Oxidative damage in the central nervous system: Protection by melatonin

Progress in Neurobiology

Volumn 56, Issue 3, 1998, Pages 359-384

  Reiter, Russel J ^a  

^a Mays Cancer Center at UT Health San Antonio   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

1,2,3,6 TETRAHYDRO 1 METHYL 4 PHENYLPYRIDINE; AMINOLEVULINIC ACID; AMYLOID BETA PROTEIN; DOPAMINE; GLUCOSE 6 PHOSPHATE DEHYDROGENASE; GLUTAMIC ACID; GLUTATHIONE PEROXIDASE; HYDROGEN PEROXIDE; HYDROXYL RADICAL; MELATONIN; NEUROTOXIN; NITRIC OXIDE; OXIDOPAMINE; PEROXYNITRITE; PORPHYRIN; REACTIVE OXYGEN METABOLITE; SCAVENGER; SINGLET OXYGEN; SUPEROXIDE; SUPEROXIDE DISMUTASE;

ALZHEIMER DISEASE; ANTIOXIDANT ACTIVITY; ARTICLE; AUTOOXIDATION; BRAIN INJURY; BRAIN ISCHEMIA; BRAIN PROTECTION; HUMAN; HYPEROXIA; NEUROLOGIC DISEASE; NEUROPATHY; NEUROTOXICITY; NONHUMAN; OXIDATIVE STRESS; PARKINSON DISEASE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REPERFUSION INJURY;

EID: 0031845040     PISSN: 03010082     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S0301-0082(98)00052-5     Document Type: Review

References (268)

