A motivational learning hypothesis of the role of mesolimbic dopamine in compulsive drug use

Journal of Psychopharmacology

Volumn 12, Issue 1, 1998, Pages 54-67

  Di Chiara, Gaetano ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CAGLIARI   (Italy)

Author keywords

Addiction; Behaviour; Dependence; Dopamine; Drug abuse; Learning; Microdialysis; Motivation; Nucleus accumbens

Indexed keywords

DOPAMINE;

BEHAVIOR; CONTROL; DRUG DEPENDENCE; DRUG REEXPOSURE; DRUG USE; FOOD; HUMAN; LEARNING; LIMBIC SYSTEM; MONITORING; MOTIVATION; NEUROTRANSMISSION; NUCLEUS ACCUMBENS; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REINFORCEMENT; REVIEW;

ANIMALS; CEREBRAL CORTEX; COCAINE-RELATED DISORDERS; COMPULSIVE BEHAVIOR; DOPAMINE; DOPAMINE UPTAKE INHIBITORS; GANGLIONIC STIMULANTS; LEARNING; MICRODIALYSIS; MOTIVATION; NICOTINE; RATS; SUBSTANCE-RELATED DISORDERS; SYNAPTIC TRANSMISSION;

EID: 0031889178     PISSN: 02698811     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/026988119801200108     Document Type: Review

References (128)

