solutions. Journal of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery 1987; 93: 163-172.
25. Cyran SE, Phillips J, Ditty S, Baylen BG, Cheung J, LaNoue K. Developmental differences in cardiac myocyte calcium homeostasis after steady-state potassium depolarization: mechanisms and implications for cardioplegia. Journal of Pediatrics 1993; 122: S77-83.
26. de Jong JW, Keijzer E, Huizer T, Schoutsen R. Ischemic nucleotide breakdown increases during cardiac development due to drop in adenosine anabolism/catabolism ratio. Journal of Molecular and Cell Cardiology 1990; 22: 1065-1070.
27. del Nido PJ, Nakamura H, Mickle DAG, Illes RW, Romaschin A, Levitsky S. Maturational difference in functional/metabolic sequelae of free radical formation on reperfusion. Journal of Surgical Research 1989; 46: 532-536.
28. Dennis SG, Gevers W, Opie LH. Protons in ischemia: where do they come from, where do they go? Journal of Molecular and Cell Cardiology 1991; 23: 1077-1086.
29. Doering AE, Lederer WJ. The mechanism by which cytoplasmic protons inhibit the sodium-calcium exchanger in guinea-pig heart cells. Journal of Physiology (London) 1993; 466: 481-499.
30. Evora PRB, Pearson PJ, Schaff HV. Crystalloid cardioplegia and hypothermia do not impair endothelium-dependent relaxation or damage vascular smooth muscle of epicardial coronary arteries. Journal of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery 1992; 104: 1365-1374.
31. + exchanger attenuates neutrophil-mediated reperfusion injury. Annals of Thoracic Surgery 1995; 60: 377-381.
32. Fan D, Soei LK, Sassen LMA, Krams R, Verdouw PD. Mechanical efficiency of stunned myocardium is modulated by increased afterload dependency. Cardiovascular Research 1995; 29: 428-437.
33. Ferrari R. Metabolic disturbances during myocardial ischaemia and reperfusion. American Journal of Cardiology 1995; 76: 17B-24B.
34. Fisher DJ, Tate CA, Phillips S. Developmental regulation of the sarcoplasmic reticulum calcium pump in the rabbit heart. Pediatric Research 1992; 31: 474-479.
35. Flameng W, Andres J, Ferdinande P, Mattheussen M, Van Belle H. Mitochondrial function in myocardial stunning. Journal of Molecular and Cell Cardiology 1991; 23: 1-11.
36. Grosso MA, Banerjee A, St Cyr JA, Rogers KB, Brown JM, Clarke DR, Campbell DN, Harken AH. Cardiac 5′-nucleotidase activity increases with age and inversely relates to recovery from ischemia. Journal of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery 1992; 103: 206-209.
37. 2+ stores in neonatal human atrial myocytes. American Journal of Physiology 1995; 268:H1195-1201.
38. ++ overload in isolated perfused rabbit heart. Circulation 1994; 89: 2787-2798.
39. Heusch G, Rose J, Skyschally A, Post H, Schulz R. Calcium responsiveness in regional myocardial short-term hibernation and stunning in the in-situ porcine heart. Inotropic responses to postextrasystolic potentiation and intracoronary calcium. Circulation 1996; 93: 1556-1566.
40. Hickey PR, Mayer JE. Anti-CD18 attenuates myocardial stunning in the isolated neonatal lamb heart. Journal of Cardiac Surgery 1993; 8: 313-315.
41. Hiramatsu T, Zund G, Schermerhorn ML, Shinoka T, Miura T, Mayer JE jr. Age differences in effects of hypothermic ischemia on endothelial and ventricular function. Annals of Thoracic Surgery 1995; 60: S501-504.
42. Hirschl RB, Heiss KF, Bartlett RH. Severe myocardial dysfunction during extracorporeal membrane oxygenation. Journal of Pediatric Surgery 1992; 27: 48-53.
43. Holman WL, Spruell RD, Digerness SB, Dudelston J, Pacifico AD. Oxyhemoglobin dissociation during hypothermic blood cardioplegia arrest. Circulation 1992; 86: II339-II345.