1. Acuña-Castroviejo D., Coto-Montes A., Monti M. G., Ortiz G. G., Reiter R. J. Melatonin is protective against MPTP-induced striatal and hippocampal lesions. Life Sci. 60:1997;PL23-PL29.
2. Agarwal M. L., Clay M. E., Harvey E. J., Evans H. H., Antunez A. R., Oleineck N. L. Phospholipase activation triggers apoptosis in photosensitized mouse lymphoma cells. Cancer Res. 51:1991;5993-5996.
3. Aikens J., Dix T. A. Perhydroxyl radical (HOO.) initiated lipid peroxidation: the role of fatty acid hydroperoxides. J. Biol. Chem. 266:1991;15091-15098.
4. Aldhous M., Franey C., Wright J., Arendt J. Plasma concentrations of melatonin in man following oral absorption of different preparations. Br. J. Clin. Pharmac. 19:1985;517-521.
5. Antolin I., Rodriquez C., Sainz R. M., Mayo J. C., Aria H., Kotter M., Rodriquez-Colungo M. J., Tolivia D., Menendez-Pelaez A. Neurohormone melatonin prevents cell damage: effect on gene expression for antioxidant enzymes. FASEB J. 10:1996;882-890.
6. Antolin I., Obst B., Burkhardt S., Hardeland R. Antioxidant protection in a high-melatonin organism: the dinoflagellate Gonyaulax polyedra is rescued from lethal oxidative stress by strongly elevated but physiologically possible concentrations of melatonin. J. Pineal Res. 23:1997;182-190.
7. Anton-Tay F., Martinez I., Tovar R., Benitz-King G. Modulation of the subcellular distribution of calmodulin by melatonin in MDCK cells. J. Pineal Res. 24:1998;35-42.
8. Asano T., Matsui T., Takuwa Y. Lipid peroxidation, protein kinase C and cerebral ischemia. Crit. Rev. Neurosurg. 1:1991;361-379.
9. Bandy B., Davison A. J. Mitochondrial mutations may increase oxidative stress: implications for carcinogenesis and aging. Free Radical Biol. Med. 18:1990;523-539.
10. Barlow-Walden L. R., Reiter R. J., Abe M., Pablos M. I., Chen L. D., Peoggeler B. Melatonin stimulates brain glutathione peroxidase activity. Neurochem. Int. 26:1995;497-502.
11. Barreto J. C., Smith G. S., Strobel N. H. P., McQuillin P. A., Miller T. A. Terephthalic acid: a dosimeter for the protection of hydroxyl radicals in vitro. Life Sci. 56:1994;PL89-96.
12. Beal M. F. Aging, energy, and oxidative stress in neurodegenerative diseases. Ann. Neurol. 38:1995;357-366.
13. Beckman J. S., Koppenol W. H. Nitric oxide, superoxide, and peroxynitrite: the good, the bad, and ugly. Am. J. Physiol. 271:1996;CL427-437.
14. Beckman J. S., Beckman T. W., Chen J., Marshall P. A., Freeman B. A. Apparent hydroxyl radical production by peroxynitrite: implications of endothelial injury from nitric oxide and superoxide. Proc. natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 87:1990;1620-1624.
15. Beckman J. S., Ischiropoulos H., Zhu L., van der Waal M., Smith C., Chen J., Harrison J., Martin J. C., Tsai M. Kinetics of superoxide dismutase - an iron catalyzed nitration of phenolics by peroxynitrite. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 298:1992;438-455.
16. Beckman K. B., Ames B. N. Oxidative decay of DNA. J. Biol. Chem. 272:1997;19633-19636.
17. Ben-Shackar D., Ashkenazi R., Youdim M. B. H. Long term consequences of early iron deficiency on dopaminergic neurotransmission. Int. J. Dev. Neurosci. 4:1986;81-88.
18. Bernheimer H., Bukmayer W., Hornykiewiez O., Jellinger K., Stetelberger F. Brain dopamine and the syndromes of Parkinson and Huntington. J. Neurol. Sci. 20:1973;415-455.
19. Benzi G., Noretti A. Are reactive oxygen species involved in Alzheimer's disease? Neurobiol. Aging. 16:1995;661-674.
20. Bertuglia S., Marchiafava P. L., Colantuoni A. Melatonin prevents ischemia reperfusion injury in the hamster check pauch. Cardiovasc. Res. 31:1996;947-952.
21. Bettahi I., Pozo D., Osuna C., Reiter R. J., Acuña-Castroviejo D., Guerrero J. M. Physiological concentrations of melatonin inhibit nitric oxide synthase activity in rat hypothalamus. J. Pineal Res. 20:1996;205-210.
22. Bielski B. H. J. Studies of hypervalent iron. Free Radical Biol. Med. 12:1991;469-477.
