The role of vitamin A and related retinoids in immune function

Nutrition Reviews

Volumn 56, Issue 1 II, 1998, Pages

  Semba, Richard D ^a  

^a JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CELL NUCLEUS RECEPTOR; RETINOID; RETINOL;

ANTIBODY RESPONSE; APOPTOSIS; B LYMPHOCYTE; CHILD; CONFERENCE PAPER; CONTROLLED STUDY; HEMATOPOIESIS; HUMAN; IMMUNE RESPONSE; LANGERHANS CELL; MACROPHAGE; MICROBIAL IMMUNITY; MONOCYTE; MOUSE; MUCOSAL IMMUNITY; NATURAL KILLER CELL; NEUTROPHIL; NONHUMAN; RAT; SKIN; T LYMPHOCYTE; TUMOR IMMUNITY;

EID: 0031892614     PISSN: 00296643     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1753-4887.1998.tb01643.x     Document Type: Conference Paper

References (142)

1. Aoudjit F, Bossé J M, Stratowa C, et al (1994) Regulation of intercellular adhesion molecule-1 expression by retinoic acid: analysis of the 5′ regulatory region of the gene. Int J Cancer 58:543-9
2. Aoudjit F, Brochu N, Morin N, et al (1995) Heterodimeric retinoic acid receptor-β and retinoid X receptor-α complexes stimulate expression of the intercellular adhesion molecule-1 gene. Cell Growth Diff 6:515-21
3. Arora D, Ross AC (1994) Antibody response against tetanus toxoid is enhanced by lipopolysaccharide or tumor necrosis factor-alpha in vitamin A-sufficient and deficient rats. Am J Clin Nutr 59:922-8
4. Ballow M, Wang W, Xiang S (1996) Modulation of B-cell immunoglobulin synthesis by retinoic acid. Clin Immunol Immunopath 80:S73-81
5. Barreto ML, Santos LMP, Assis AMO, et al (1994) Effect of vitamin A supplementation on diarrhoea and acute lower-respiratory-tract infections in young children in Brazil. Lancet 344:228-31
6. Bassi V, Vitale M, Feliciello A, et al (1995) Retinoic acid induces intercellular adhesion molecule-1 hyperexpression in human thyroid carcinoma cell lines. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 80:1129-35
7. Beaton GH, Martorell R, Aronson K, et al (1993) Effectiveness of vitamin A supplementation in the control of young child morbidity and mortality in developing countries. State-of-the-Art Nutrition Policy Discussion Paper No 13. Geneva: ACC/SCN
8. Bhandari N, Bahl R, Sazawal S, et al (1997) Breast-feeding status alters the effect of vitamin A treatment during acute diarrhea in children. J Nutr 127:59-63
9. Binka FN, Ross DA, Morris SS, et al (1995) Vitamin A supplementation and childhood malaria in northern Ghana. Am J Clin Nutr 61:853-9
10. Blackfan KD, Wolbach SB (1933) Vitamin A deficiency in infants: a clinical and pathological study. J Pediatr 3:679-706
11. Blalock JE, Gifford G (1976) Suppression of interferon production by vitamin A. J Gen Virol 32:143-7
12. Blalock JE, Gifford GE (1977) Retinoic acid (vitamin A acid) induced transcriptional control of interferon production. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 74:5382-6
13. Blomhoff HK, Smeland EB, Erikstein B, et al (1992) Vitamin A is a key regulator for cell growth, cytokine production, and differentiation in normal B cells. J Biol Chem 267:23988-92
14. Blumberg B, Bolado J Jr, Derguini F, et al (1996) Novel retinoic acid receptor ligands in Xenopus embryos. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 93:4873-8
15. Bouillon M, Tessier P, Boulianne R, et al (1991) Regulation by retinoic acid of ICAM-1 expression on human tumor cell lines. Biochim Biophys Acta 1097:95-102
16. Breitman TR, Selonick SE, Collins SJ (1980) Induction of differentiation of the human promyelocytic leukemia cell line (HL-60) by retinoic acid. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 77:2936-40