44. Hosseinzadeh T, Tchervenkov CI, Quantz M, Chiu RC. Adverse effect of prearrest hypothermia in immature hearts: rate versus duration of cooling. Annals of Thoracic Surgery 1992; 53: 464-471.
45. Ihnken K, Morita K, Buckberg GD, Matheis G, Sherman MP, Allen BS, Young HH. Studies of hypoxemic/ reoxygenation injury: without aortic clamping. II. Evidence for reoxygenation damage. Journal of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery 1995; 110: 1171-1181.
46. Ihnken K, Morita K, Buckberg GD, Sherman MP, Ignarro LJ, Young HH. Studies of hypoxia/reoxygenation injury: with aortic clamping. XIII. Interaction between oxygen tension and cardioplegic composition in limiting nitric oxide production and oxidant damage. Journal of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery 1995; 110: 1274-1286.
47. Ihnken K, Morita K, Buckberg GD, Sherman MP, Young HH. Studies of hypoxemic/reoxygenation injury: without aortic clamping. III. Comparison of the magnitude of damage by hypoxemia/reoxygenation versus ischemia/ reperfusion. Journal of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery 1995; 110: 1182-1189.
48. Irtun O, Sirlie DG. Delivery pressure of the cardioplegic solution influences myocardial protection. European Journal of Cardiothoracic Surgery 1995; 9: 139-142.
49. Jessen ME, Abd-Elfattah AS, Wechsler AS. Neonatal myocardial oxygen consumption during ventricular fibrillation, hypothermia, and potassium arrest. Annals of Thoracic Surgery 1996; 61: 82-87.
50. Jovanovic A, Alekseev AE, Lopez JR, Shen WK, Terzic A. Adenosine prevents hyperkalemia-induced calcium loading in cardiac cells: relevance for cardioplegia. Annals of Thoracic Surgery 1997; 63: 153-161.
51. Julia P, Young HH, Buckberg GD, Kofsky ER, Bugyi HI. Studies of myocardial protection in the immature heart. Evidence for importance of amino acid metabolism in tolerance to ischemia. Journal of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery 1990; 100: 888-895.
52. Julia PL, Kofsky ER, Buckberg GD, Young HH, Bugyi HI. Studies of myocardial protection in the immature heart. Enhanced tolerance of immature versus adult myocardium to global ischemia with reference to metabolic differences. Journal of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery 1990; 100: 879-887.
53. Kaijser L, Jansson E, Schmidt W, Bomfim V. Myocardial energy depletion during profound hypothermic cardioplegia for cardiac operations. Journal of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery 1985; 90: 896-900.
54. Karck M, Schnabel PA, Kilkowski A, Schulte S, Haverich A. Adverse effects of crystalloid cardioplegia and slow cooling for protection of immature rat hearts. Annals of Thoracic Surgery 1996; 62: 702-709.
55. Karck M, Ziemer G, Zoeller M, Schulte S, Juergens KD, Weisser H, Haverich A. Protection of the chronic hypoxic immature rat heart during global ischemia. Annals of Thoracic Surgery 1995; 59: 699-706.
56. Kawata H, Aoki M, Mayer JE jr. Nitroglycerin improves functional recovery of neonatal lamb hearts after 2 hours of cold ischemia. Circulation 1993; 88:II366-371
57. Kempsford RD, Hearse DJ. Protection of the immature heart. Temperature-dependent beneficial or detrimental effects of multidose crystalloid cardioplegia in the neonatal rabbit heart. Journal of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery 1990; 99: 269-279.
58. 2+ release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum in rat skinned trabeculae: effects of pH and Pi. Cardiovascular Research 1997; 33: 314-323.
59. Kohman LJ, Brandt B, Kavey RE, Henneberger PK, Veit LJ. Effect of prolonged postischemic perfusion on neonatal hearts. Journal of Surgical Research 1993; 55: 499-503.
60. Krause SM, Jacobus WE, Becker LC. Alterations in cardiac sarcoplasmic reticulum calcium transport in the postischemic "stunned" myocardium. Circulation Research 1989; 65: 526-530.
61. Labow RS, Hendry PJ, Meek E, Keon WJ. Temperature affects human cardiac sarcoplasmic reticulum energymediated calcium transport. Journal of Molecular and Cell Cardiology 1993; 25: 1161-1170.