1. Abercrombie E D, Keefe K A, DiFrischia D S, Zigmond M J (1989) Differential effect of stress on in vivo dopamine release in striatum, nucleus accumbens, and medial frontal cortex. J Neurochem 52: 1655-1658
2. Acquas E, Di Chiara G (1992) Depression of mesolimbic dopamine transmission and sensitization to morphine during opiate abstinence. J Neurochem 58: 1620-1625
3. 1 receptor blockade stereospecifically impairs the acquisition of drug-conditioned place-preference and place-aversion. Behav Pharmac 5: 555-569
4. Acquas E, Carboni E, Leone P, Di Chiara G (1989) SCH 23390 blocks drug-conditioned place-preference and place-aversion: anhedonia (lack of reward) or apathy (lack of motivation) after dopamine-receptor blockade? Psychopharmacology 99: 151-155
5. Acquas E, Carboni E, Di Chiara G (1991) Profound depression of mesolimbic dopamine release after morphine withdrawal in dependent rats. Eur J Pharmac 193: 133-134
6. Alheid G F, Heimer L (1988) New perspectives in basal forebrain organization of special relevance for neuropsychiatric disorders: the striatopallidal, amygdaloid and corticopetal components of substantia innominata. Neuroscience 27: 1-39
7. Bassareo V, Di Chiara G (1997) Differential influence of associative and nonassociative learning mechanisms on the responsiveness of prefrontal and accumbal dopamine transmission to food stimuli in rats fed ad libitum. J Neurosci 17: 851-861
8. Bassareo V, Tanda G, Petromilli P, Giua C, Di Chiara G (1996) Non-psychostimulant drugs of abuse and anxiogenic drugs activate with differential selectivity dopamine transmission in the nucleus accumbens and in the medial prefrontal cortex of the rat. Psychopharmacology 124: 293-299
9. Bell J, Bowron P, Lewis J, Batey R (1990) Serum levels of methadone in maintenance clients who persist in illicit drug use. Br J Addict 85: 1599-1602
10. Beninger R J (1983) The role of dopamine in locomotor activity and learning. Brain Res Rev 6: 173-196
11. Beninger R J, Phillips A G (1980) The effect of pimozide on the establishment of conditioned reinforcement. Psychopharmacology 68: 147-153
12. Beninger R J, Phillips A G (1981) The effects of pimozide during pairing on the transfer of classical conditioning to an operant discrimination. Pharmac Biochem Behav 14: 101-105
13. Beninger R J, Hanson D R, Phillips A G (1981) The acquisition of responding with conditioned reinforcement: effects of cocaine, (+)-amphetamine and pipradrol. Br J Pharmac 74: 149-154
14. Bergman J, Madras B K, Johnson S E, Spelman R D (1989) Effects of cocaine and related drugs in non-human primates. III. Self-administration by squirrel monkeys. J Pharmac Exp Ther 251: 150-155
15. Berridge C (1996) Food reward: brain substrates of wanting and liking. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 20: 1-25
16. Blackburn J R, Phillips A G, Fibiger H C (1987) Dopamine and preparatory behavior: I. Effects of pimozide. Behav Neurosci 101: 352-360
17. Björklund A, Lindvall O (1984) Dopamine containing systems in the CNS. In Björklund A, Hökfelt T (eds), Handbook of chemical neuroanatomy, Volume 2, Part I, Classical transmitter in the CNS. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 55-122
18. Cabib S, Puglisi-Allegra S (1996) Stress, depression and the mesolimbic dopamine system. Psychopharmacology 128: 331-342
19. Carboni E, Imperato A, Perezzani L, Di Chiara G (1989) Amphetamine, cocaine, phencyclidine and nomifensine increase extracellular dopamine concentrations preferentially in the nucleus accumbens of freely moving rats. Neuroscience 28: 653-661
20. Carboni E, Tanda G, Frau R, Di Chiara G (1990) Blockade of the noradrenaline carrier increases extracellular dopamine concentrations in the prefrontal cortex: evidence that dopamine is taken up in vivo by noradrenergic terminals. J Neurochem 55: 1067-1070
21. Carroll M E, Lac S T (1987) Cocaine withdrawal produces behavioral disruptions in rats. Life Sci 40: 2183-2190
22. Cass W A, Gerhardt G A, Mayfield R D, Curella P, Zahniser N R (1992) Differences in dopamine clearance and diffusion in rat striatum and nucleus accumbens following systemic cocaine administration. J Neurochem 59: 259-266
23. Cenci M A, Kalén P, Mandel R J, Björklund A (1992) Regional differences in the regulation of dopamine and noradrenaline release in medial frontal cortex, nucleus accumbens and caudate-putamen: a microdialysis study in the rat. Brain Res 581: 217-228
24. Church W H, Justice Jr J B, Neill D B (1987) Detecting behaviorally relevant changes in extracellular dopamine with microdialysis. Brain Res 412: 397-399