17. Bresee JS, Fischer M, Dowell SF, et al (1996) Vitamin A therapy for children with respiratory syncytial virus infection: a multicenter trial in the United States. Pediatr Infect Dis J 15:777-82
18. Brown KH, Gaffar A, Alamgir SM (1979) Xerophthalmia, protein-calorie malnutrition, and infections in children. J Pediatr 95:651-6
19. Buck J, Ritter G, Dannecker L, et al (1990) Retinol is essential for growth of activated human B cells. J Exp Med 171:1613-24
20. Buck J, Derguini F, Levi E, et al (1991) Intracellular signaling by 14-hydroxy-4,14-retro retinol. Science 254:1654-5
21. Buck J, Grün F, Kimura S, et al (1993) Anhydroretinol: a naturally occurring inhibitor of lymphocyte physiology. J Exp Med 1993;178:675
22. Cantorna MT, Nashold FE, Hayes CE (1994) In vitamin A deficiency multiple mechanisms establish a regulatory T helper cell imbalance with excess Th1 and insufficient Th2 function. J Immunol 152:1515-22
23. Cantorna MT, Nashold FE, Hayes CE (1995) Vitamin A deficiency results in a priming environment conducive for Th1 cell development. Eur J Immunol 25:1673-9
24. Cantorna MT, Nashold FE, Chun TY, et al (1996) Vitamin A down-regulation of IFN-γ synthesis in cloned mouse Th1 lymphocytes depends on the CD28 costimulatory pathway. J Immunol 1996;156:2674-9
25. Carlberg C, van Huijsduijnen RH, Staple JK, et al (1994) RZRs, a new family of retinoid-related orphan receptors that function as both monomers and homodimers. Mol Endocrinol 8:757-70
26. Carman JA, Pond L, Nashold F, et al (1992) Immunity to Trichinella spiralis infection vitamin A-deficient mice. J Exp Med 175:111-20
27. Chambon P (1996) A decade of molecular biology of retinoic acid receptors. FASEB J 10:940-54
28. Chun TY, Carman JA, Hayes CE (1992) Retinoid repletion of vitamin A-deficient mice restores IgG responses. J Nutr 122:1062-9
29. Chytil F, Haq RU (1990) Vitamin A mediated gene expression. Crit Rev Eukary Gene Exp 1:61-73
30. Colizzi V, Malkovský M (1985) Augmentation of interleukin-2 production and delayed hypersensitivity in mice infected with Mycobacterium bovis and fed a diet supplemented with vitamin A acetate. Infect Immun 48:581-3
31. Committee on Infectious Diseases (1993) Vitamin A treatment of measles. Pediatrics 91:1014-5
32. Darley R, Morris A, Passas J, et al (1993) Interactions between interferon γ and retinoic acid with transforming growth factor β in the induction of immune recognition molecules. Cancer Immunol Immunother 37:112-8
33. Darwiche N, Celli G, Sly L, et al (1993) Retinoid status controls the appearance of reserve cells and keratin expression in mouse cervical epithelium. Cancer Res 53:2287-99
34. De Luca L, Little EP, Wolf G (1969) Vitamin A and protein synthesis by rat intestinal mucosa. J Biol Chem 244:701-8
35. Dillehay DL, Walia AS, Lamon EW (1988) Effects of retinoids on macrophage function and IL-1 activity. J Leuk Biol 44:353-60
36. Dowell SF, Papic Z, Bresee JS, et al (1996) Treatment of respiratory syncytial virus infection with vitamin A: a randomized, placebo-controlled trial in Santiago, Chile. Pediatr Infect Dis J 15:782-6
37. Eckert RL, Green H (1984) Cloning of cDNAs specifying vitamin A-responsive human keratins. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 81:4321-5
38. Eppinger TM, Buck J, Hämmerling U (1993) Growth control or terminal differentiation: endogenous production and differential activities of vitamin A metabolites in HL-60 cells. J Exp Med 178:1995-2005