23. Binkley, S. (1988) The Pineal: Endocrine and Neuroendocrine Function. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
24. Bondy, S. C. (1997) Free-radical-mediated toxic injury to the nervous system. In: Free Radical Toxicology, pp. 221-248. Ed. K. B. Wallace. Taylor and Francis, Washington.
25. Braughler J. M., Hall E. D. Central nervous system trauma and stroke. Free Radical Biol. Med. 6:1989;289-301.
26. Bredt D. S., Synder S. H. Isolation of nitric oxide synthase, a calmodulin requiring enzyme. Proc. natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 87:1990;682-685.
27. Burton G. W., Joyce A., Ingold K. V. Is vitamin E the only lipid-soluble, chain breaking antioxidant in human blood plasma and erythrocyte membranes? Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 221:1983;281-290.
28. Butterfield D. A., Hersley K., Harris M., Mattson M. P., Carney J. M. β-Amyloid peptide free radical fragments initiate lipoperoxidation in a sequence specific fashion: implications to Alzheimer's disease. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 200:1994;710-715.
29. Cagnoli C. M., Atabay C., Kharlamova E., Manev H. Melatonin protects neurons from singlet oxygen-induced apoptosis. J. Pineal Res. 18:1995;222-226.
30. Cao G., Alessio H. M., Cutler R. G. Oxygen-radical absorbance capacity assay for antioxidants. Free Radical Biol. Med. 14:1993;303-311.
31. Carneiro R. C. G., Reiter R. J. Melatonin protects against lipid peroxidation induced by δ-aminolevulinic acid in rat cerebellum, cortex, and hippocampus. Neuroscience. 82:1998;293-299.
32. Cazevieille C., Osbourne N. N. Retinal neurons containing kainate receptors are influenced by exogenous kainate and ischemia while neurons lacking these receptors are not - melatonin counteracts the effect of ischemia and kainate. Brain Res. 755:1997;91-100.
33. Cazevieille C., Sofa R., Osbourne N. N. Melatonin protects primary cultures of rat cortical neurons from NMDA excitotoxicity and hypoxia/reoxygenation. Brain Res. 768:1997;120-124.
34. Chan P., DeLanny L. E., Irwin I., Langston J. W., DiMonte D. Rapid ATP loss caused by 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine in mouse brain. J. Neurochem. 57:1991;348-351.
35. Chan T. Y., Tang P. L. Characterization of the antioxidant effects of melatonin and related indoleamines in vitro. J. Pineal Res. 20:1996;187-191.
36. Chance B., Sies H., Boveris A. Hydroperoxide metabolism in mammalian organs. Physiol. Rev. 59:1979;527-605.
37. Cheesman K. H. Tissue injury by free radicals. Toxic. Indust. Health. 9:1993;39-51.
38. Chen L. D., Melchiorri D., Sewerynek E., Reiter R. J. Retinal Lipid peroxidation in vitro is inhibited by melatonin. Neurosci. Res. Commun. 17:1995;151-158.
39. Cho S., Joh T. H., Baik H. H., Dibinis C., Volpe B. T. Melatonin administration protects CA1 hippocampal neurons after transient forebrain ischemia in rats. Brain Res. 755:1997;335-338.
40. Choi D. W. Glutamate neurotoxicity and diseases of the nervous system. Neuron. 1:1988;623-634.
41. Christensen, T., Bruhn, T., Balchen, T., Seitzberg, D. A., Jensen, B., Johnson, F. F. and Diemer, N. H. (1994) Detection of hydroxyl radicals in global cerebral ischemia by salicylate trapping and microdialysis. In: Pharmacology of Cerebral Ischemia, pp. 269-276. Eds. J. Krieglstein and H. Oberpichler-Schwenk. Medpharm, Stuttgart.
42. Cochrane C. Mechanisms of oxidant injury of cells. Mol. Aspects Med. 12:1991;137-147.
43. Cohen, G. (1988) Oxygen radicals and Parkinson,s disease. In: Oxygen Radicals and Tissue Injury, pp. 130-135. Ed. B. Halliwell. Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology, Washington.
44. Cohen G., Heikkila R. The generation of hydrogen peroxide, superoxide radical and hydroxyl radical by 6-hydroxydopamine, dialuric acid and related cytotoxic species. J. Biol. Chem. 250:1974;2447-2452.