25. De Vos J W, van Wilgenburg H, van den Brink W, Kaplan C D, de Vries M W (1996) Patterns of craving and pharmacokinetics in long-term opiate addicts in methadone maintenance therapy. Addict Res in press
26. De Wit H, Wise R A (1977) Blockade of cocaine reinforcement in rats with the dopamine receptor blocker pimozide, but not with the noradrenergic blocker sphentolamine or phenoxybenzamine. Can J Physiol 31: 195-203
27. Diana M, Pistis M, Carboni S, Gessa G L, Rossetti Z L (1993) Profound decrement of mesolimbic dopaminergic neuronal activity during ethanol withdrawal syndrome in rats: electrophysiological and biochemical evidence. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 90: 7966-7969
28. Di Chiara G (1990) In vivo brain dialysis of neurotransmitters. Trends Pharmac Sci 11: 116-121
29. Di Chiara G (1991) On the preferential release of mesolimbic dopamine by amphetamine. Neuropsychopharmacology 5: 243-244
30. Di Chiara G (1995) The role of dopamine in drug abuse viewed from the perspective of its role in motivation. Drug Alcohol Depend 38: 95-137
31. Di Chiara G, Imperato A (1988a) Drugs abused by humans preferentially increase synaptic dopamine concentrations in the mesolimbic system of freely moving rats. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 85: 5274-5278
32. Di Chiara G, Imperato A (1988b) Opposite effects of mu and kappa opiate agonists on dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens and in the dorsal caudate of freely moving rats. J Pharmac Exp Ther 244: 1067-1080
33. Di Chiara G, North R A (1992) Neurobiology of opiate abuse. Trends Pharmac Sci 13: 185-193
34. Di Chiara G, Tanda G, Frau R, Carboni E (1993a) On the preferential release of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens by amphetamine: further evidence obtained by vertically implanted concentric dialysis probe. Psychopharmacology 112: 398-402
35. Di Chiara G, Acquas E, Tanda G, Cadoni C (1993b) Drug of abuse: biochemical surrogates of specific aspects of natural reward? Biochem Soc Symp 59: 65-81
36. Di Chiara G, Morelli M, Consolo S (1994) Modulatory functions of neurotransmitters in the striatum: ACh/dopamine/NMDA interactions. Trends Neurosci 17: 228-238
37. Di Chiara G, Acquas E, Tanda G. (1996a) Ethanol a neurochemical surrogate of conventional reinforcers: the dopamine-opioid link. Alcohol 13: 13-17
38. Di Chiara G, Tanda G, Carboni E (1996b) Estimation of in vivo neurotransmitter release by brain microdialysis: the issue of validity. Behav Pharmac 7: 1-18
39. Dickinson A (1994) Instrumental conditioning. In Mackintosh N J (ed.), Animal learning and cognition. Academic Press, San Diego, pp. 45-79
40. Fibiger H C (1993) Mesolimbic dopamine: an analysis of its role in motivated behavior. Sem Neurosci 5: 321-327
41. Fischman M W, Schuster C R, Javaid J, Hatano Y, Davis J (1985) Acute tolerance development to the cardiovascular and subjective effects of cocaine. J Pharmac Exp Ther 235: 677-682
42. Gessa G L, Muntoni F, Collu M, Vargiu L, Mereu G P (1985) Low doses of ethanol activate dopaminergic neurons in the ventral tegmental area. Brain Res 348: 201-203
43. Goeders N E, Smith J E (1983) Cortical dopaminergic involvement in cocaine reinforcement. Science 221: 773-775
44. Goeders N E, Dworkin S I, Smith J E (1986) Neuropharmacological assessment of cocaine self-administration into the medial prefrontal cortex. Pharmac Biochem Behav 24: 1429-1440
45. Goldberg S R (1976) Stimuli associated with drug injections as events that control behavior. Pharmac Rev 27: 325-340
46. Gray T, Wise R A (1980) Effects of pimozide on lever-pressing behavior maintained on an intermittent reinforcement schedule. Pharmac Biochem Behav 12: 931-935
47. Heimer L, de Olmos J, Alheid G F, Zaborszky L (1991) 'Perestroika' in the basal forebrain: opening the border between neurology and psychiatry. Prog Brain Res 87: 109-165
48. Hernandez L, Hoebel B G (1988a) Food reward and cocaine increase extracellular dopamine in the nucleus accumbens as measured by microdialysis. Life Sci 42: 1705-1712
49. Hernandez L, Hoebel B G (1988b) Feeding and hypothalamic stimulation increase dopamine turnover in the accumbens. Physiol Behav 44: 599-606
50. Hill R T (1970) Facilitation of conditioned reinforcement as a mechanism of psychomotor stimulation. In Costa E, Garattini S (eds), Amphetamine and related compounds. Raven, New York
51. Hodos W, Valenstein E S (1962) An evaluation of response rate as a measure of rewarding intracranial stimulation. J Comp Psychol 53: 502-508