39. Felli MP, Vacca A, Meco D, et al (1991) Retinoic acid-induced down-regulation of the interleukin-2 promotor via cis-regulatory sequences containing an octamer motif. Mol Cell Biol 11:4771-8
40. Fisher GJ, Tavakkol A, Griffiths CEM, et al (1992) Differential modulation of transforming growth factor-β1 expression and mucin deposition by retinoic acid and sodium lauryl sulfate in human skin. J Invest Dermatol 98:102-8
41. Frazier CN, Hu CK (1936) Nature and distribution according to age of cutaneous manifestations of vitamin A deficiency: a study of two hundred and seven cases. Arch Derm Syph 33:825-52
42. Friedman A, Halevy O, Schrift M, et al (1993) Retinoic acid promotes proliferation and induces expression of retinoic acid receptor-α gene in murine T lymphocytes. Cell Immunol 152:240-8
43. Fuchs E, Green H (1981) Regulation of terminal differentiation of cultured human keratinocytes by vitamin A. Cell 25:617-25
44. Gangopadhyay NN, Moldoveanu Z, Stephensen CB (1996) Vitamin A deficiency has different effects on immunoglobulin A production and transport during influenza A infection in BALB/c mice. J Nutr 126:2960-7
45. Garbe A, Buck J, Hämmerling U (1992) Retinoids are important cofactors in T cell activation. J Exp Med 176:109-17
46. Gardner FJE, Walker RA (1993) Modulation of cell surface components of human breast cancer cells by retinoic acid: enhanced HLA-DR expression. J Pathol 170:23-9
47. Gijbels MJJ, van der Ham F, van Bennekum AM, et al (1992) Alterations in cytokeratin expression precede histological changes in epithelia of vitamin A-deficient rats. Cell Tissue Res 268:197-203
48. Göttgens B, Green AR (1995) Retinoic acid and the differentiation of lymphohaemapoietic stem cells. BioEssays 17:187-9
49. Green HN, Mellanby E (1928) Vitamin A as an anti-infective agent. BMJ 2:691-6
50. Greenberg BL, Semba RD, Vink PE, et al (1997) Vitamin A deficiency and maternal-infant transmission of HIV in two metropolitan areas in the United States. AIDS 11:325-32
51. Gruaz DC, Didierjean L, Gumowski-Sunek D, et al (1990) Effect of topical retinoic acid on the interleukin 1α and β immunoreactive pool in normal human epidermis. Brit J Dermatol 123:283-9
52. Guzman JJ, Marks JF, Caren LD (1991) In vivo and in vitro studies on the effects of vitamin A on the chemiluminescent response of murine peritoneal exudate cells. Toxicol Lett 57:125-137
53. Haq RU, Pfahl M, Chytil F (1991) Retinoic acid affects the expression of nuclear retinoic acid receptors in tissues of retinol-deficient rats. Proc Natl Acad Sci 88:8272-6
54. Hemmi H, Breitman TR (1985) Induction of functional differentiation of a human monocytic leukemia cell line (THP-1) by retinoic acid and cholera toxin. Jpn J Cane Res 76:345-51
55. 3R-mediated signaling pathways. Biochem Biophys Res Comm 211:83-91
56. 2 in human synovial fluid and arachidonic acid release from rat peritoneal macrophages. Inflammation 14:543-59
57. Horn V, Minucci S, Ogryzko VV, et al (1996) RAR and RXR selective ligands cooperatively induce apoptosis and neuronal differentiation in P19 embryonal carcinoma cells. FASEB J 10:1071-7
58. Hussey GD, Klein M (1990) A randomized, controlled trial of vitamin A in children with severe measles. N Engl J Med 323:160-4
59. Hussey G, Hughes J, Potgieter S, et al (1996) Vitamin A status and supplementation and its effects on immunity in children with AIDS. Abstracts of the XVII International Vitamin A Consultative Group Meeting, Guatemala City. Washington, DC: International Life Sciences Institute, p 6