62. Lamers JMJ, Duncker DJ, Bezstarosti K, McFalls EO, Sassen LMA, Verdouw PD. Increased activity of the sarcoplasmic reticular calcium pump in porcine stunned myocardium. Cardiovascular Research 1993; 27: 520-524.
63. Larsen TS, Irtun O, Steigen TK, Andreasen TV, Sorlie D. Myocardial substrate oxidation during warm continuous blood cardioplegia. Annals of Thoracic Surgery 1996; 62: 762-768.
64. Lofland GK, Abd-Elfattah AS, Wyse R, de Leval M, Stark J, Wechsler AS. Myocardial adenine nucleotide metabolism in pediatric patients during hypothermic cardioplegic arrest and normothermic ischemia. Annals of Thoracic Surgery 1989; 47: 663-668.
65. Lopaschuk GD, Collins Nakai RL, Itoi T. Developmental changes in energy substrate use by the heart. Cardiovascular Research 1992; 26: 1172-1180.
66. Lopaschuk GD, Witters LA, Itoi T, Barr R, Barr A. Acetyl-CoA carboxylase involvement in the rapid maturation of fatty acid oxidation in the newborn rabbit heart. Journal of Biological Chemistry 1994; 269: 25871-25878.
67. Magni F, Panduri G, Paolocci N. Hypothermia triggers iron-dependent lipoperoxidative damage in the isolated rat heart, Free Radical Biology and Medicine 1994; 16: 465-476.
68. MaGovern JA, Pae WE jr, Waldhausen JA. Age-related changes in the efficacy of crystalloid cardioplegia. Journal of Surgical Research 1991; 51: 229-232.
69. Mahony L. Regulation of intracellular calcium concentration in the developing heart. Cardiovascular Research 1996; 31: E61-67
70. Mayer JE jr. Invited letter concerning: Normocalcemic blood or crystalloid cardioplegia provides superior neonatal myocardial protection over low-calcium cardioplegia. Journal of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery 1993; 105: 201-206.
71. McMahon WS, Gillette PC, Hinton RB, Stratton JR, Crawford FA, Spinale FG. Developmental differences in myocyte contractile response after cardioplegic arrest. Journal of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery 1996; 111: 1257-1266.
72. + exchange. Journal of Molecular and Cell Cardiology 1989; 21: 1179-1185.
73. ++ exchange in neonatal hearts. American Journal of Physiology 1989; 256: H1615-1620.
74. 2+ sensitivity of tension during stunning in porcine myocardium. Journal of Molecular and Cell Cardiology 1996; 28: 689-697.
75. Morita K, Ihnken K, Buckberg GD. Studies of hypoxemic/ reoxygenation injury: with aortic clamping. XII. Delay of cardiac reoxygenation damage in the presence of cyanosis: a new concept of controlled cardiac reoxygenation. Journal of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery 1995; 110: 1265-1273.
76. Morita K, Ihnken K, Buckberg GD, Matheis G, Sherman MP, Young H. Studies of hypoxemic/reoxygenation injury: without aortic clamping. VIII Counteraction of oxidant damage by exogenous glutamate and aspartate. Journal of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery 1995; 110: 1228-1234.
77. Morita K, Ihnken K, Buckberg GD, Matheis G, Sherman MP, Young HH. Studies of hypoxemic/reoxygenation injury: with aortic clamping. X. Exogenous antioxidants to avoid nullification of the cardioprotective effects of blood cardioplegia. Journal of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery 1995; 110: 1245-1254.
78. Morita K, Ihnken K, Buckberg GD, Sherman MP, Young HH. Studies of hypothermic/reoxygenation injury: without aortic clamping. IX Importance of avoiding perioperative hyperoxemia in the setting of previous cyanosis. Journal of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery 1995; 110: 1235-1244.
79. Mubagwa K. Sarcoplasmic reticulum function during myocardial ischaemia and reperfusion. Cardiovascular Research 1995; 30: 166-175.
80. Murashita T, Hearse DJ. Temperature-response studies of the detrimental effects of multidose versus single-dose cardioplegic solution in the rabbit heart. Journal of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery 1991; 102: 673-683.