45. Costa E. J. X., Lopes R. H., Lamy-Freund M. T. Permeability of pure lipid bilayers to melatonin. J. Pineal Res. 19:1995;123-126.
46. Costa E. J. X., Shida C. S., Biaggi M. H., Ito A. S., Lamy-Freund M. T. How melatonin interacts with lipid bilayers: a study by fluorescence and ESR spectroscopies. FEBS Lett. 416:1997;103-106.
47. Coyle J. T., Puttfarcken P. Oxidative stress, glutamate and neurodegenerative disorders. Science. 262:1993;689-695.
48. Crow J. P., Beckman J. S., McCord J. M. Sensitivity of the zinc-thiolate mioety of yeast alcohol dehydrogenase to hypochorite and peroxynitrite. Biochemistry. 34:1995;3544-3552.
49. Cuzzocrea S., Zingarelli B., Gilad E., Hake P., Salzman A. L., Szabo C. Protective effect of melatonin in carregeenan-induced models of local inflammation: relationship to its inhibitory effect on nitric oxide production and its peroxynitrite scavenging activity. J. Pineal Res. 23:1997;106-116.
50. Cuzzocrea, S., Zingarelli, B., Constantino, G. and Caputi, A. P. (1998) Protective effect of melatonin in a non-septic shock model induced by zymosan in the rat. J. Pineal Res. in press.
51. Daniels W. M. V., van Rensburg S. J., van Zyl J. M., Taljaard J. J. F. Melatonin prevents β-amyloid-induced lipid peroxidation. J. Pineal Res. 24:1998;78-82.
52. Dawson T. M., Snyder S. H. Gases as biological messengers: nitric oxide and carbon monoxide in the brain. J. Neurosci. 14:1994;1547-1559.
53. Dawson T. M., Dawson V. L., Snyder S. H. A novel neuronal messenger molecule in the brain: the free radical nitric oxide. Ann. Neurol. 32:1992;297-311.
54. Dawson V. L., Dawson T. M., London E. D., Bredt D. S., Snyder S. H. Nitric oxide mediates glutamate toxicity in primary cortical cultures. Proc. natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 88:1991;6371-6388.
55. Dexter D. T., Carter C. J., Wells F. R., Javoy-Agid F., Agid Y., Lees A., Jenner P., Marsden C. D. Basal lipid peroxidation in substantia nigra increased in Parkinson's disease. J. Neurochem. 52:1989;381-389.
56. Dipasquale B., Marini A. M., Youle R. Neuron apoptosis and DNA degradation induced by 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,5,6-tetrahydropyridinium (MPP+). Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 181:1991;142-148.
57. Drijfhout W. J., Homan E. J., Brons H. F., Oakley N. R., Shingle M., Grol C. J., Westernik B. H. C. Exogenous melatonin entrains rhythms and reduces amplitude of endogenous melatonin: an in vivo microdialysis study. J. Pineal Res. 20:1996;24-32.
58. Escames G., Guerrero J. M., Reiter R. J., Garcia J. J., Muñoz-Hoyos A., Ortiz G. G., Oh C. S. Melatonin and vitamin E limit nitric oxide-induced lipid peroxidation in rat brain homogenates. Neurosci. Lett. 230:1997;147-150.
59. Esterbauer, H. (1985) Lipid peroxidation production: formation, chemical properties and biological activities. In: Free Radicals and Liver Injury, pp. 29-47. Eds. G. Poli, K. H. Cheeseman, M. V. Dianzani and T. F. Slater. IRL Press, Arlington, VA.
60. Evans C., Scaiano J. C., Ingold K. V. Absolute kinetics of hydrogen abstraction from α-tocopherol by several reactive species including an alkyl radical. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 14:1992;4589-4593.
61. Fahn S., Cohen G. The oxidant stress hypothesis in Parkinson's disease: evidence supporting it. Ann. Neurol. 32:1992;804-812.
62. Fearnley J. M., Lees A. J. Aging and Parkinson's disease: substantia nigra regional selectivity. Brain. 114:1991;2283-2301.
63. Feldman P. L., Griffith O. W., Stuehr D. J. The surprising life of nitric oxide. Chem. Eng. News. 12:1993;26-38.
64. Finnochiaro L. M. E., Glikin G. C. Intracellular melatonin distribution in cultured cell lines. J. Pineal Res. 24:1998;22-34.
65. Floreani J. M., Lees A. J. Aging and Parkinson's disease: substantia nigra regional selectivity. Brain. 114:1991;2283-2301.
66. Floyd R. A. Role of oxygen free radicals in carcinogenesis and brain ischemia. FASEB J. 4:1990;2587-2597.