60. Ikeda K, Matsuo S, Asano K, et al (1994) Modulation of cytokine secretion by mesenteric lymph node cells from vitamin A-deficient mice during Hymenolepis nana infection. In Vivo 8:1015-8
61. Israel H, Odziemiec C, Ballow M (1991) The effects of retinoic acid on immunoglobulin synthesis by human cord blood mononuclear cells. Clin Immunol Immunopath 59:417-25
62. Iwata M, Mukai M, Nakai Y, et al (1992) Retinoic acids inhibit activation-driven apoptosis in T cell hybridomas and thymocytes. J Immunol 149:3302-8
63. Johns GC, Nduati RW, Mbori-Ngacha D, et al (1997) Genital shedding of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 DNA during pregnancy: association with immunosuppression, abnormal cervical or vaginal discharge, and severe vitamin A deficiency. J Infect Dis 175:57-62
64. Kastner P, Mark M, Chambon P (1995) Nonsteroid nuclear receptors: what are genetic studies telling us about their role in real life? Cell 83:859-69
65. Katz DR, Drzymala M, Turton JA, et al (1987a) Regulation of accessory cell function by retinoids in murine immune responses. Brit J Exp Path 68:343-50
66. Katz DR, Mukherjee S, Maisey J, et al (1987b) Vitamin A acetate as a regulator of accessory cell function in delayed-type hypersensitivity responses Int Archs Allergy Appl Immun 82:53-6
67. Lotan R (1996) Retinoids in cancer chemoprevention. FASEB J 10:1031-9
68. Maisey J, Miller K (1986) Assessment of the ability of mice fed on vitamin A supplemented diet to respond to a variety of potential contact sensitizers. Contact Dermatitis 15:17-23
69. Malkovský M, Edwards AJ, Hunt R, et al (1983a) T-cell-mediated enhancement of host-versus-graft reactivity in mice fed a diet enriched in vitamin A acetate. Nature 302:338-40
70. Malkovský M, Doré J C, Hunt R, et al (1983b) Enhancement of specific antitumor immunity in mice fed a diet enriched in vitamin A acetate. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 80:6322-6
71. Manna B, Lund M, Ashbaugh P, et al (1994) Effect of retinoic acid on mucin gene expression in rat airways in vitro. Biochem J 297:309-13
72. Manna B, Ashbaugh P, Bhattacharyya SN (1995) Retinoic-acid regulated cellular differentiation and mucin gene expression in isolated rabbit tracheal epithelial cells in culture. Inflammation 19:489-502
73. Matikainen S, Serkkola E, Hurme M (1991) Retinoic acid enhances IL-1β expression in myeloid leukemia cells and in human monocytes. J Immunol 147:162-7
74. McDowell EM, Keenan KP, Huang M (1984) Effects of vitamin A-deprivation on hamster tracheal epithelium: a quantitative morphologic study. Virchows Arch B 45:197-219
75. Meunier L, Bohjanen K, Voorhees JJ, et al (1994) Retinoic acid upregulates human Langerhans cell antigen presentation and surface expression of HLA-DR and CD11c, a β2 integrin critically involved in T-cell activation. J Invest Dermatol 103:775-9
76. Molloy CJ, Laskin JD (1985) Alterations in mouse epidermal keratin production induced by dietary vitamin A deficiency. Ann N Y Acad Sci 455:739-40
77. Molloy CL, Laskin JD (1988) Effect of retinoid deficiency on keratin expression in mouse bladder. Exp Mol Pathol 49:128-40
78. Molrine DC, Polk DB, Ciamarra A, et al (1995) Impaired human responses to tetanus toxoid in vitamin A-deficient SCID mice reconstituted with human peripheral blood lymphocytes. Infect Immun 63:2867-72
79. Mostad SB, Overbaugh J, DeVange DM, et al (1997) Hormonal contraception, vitamin A deficiency, and other risk factors of shedding of HIV-1 infected cells from the cervix and vagina. Lancet 350:922-7