81. Murphy AM. Contractile protein phenotypic variation during development. Cardiovascular Research 1996; 31: E25-33.
82. Nakamura H, del Nido PJ, Jimenez E, Sarin M, Feinberg H, Levitsky S. Age-related differences in cardiac susceptibility to ischemia/reperfusion injury. Journal of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery 1992; 104: 165-172.
83. Nakanishi K, Zhao ZQ, Vinten-Johansen J, Hudspeth DA, McGee DS, Hammon JWJ. Blood cardioplegia enhanced with nitric oxide donor SPM-5185 counteracts postischemic endothelial and ventricular dysfunction. Journal of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery 1995; 109: 1146-1154.
84. 3-dependent intracellular pH regulation in the premature myocardium. Circulation Research 1992; 71: 1314-1323.
85. Parrish MD. Oxygen radical injury in the immature isolated rabbit heart. Journal of Developmental Physiology 1991; 16: 243-249.
86. Pearl JM, Hiramoto J, Laks H, Drinkwater DC jr, Chang PA. Fumarate-enriched blood cardioplegia results in complete functional recovery of immature myocardium. Annals of Thoracic Surgery 1994; 57: 1636-1641.
87. Pearl JM, Laks H, Drinkwater DC, Meneshian A, Sun B, Gates RN, Chang P. Normocalcemic blood or crystalloid cardioplegia provides better neonatal myocardial protection than does low-calcium cardioplegia. Journal of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery 1993; 105: 201-206.
88. Perrault LP, Menasche P, Bel A, de Chaumaray T, Peynet J, Mondry A, Olivero P, Emanoil-Ravier R, Moaloc J-M. Ischemic preconditioning in cardiac surgery: a word of caution. Journal of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery 1996; 112: 1378-1386.
89. Post JA, Clague JR, Langer GA. Sarcolemmal phospholipid asymmetry and Ca fluxes on metabolic inhibition of neonatal rat heart cells. American Journal of Physiology 1993; 265: H461-468.
90. Pridjian AK, Bove EL, Bolling SF, Childs KF, Brosamer KM, Lupinetti FM. Developmental differences in myocardial protection in response to 5′-nucleotidase inhibition. Journal of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery 1994; 107: 520-526.
91. Quantz M, Tchervenkov C, Chiu RCJ. Unique responses of immature hearts to ischemia. Functional recovery versus initiation of contracture. Journal of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery 1992; 103: 927-935.
92. Romaschin AD, Wilson GJ, Thomas U, Feitler DA, Tumiati L, Mickle DA. Subcellular distribution of oxidant injury in myocardial reperfusion. American Journal of Physiology 1990; 259: H1 16-123.
93. Samaja M, Motterlini R, Santoro F, Dell'Antonio G, Corno A. Oxidative injury in reoxygenated and reperfused hearts. Free Radical Biology and Medicine 1994; 16: 255-262.
94. Sato H, Zhao ZQ, McGee DS, Williams MW, Hammon JWJ, Vinten-Johansen J. Supplemental L-arginine during cardioplegic arrest and reperfusion avoids regional postischemic injury. Journal of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery 1995; 110: 302-314.
95. Sawa Y, Nakano S, Shimazaki Y, Nishimura M, Kuratani T, Matsuda H. Myocardial protective effect and its mechanism of leukocyte-depleted reperfusion in neonatal rabbit hearts. Annals of Thoracic Surgery 1994; 58: 1386-1391.
96. Sawatari K, Kadoba K, Bergner KA, Mayer JE jr. Influence of initial reperfusion pressure after hypothermic cardioplegic ischemia on endothelial modulation of coronary tone in neonatal lambs. Journal of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery 1991; 101: 777-782.
97. Seung-Jun O, Zellner JL, Cox MH, Hebbar L, Brothers TE, Mukherjee R, Tempel GE, Dorman BH, Crawford FA, Spinale FG. Contributory mechanisms for the beneficial effects of myocyte preconditioning during cardioplegic arrest. Circulation 1996; 94:II-389-397.
98. 2+ exchanger in mammalian cardiac myocytes. Journal of Physiology (London) 1995; 488: 623-631.