52. Horns W H, Rado M, Goldstein A (1975) Plasma levels and symptom complaints in patients maintained on daily dosage of methadone hydrochloride. Clin Pharmac Ther 17: 636-649
53. Imperato A, Di Chiara G (1986) Preferential stimulation of dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens of freely moving rats by ethanol. J Pharmac Exp Ther 239: 219-228
54. Imperato A, Mulas A, Di Chiara G (1986) Nicotine preferentially stimulates dopamine released in the limbic system of freely moving rats. Eur J Pharmac 132: 337-338
55. Imperato A, Puglisi-Allegra S, Casolini P, Zocchi A, Angelucci L (1989) Stress-induced enhancement of dopamine and acetylcholine release in limbic structures: role of corticosterone. Eur J Pharmac 165: 337-338
56. Inoue K, Kiriike N, Okuno M, Ito H, Fujisaki Y, Matsui T, Kawakita Y (1993) Scheduled feeding caused activation of dopamine metabolism in the striatum of rats. Physiol Behav 53: 177-181
57. Kissinger P T, Hart J B, Adams RN (1973) Voltametry in brain tissue: a new physiological measurement. Brain Res 55: 209-213
58. Kokkinidis L, McCarter B D (1990) Postcocaine depression and sensitization of brain stimulation reward: analysis of reinforcement and performance effects. Pharmac Biochem Behav 36: 463-471
59. Kokkinidis L, Zacharko R M, Anisman H (1986) Amphetamine withdrawal: a behavioral evaluation. Life Sci 38: 1617-1632
60. Koob G F (1992) Neural mechanisms of drug reinforcement. Ann NY Acad Sci 654: 171-191
61. Kuczenski R, Segal D S (1992) Differential effects of amphetamine and dopamine uptake blockers (cocaine, nomifensine) on caudate and accumbens dialysate dopamine and 3-methoxytyramine. J Pharmac Exp Ther 262: 1085-1094
62. Kupfermann I (1985) Learning and memory. In Kandel E R (ed.), Principles of neural science. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 997-1008
63. Leith N J, Barrett N J (1976) Amphetamine and the reward system: evidence for tolerance and post-drug depression. Psychopharmacology 46: 19-25
64. Loimer N, Schmid R (1992) The use of plasma levels to optimize methadone maintenance treatment. Drug Alcohol Depend 30: 241-246
65. Mark G P, Blander D S, Hoebel B G (1991) A conditioned stimulus decreases extracellular dopamine in the nucleus accumbens after the development of a learned taste aversion. Brain Res 551: 308-310
66. Markou A, Koob G F (1991) Post cocaine anhedonia. Neuropsychopharmacology 4: 17-26
67. Marsden C A, Brazell M P, Maidment N T (1984) An introduction to in vivo electrochemistry. In Marsden C A (ed.), Measurement of neurotransmitter release in vivo. John Wiley, New York, Chapter 6
68. Marshall, J F, Turner B H, Teitelbaum P (1971) Sensory neglect produced by lateral hypothalamic damage. Science 174: 523-525
69. Martin-Iverson M T, Szostak C, Fibiger H C (1980) 6-Hydroxydopamine lesions of the medial prefrontal cortex fail to influence intravenous self-administration of cocaine. Psychopharmacology 88: 310-314
70. Matthews R T, German D C (1984) Electrophysiological evidence for excitation of rat ventral tegmental area dopamine neurons by morphine. Neurosciemce 11: 617-628
71. Miller J D, Sanghera M K, German D C (1981) Mesencephalic dopaminergic unit activity in the behaviorally conditioned rat. Life Sci 29: 1255-1263
72. Mitchell J B, Stewart J (1990) Facilitation of sexual behaviors in the male rat associated with intra-VTA injection of opiates. Pharmac Biochem Behav 35: 643-650
73. Mogenson G J (1987) Limbic-motor integration. In Epstein A N, Morris A (eds), Progress in psychobiology and physiological psychology, Volume 12. Academic Press, New York, pp. 117-170
74. Moghaddam B, Bunney B S (1989) Differential effect of cocaine on extracellular dopamine levels in the rat medial prefrontal cortex and nucleus accumbens: a comparison with amphetamine. Synapse 4: 156-161
75. Muscat R, Willner P (1989) Effects of selective dopamine receptor antagonists on sucrose consumption and preference. Psychopharmacology 99: 98-102
76. O'Brien C P, Childress A R, McLellan A T, Ehrman R (1992) Classical conditioning in drug-dependent humans. Ann NY Acad Sci 654: 400-415
77. O'Malley S S, Jaffe A J, Chang G, Schottenfeld R S, Meyer R E, Rouwaville B (1992) Naltrexone and coping skills therapy for alcohol dependence. Archs Gen Psychiat 49: 881-887
78. Orzi F, Passarelli F, La Riccia M, Di Grezia R, Pontieri F E (1996) Intravenous morphine increases glucose utilization in the shell of the rat nucleus accumbens. Eur J Pharmac 302: 49-51