80. Nagy L, Thomázy VA, Shipley GL, et al (1995) Activation of retinoid X receptors induces apoptosis in HL-60 cell lines. Mol Cell Biol 15:3540-51
81. Napoli JL (1996) Retinoic acid biosynthesis and metabolism. FASEB J 10:993-1001
82. Nauss KM (1986) Influence of vitamin A status on the immune system. In: Bauernfeind JC (ed), Vitamin A deficiency and its control. Orlando, FL: Academic Press, pp 207-43
83. Nduati RW, John GC, Richardson BA, et al (1995) Human immunodeficiency virus type 1-infected cells in breast milk: association with immunosuppression and vitamin A deficiency. J Infect Dis 172:1461-8
84. 3 and retinoic acid in the regulation of CD14 and CD23 expression during monocytic differentiation of U-937 cells. J Immunol 150:3487-95
85. Ortiz MA, Piedrafita FJ, Pfahl M, et al (1995) TOR: a new orphan receptor expressed in the thymus that can modulate retinoid and thyroid hormone signals. Mol Endocrinol 9:1679-91
86. Pasatiempo AMG, Bowman TA, Taylor CE, et al (1989) Vitamin A depletion and repletion: effects on antibody response to the capsular polysaccharide of Streptococcus pneumoniae, type III. Am J Clin Nutr 49:501-10
87. Pasatiempo AMG, Kinoshita M, Foulke DT, et al (1994) The antibody response of vitamin A-deficient rats to pneumococcal polysaccharide is enhanced through coimmunization with lipopolysaccharide. J Infect Dis 169:441-4
88. Pfahl M, Chytil F (1996) Regulation of metabolism by retinoic acid and its nuclear receptors. Annu Rev Nutr 16:257-83
89. Rahman MM, Mahalanabis D, Alvarez JO, et al (1997) Effect of early vitamin A supplementation on cell-mediated immunity in infants younger than 6 mo. Am J Clin Nutr 65:144-8
90. Retnakaran R, Flock G, Giguère V (1994) Identification of RVR, a novel orphan nuclear receptor that acts as a negative transcriptional regulator. Mol Endocrinol 8:1234-44
91. Rojanapo W, Lamb AJ, Olson JA (1980) The prevalence, metabolism and migration of goblet cells in rat intestine following the induction of rapid, synchronous vitamin A deficiency. J Nutr 110:178-88
92. Ross AC (1992) Vitamin A status: relationship to immunity and the antibody response. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 200:303-20
93. Sailstad DM, Krishnan SD, Tepper JS, et al (1995) Dietary vitamin A enhances sensitivity of the local lymph node assay. Toxicology 96:157-63
94. Scrimshaw NS, Taylor CE, Gordon JE (1968) Interactions of nutrition and infection. Geneva: World Health Organization
95. Semba RD, Muhilal, Scott AL, et al (1992) Depressed immune response to tetanus in children with vitamin A deficiency. J Nutr 122:101-7
96. Semba RD, Muhilal, Ward BJ, et al (1993a) Abnormal T-cell subset proportions in vitamin A-deficient children. Lancet 341:5-8
97. Semba RD, Graham NMH, Caiaffa WT, et al (1993b) Increased mortality associated with vitamin A deficiency during human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection. Arch Intern Med 153:2149-54
98. Semba RD (1994a) Vitamin A, immunity, and infection. Clin Infect Dis 19:489-99
99. Semba RD, Muhilal, Scott AL, et al (1994b) Effect of vitamin A supplementation on IgG subclass responses to tetanus toxoid in children. Clin Diag Lab Immunol 1:172-5
100. Semba RD, Miotti PG, Chiphangwi JD, et al (1994c) Maternal vitamin A deficiency and mother-to-child transmission of HIV-1. Lancet 343:1593-7
101. Semba RD, Miotti PG, Chiphangwi JD, et al (1995) Infant mortality and maternal vitamin A deficiency during HIV infection. Clin Infect Dis 21:966-72