99. Shortt KG, Stahl RF, Soller BR, Belle Isle JM, Auerbach AH, Hsi CC. Hypothermie cardioplegic arrest is associated with increased myocardial adenosine. Cardiology 1996; 87: 516-523.
100. Shum-Tim D, Tchervenkov CI, Hosseinzadeh T, Chiu RCJ. Contracture of the newborn myocardium after prolonged prearrest cooling. Journal of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery 1993; 106: 643-650.
101. 2+ sensitization predominantly enhances function and mechanical efficiency of stunned myocardium. Circulation 1994; 90: 959-969.
102. Steigen TK, Aasum E, Myrmel T, Larsen TS. Effects of fatty acids on myocardial calcium control during hypothermie perfusion. Journal of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery 1994; 107:233-241.
103. Svedjeholm R, Hakanson E, Vanhanen I. Rationale for metabolic support with amino acids and glucose-insulin-potassium (GIK) in cardiac surgery. Annals of Thoracic Surgery 1995; 59: S15-22.
104. Svedjeholm R, Hallhagen S, Ekroth R, Joachimsson PO, Ronquist G. Dopamine and high-dose insulin infusion (glucose-insulin-potassium) after a cardiac operation: effects on myocardial metabolism. Annals of Thoracic Surgery 1991; 51: 262-270.
105. Thandroyen FT, Bellato D, Katayama A, Hagler HK, Willerson JT, Buja LM. Subcellular electrolyte alterations during progressive hypoxia and following reoxygenation in isolated neonatal rat ventricular myocytes. Circulation Research 1992; 71: 106-119.
106. Tveita T, Mortensen E, Hevroy O, Refsum H, Ytrehus K. Experimental hypothermia: effects of core cooling and rewarming on hemodynamics, coronary blood flow, and myocardial metabolism in dogs. Anesthesia and Analgesia 1994; 79: 212-218.
107. Tveita T, Skandfer M, Refsum H, Ytrehus K. Experimental hypothermia and rewarming: changes in mechanical function and metabolism of rat hearts. Journal of Applied Physiology 1996; 80: 291-297.
108. Weldner PW, Myers JL, Miller CA, Arenas JD, Waldhausen JA. Improved recovery of immature myocardium with L-glutamate blood cardioplegia. Annals of Thoracic Surgery 1993; 55: 102-105.
109. Wernovsky G, Wypij D, Jonas RA, Mayer JE jr, Hanley FL, Hickey PR, Walsh AZ, Chang AC, Castaneda AR, Newburger JW, Wessel DL. Postoperative course and hemodynamic profile after the arterial switch operation in neonates and infants. A comparison of low-flow cardioplumonary bypass and circulatory arrest. Circulation 1995; 92: 2226-2235.
110. 2+ channel kinetics in acutely isolated fetal, neonatal, and adult rabbit cardiac myocytes. Circulation Research 1993; 72: 1065-1074.
111. Wetzel GT, Chen F, Klitzner TS. Sodium/calcium exchange and cell contraction in isolated neonatal and adult rabbit cardiac myocytes. American Journal of Physiology 1995; 268: H1723-1733.
112. Williams WG, Rebeyka IM, Tibshirani RJ, Coles JG, Lightfoot NE, Mehra A, Freedom RM, Trusler GA. Warm induction blood cardioplegia in the infant. Journal of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery 1990; 100: 896-901.
113. Wittnich C, Maitland A, Vincente W, Salerno T. Not all neonatal hearts are equally protected from ischemic damage during hypothermia. Annals of Thoracic Surgery 1991; 52: 1000-1004.
114. Wolf WJ, Rex KA, Geshi E, Sordahl LA. Postnatal changes in heart mitochondrial calcium and energy metabolism. American Journal of Physiology 1991; 261: H1-8.
115. Yabe K, Nasa Y, Sato M, lijima R, Takeo S. Preconditioning preserves mitochondrial function and glycolytic flux during an early period of reperfusion in perfused rat hearts. Cardiovascular Research 1997;33:677-685.
116. + exchange to ischemia-reperfusion injury after hypothermic cardioplegic arrest. Annals of Thoracic Surgery 1997; 63: 1107-1112.
117. Yellon DM, Alkhulaifi AM, Pugsley WB. Preconditioning in the human myocardium. Lancet 1993; 342: 276-277.