79. Pettit H O, Justice J B (1989) Dopamine in the nucleus accumbens during cocaine self- administration as studied by in vivo microdialysis. Pharmac Biochem Behav 34: 899-904
80. Pettit H O, Justice J B (1991) Effect of dose on cocaine self-administration behavior and dopamine levels in the nucleus accumbens. Brain Res 535: 94-102
81. Phillips A G, Fibiger H C (1979) Decreased resistance to extinction after haloperidol: implications for the role of dopamine in reinforcement. Pharmac Biochem Behav 10: 751-761
82. Phillips A G, Willner P, Muscat R (1991) Suppression or facilitation of operant behaviour by raclopride dependent on concentration of sucrose reward. Psychopharmacology 105: 239-246
83. Phillips A G, Atkinson L J, Blackburn J R, Blaha C D (1993) Increased extracellular dopamine in the nucleus accumbens of the rat elicited by a conditional stimulus for food: an electrochemical study. Can J Physiol Pharmac 71: 387-393
84. Pontieri F E, Crane A M, Seiden L S, Kleven M S, Porrino L J (1990) Metabolic mapping of the effects of intravenous methamphetamine administration in freely moving rats. Psychopharmacology 102: 175-182
85. Pontieri F E, Colangelo V, La Riccia M, Pozzilli C, Passarelli F, Orzi F (1994) Psychostimulant drugs increase glucose utilization in the shell of the rat nucleus accumbens. NeuroReport 5: 2561-2564
86. Pontieri F E, Tanda G, Di Chiara G (1995) Intravenous cocaine, morphine, and amphetamine preferentially increase extracellular dopamine in the 'shell' as compared with the 'core' of the rat nucleus accumbens. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 92: 12304-12308
87. Pontieri F E, Tanda G, Orzi F, Di Chiara G (1996) Effects of nicotine on the nucleus accumbens and similarity to those of addictive drugs. Nature 382: 255-257
88. Porrino L J, Lucignani G, Dow-Edwards D, Sokoloff L (1984) Dose-dependent effect of acute amphetamine administration on functional brain metabolism in rats. Brain Res 307: 311-320
89. Porrino L J, Domer F R, Crane A M, Sokoloff L (1988) Selective alterations in cerebral metabolism within the mesocorticolimbic dopaminergic system produced by acute cocaine administration in rats. Neuropsychopharmacology 1: 109-118
90. Radhakishun F S, van Ree J M, Westerink B H C (1988) Scheduled eating increases dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens of food-deprived rats as assessed with on-line brain dialysis. Neurosci Letts 85: 351-356
91. Rescorla R A, Solomon R L (1967) Two-process learning theory: relationship between Pavlovian conditioning and instrumental learning. Psychol Rev 74: 151-182
92. Robins L N, Davis D H, Durco D N (1974) How permanent was Vietnam drug addiction? Am J Publ Hlth 64: 38-43
93. Robbins T W (1975) The potentiation of conditioned reinforcement by psychomotor stimulant drugs: a test of Hill's hypothesis. Psychopharmacology 45: 103-114
94. Robbins T W, Cador M, Taylor J R, Everitt B J (1989) Limbic striatal interactions in reward-related processes. Neurosci Behav Rev 13: 155-162
95. Roberts D C S (1993) Self-administration of GBR 12909 on a fixed ratio and progressive ratio schedule in rats. Psychopharmacology 111: 202-206
96. Roberts D C S, Vickers, G (1984) Atypical neuroleptics increase self-administration of cocaine: an evaluation of a behavioral screen for antipsychotic activity. Psychopharmacology 82: 135-139
97. Roberts D C S, Koob G F, Klonoff P, Fibiger H C (1980) Extinction and recovery of cocaine self-administration following 6-hydroxydopamine lesions of the nucleus accumbens. Pharmac Biochem Behav 12: 781-787
98. Robinson T E, Berridge K C (1993) The neural basis of drug craving: an incentive-sensitization theory of addiction. Brain Res Rev 18: 247-291
99. Robinson T E, Camp D M (1990) Does amphetamine preferentially increase the extracellular concentration of dopamine in the mesolimbic system of freely moving rats? Neuropsychopharmacology 3: 163-173
100. Rossetti Z L, Hmaidan Y, Gessa G L (1992) Marked inhibition of mesolimbic dopamine release: a common feature of ethanol, morphine, cocaine and amphetamine abstinence in rats. Eur J Pharmac 221: 227-234
101. Salamone J D (1988) Dopaminergic involvement in activational aspects of motivation: effects of haloperidol on schedule-induced activity, feeding and foraging in rats. Psychobiology 16: 196-206
102. Salamone J D (1992) Complex motor and sensorimotor functions of striatal and accumbens dopamine: involvement in instrumental behavior processes. Psychopharmacology 107: 160-174