102. Semba RD, Miotti PG, Chiphangwi JD, et al (1997a) Maternal vitamin A deficiency and child growth failure during human immunodeficiency virus infection. J Acquired Immun Defic Syndr 14:219-22
103. Semba RD (1997b) Vitamin A and human immunodeficiency virus infection. Proc Nutr Soc 56:1-11
104. Shankar AH (1996) Vitamin A and malaria [letter]. Am J Clin Nutr 62:842
105. Shankar AH, Genton B, Semba RD, et al (1997) Vitamin A supplementation as a nutrient-based intervention to reduce malarial morbidity. Abstracts of the XVIII International Vitamin A Consultative Group Meeting, Cairo, Egypt, September 22-26, 1997, p 31
106. Sidell N, Chang B, Bhatti L (1993) Upregulation by retinoic acid of interleukin-2-receptor mRNA in human T lymphocytes. Cell Immunol 146:28-37
107. Sijtsma SR, Rombout JHWM, West CE, et al (1990) Vitamin A deficiency impairs cytotoxic T lymphocyte acitivity in Newcastle disease virus-infected chickens. Vet Immunol Immunopath 26:191-201
108. Sklan D, Trifon S, Kedar O, et al (1995) Retinoid metabolism in human leukocytes. Brit J Nutr 73:889-95
109. Smith SM, Hayes CE (1987) Contrasting impairments in IgM and IgG responses of vitamin A-deficient mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 84:5878-82
110. Sommer A, Katz J, Tarwotjo I (1984) Increased risk of respiratory disease and diarrhea in children with preexisting mild vitamin A deficiency. Am J Clin Nutr 40:1090-5
111. Sommer A, West KP Jr (1986) Vitamin A deficiency: health, survival, and vision. New York: Oxford University Press
112. Spence JC (1931) A clinical study of nutritional xerophthalmia and night-blindness. Arch Dis Child 6:17-26
113. Stephensen CB, Moldoveanu Z, Gangopadhyay NN (1996) Vitamin A deficiency diminishes the salivary IgA response and enhances the serum IgG response to influenza A virus infection in BALB/c mice. J Nutr 126:94-102
114. Sweet KL, K'ang HJ (1935) Clinical and anatomic study of avitaminosis A among the Chinese. Am J Dis Child 50:699-734
115. Szabo S, Puppolo M, Verma B, et al (1994) Regulatory potential of ethanol and retinoic acid on human monocyte functions. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 18:548-54
116. Tachibana K, Sone S, Tsubura E, et al (1984) Stimulatory effect of vitamin A on tumoricidal activity of rat alveolar macrophages. Brit J Cancer 49:343-8
117. Tokura Y, Edelson RL, Gasparro FP (1992) Retinoid augmentation of bioactive interleukin-1 production by murine keratinocytes. Brit J Dermatol 126:485-95
118. Tomic-Canic M, Day D, Samuels HH, et al (1996) Novel regulation of keratin gene expression by thyroid hormone and retinoid receptors. J Biol Chem 271:1416-23
119. Tran P, Zhang XK, Salbert G, et al (1992) COUP orphan receptors are negative regulators of retinoic acid response pathways. Mol Cell Biol 12:4666-76
120. Trechsel U, Evêquoz V, Fleisch H (1985) Stimulation of interleukin 1 and 3 production by retinoic acid in vitro. Biochem J 230:339-44
121. Tseng SCG, Hatchell D, Tierney N, et al (1984) Expression of specific keratin markers by rabbit corneal, conjunctival, and esophageal epithelia during vitamin A deficiency. J Cell Biol 99:2279-86
122. Turpin J, Mehta K, Blick M, et al (1990) Effect of retinoids on the release and gene expression of tumor necrosis factor-α in human peripheral blood monocytes. J Leuk Biol 48:444-50
123. Twining SS, Zhou X, Schulte DP, et al (1996a) Effect of vitamin A deficiency on the early response to experimental Pseudomonas keratitis. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 37:511-22
124. Twining SS, Schulte DP, Wilson PM, et al (1996b) Neutrophil cathepsin G is specifically decreased under vitamin A deficiency. Biochim Biophys Acta 1317:112-8
125. Twining SS, Schulte DP, Wilson PM, et al (1997) Vitamin A deficiency alters rat neutrophil function. J Nutr 127:558-65
126. Van Agtmaal EJ (1989) Vitamin A and protein in tear fluid: a nutritional field survey on preschool children in northeast Thailand. (Thesis) Amsterdam: University of Amsterdam
127. The Vitamin A and Pneumonia Working Group (1995) Potential interventions for the prevention of childhood pneumonia in developing countries: a metaanalysis of data from field trials to assess the impact of vitamin A supplementation on pneumonia morbidity and mortality. Bull WHO 73:609-19
128. Wang Z, Cao Y, D'Urso CM, et al (1992) Differential susceptibility of cultured human melanoma cell lines to enhancement by retinoic acid of intercellular adhesion molecule 1 expression. Cancer Res 52:4766-72
129. Wang W, Napoli JL, Ballow M (1993a) The effects of retinol on in vitro immunoglobulin synthesis by cord blood and adult peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Clin Exp Immunol 92:164-8
130. Wang W, Ballow M (1993b) The effects of retinoic acid on in vitro immunoglobulin synthesis by cord blood and adult peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Cell Immunol 148:291-300
131. Warrell RP Jr, Frankel SR, Miller WH Jr, et al (1991) Differentiation therapy of acute promyelocytic leukemia with tretinoin (all-trans retinoic acid). N Engl J Med 324:1385-93
132. Wiedermann U, Hanson LA, Holmgren J, et al (1993a) Impaired mucosal antibody response to cholera toxin in vitamin A-deficient rats immunized with oral cholera vaccine. Infect Immun 61:3952-7
133. Wiedermann U, Hanson LC, Kahu H, et al (1993b) Aberrant T-cell function in vitro and impaired T-cell dependent antibody response in vivo in vitamin A-deficient rats. Immunology 80:581-6
134. Wilhelm DL (1954) Regeneration of the tracheal epithelium in the vitamin-A-deficient rat. J Pathol Bact 67:361-5
135. Wong YC, Buck RC (1971) An electron microscopic study of metaplasia of the rat tracheal epithelium in vitamin A deficiency. Lab Invest 24:55-66
136. World Bank (1993) World Bank Reports 1993: Investing in health. New York: Oxford University Press
137. World Health Organization (1987) Joint WHO/UNICEF statement on vitamin A for measles. WHO Wkly Epidemiol Rec 62:133-4
138. Yang Y, Vacchio MS, Ashwell JD (1993) 9-cis-retinoic acid inhibits activation-driven T-cell apoptosis: implications for retinoid X receptor involvement in thymocyte development. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 90:6170-4
139. Yang Y, Bailey J, Vacchio MS, et al (1995) Retinoic acid inhibition of ex vivo human immunodeficiency virus-associated apoptosis of peripheral blood cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 92:3051-5
140. Zhao Z, Murasko DM, Ross AC (1994a) The role of vitamin A in natural killer cell cytotoxicity, number and activation in the rat. Nat Immun 13:29-41
141. Zhao Z, Matsuura T, Popoff K, et al (1994b) Effects of N-(4-hydroxyphenyl)-retinamide on the number and cytotoxicity of natural killer cells in vitamin-A-sufficient and -deficient rats. Nat Immun 13:280-8
142. Zhao Z, Ross AC (1995) Retinoic acid repletion restores the number of leukocytes and their subsets and stimulates natural cytotoxicity in vitamin A-deficient rats. J Nutr 125:2064-73