103. Saulskaya N, Marsden C A (1995) Conditional dopamine release: dependence upon N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors. Neuroscience 67: 57-63
104. Schenk S, Horger B A, Peltier R, Shelton K (1991) Supersensitivity to the reinforcing effects of cocaine following 6-hydroxydopamine lesions to the medial prefrontal cortex in rats. Brain Res 543: 227-235
105. Shaefer G J, Michael R P (1983) Morphine withdrawal produces differential effects on the rate of lever-pressing for brain self-stimulation in the hypothalamus and midbrain in rats. Pharmac Biochem Behav 18: 571-577
106. Shaefer G J, Michael R P (1986) Changes in response rates and reinforcement thresholds for intracranial self-stimulation during morphine withdrawal. Pharmac Biochem Behav 25: 1263-1269
107. Schultz W (1992) Activity of dopamine neurons in the behaving primate. Sem Neurosci 4: 129-138
108. Schultz W, Apicella P, Ljungberg T (1993) Responses of monkey dopamine neurons to reward and conditioned stimuli during successive steps of learning a delayed response task. J Neurosci 13: 900-913
109. Stamford J A (1986) In vivo voltammetry: some methodological considerations. J Neurosci Meth 17: 1-29
110. Steinfels G F, Heym J, Jacobs B L (1981) Single unit activity of dopaminergic neurons in freely moving animals. Life Sci 29: 1435-1442
111. Taghzouti K, Louilot A, Herman J P, Le Moal M, Simon H (1985) Alternation behavior, spatial discrimination and reversal disturbances following 6-OHDA lesions in the nucleus accumbens of the rat. Behav Biol 44: 354-363
112. Tanda G, Pontieri F E, Frau R, Di Chiara G (1997) Contribution of blockade of the noradrenaline carrier to the increase of extracellular dopamine in the rat prefrontal cortex by amphetamine and cocaine. Eur J Neurosci in press
113. 1 opioid link in the rat ventral tegmentum shared by palatable food (Fonzies) and non-psychostimulant drugs of abuse. Eur J Neurosci in press
114. Thompson R F, Spencer W A (1966) Habituation: a model phenomenon for the study of neuronal substrates of behavior. Psychol Rev 73: 16-43
115. Ungerstedt U (1984) Measurements of neurotransmitter release by intracranial dialysis. In Marsden C A (ed.), Measurement of neurotransmitter release in vivo. John Wiley, Chichester, pp. 81-105
116. Volpicelli J R, Alterman A I, Hayashida M, O'Brien C P (1992) Naltrexone in the treatment of alcohol dependence. Archs Gen Psychiat 49: 876-880
117. Weiss F, Markou A, Lorang M T, Koob G F (1992) Basal dopamine levels in the nucleus accumbens are decreased during cocaine withdrawal after unlimited-access self-administration. Brain Res 593: 314-318
118. Westerink B H C, Damsma G, Rollema H, DeVries J B, Horn AS (1987) Scope and limitations of in vivo brain dialysis: a comparison of its application to various neurotransmitter systems. Life Sci 41: 1763-1776
119. Westerink B H C, Teisman A, de Vries J B (1994) Increase in dopamine release from the nucleus accumbens in response to feeding: a model to study interactions between drugs and naturally activated dopaminergic neurons in the rat brain. Naunyn Schmiedeberg's Arch Pharmac 349: 230-235
120. White NM (1996) Addictive drugs as reinforcers: multiple partial actions on memory systems. Addiction in press
121. Wikler A (1973) Dynamics of drug dependence. Implications of a conditioning theory for research and treatment. Archs Gen Psychiat 28: 611-616
122. Wilson M C, Schuster C R (1972) The effects of chlorpromazine on psychomotor stimulant self-administration in the rhesus monkey. Psychopharmacology 26: 126-155
123. Wilson C, Nomikos G C, Collu M, Fibiger H C (1995) Dopaminergic correlates of motivated behavior: importance of drive. J Neurosci 15: 5169-5178
124. Wise R A (1982) Neuroleptics and operant behavior: the anhedonia hypothesis. Behav Brain Sci 5: 39-87
125. Wise R A, Spindler J, DeWitt H, Gerber G J (1978) Neuroleptic-induced 'anhedonia' in rats: pimozide blocks reward quality of food. Science 201: 262-264
126. Yoshida M, Yokoo H, Mizoguchi K, Kawahara H, Tsuda A, Nishikawa T, Tanaka M (1992) Eating and drinking cause increased dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens and ventral tegmental area in the rat: measurement by in vivo microdialysis. Neurosci Letts 139: 73-76
127. Young A M J, Joseph M H, Gray J A (1992) Increased dopamine release in vivo in nucleus accumbens and caudate nucleus of the rat during drinking: a microdialysis study. Neuroscience 48: 871-876
128. Young A M J, Joseph M H, Gray J A (1993) Latent inhibition of conditioned dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens. Neuroscience 54: 5-9