67. Freeman B. A., Crapo J. D. Biology of disease: free radicals and tissue injury. Lab. Invest. 47:1982;412-426.
68. Fridovich I. Superoxide dismutases: an adaptation to a paramagnetic gas. J. Biol. Chem. 264:1989;19328-19333.
69. Garcia J. J., Reiter R. J., Guerrero J. M., Escames G., Yu B. P., Oh C. S., Muñoz-Hoyos A. Melatonin prevents changes in microsomal membrane fluidity during induced lipid peroxidation. FEBS Lett. 408:1997;297-300.
70. Garcia J. J., Reiter R. J., Ortiz G. G., Oh C. S., Tang L., Yu B. P., Escames G. Melatonin enhances tamoxifen's ability to prevent the reduction in microsomal membrane fluidity induced by lipid peroxidation. J. Membr. Biol. 162:1998;59-65.
71. Ghosh C., Dick R. M., Ali S. F. Iron/ascorbate-induced lipid peroxidation changes membrane fluidity and muscarinic cholingeric receptor binding in rat frontal cortex. Neurochem. Int. 23:1993;479-484.
72. Gilad E., Cuzzocrea S., Zingarelli B., Salzman A. L., Szabo C. Melatonin is a scavenger of peroxynitrite. Life Sci. 60:1997;PL169-PL174.
73. Giusti P., Gusella M., Lipartiti M., Milani D., Zhu W., Vicini S., Manev H. Melatonin protects primary cultures of cerebellar granule neurons from kainate but not from N-methyl-D-aspartate excitotxicity. Exp. Neurol. 131:1995;39-46.
74. Giusti P., Lipartiti M., Franceschini D., Shiavo N., Floreani M., Manev H. Neuroprotection by melatonin from kainate-induced excitotoxicity in rats. FASEB J. 10:1996;891-896.
75. Giusti P., Lipartiti M., Gusella M., Floreani M., Manev H. In vitro and in vivo protective effects of melatonin against glutamate oxidative stress and neurotoxicity. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 825:1997;79-84.
76. Griffith, O. W. (1985) Glutathione and glutathione disulfide. In: Methods of Enzymatic Analysis, pp. 265-275. Ed. H. V. Bergmeyer. VCH Verlags-Gezellschaft, Weinheim.
77. Guerrero J. M., Reiter R. J., Ortiz G. G., Pablos M. I., Sewerynek E., Chuang J. I. Melatonin prevents increases in neural nitric oxide and cycle GMP production after transient brain ischemia and reperfusion in the Mongolian gerbil (Meriones unguiculatus). J. Pineal Res. 23:1997;24-31.
78. Hall E. D., Andrus P. K., Yonkers P. A. Brain hydroxyl radical generation in acute experimental head injury. J. Neurochem. 60:1993;588-594.
79. Halliwell B. Superoxide-dependent formation of hydroxyl radicals in the presence of iron chelates. FEBS Lett. 92:1978;321-326.
80. Halliwell B. Free radicals and antioxidants: a personal view. Nutr. Rev. 52:1994;253-265.
81. Halliwell B., Arouma O. I. DNA damage by oxygen-derived species. Its mechanism and measurement in mammalian systems. FEBS Lett. 281:1989;9-19.
82. Halliwell B., Gutteridge J. M. C. Oxygen toxicity, oxygen radicals, transition metals and disease. Biochem. J. 219:1984;1-14.
83. Halliwell B., Gutteridge J. M. C. Oxygen radicals and the nervous system. Trends Neurosci. 8:1985;22-26.
84. Halliwell, B. and Gutteridge, J. M. C. (1989) Free Radicals in Biology and Medicine, 2nd Edn. Clarendon, Oxford.
85. Halliwell B., Gutteridge J. M. C. Role of free radicals and catalytic metal ions in human disease: a review. Meth. Enzym. 186:1990;1-85.
86. Hard G. C., Iatropoulos M. J., Jordan K., Radi L., Kaltenberg O. P., Imondi A. R., Williams G. M. Major differences in the hepatocarcinogenicity and DNA adduct forming ability between toremifene and tamoxifen in female Grlicd (BR) rats. Cancer Res. 53:1993;4534-4541.
87. Hardeland R. New actions of melatonin and their relevance to biometeorology. Int. J. Biometeorol. 41:1997;47-57.
88. Hardeland R., Reiter R. J., Poeggeler B., Tan D. X. The significance of the metabolism of the neurohormone melatonin: antioxidative protection and formation of bioactive substances. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 17:1993;347-357.
89. Hardeland R., Balzer I., Poeggeler B., Fuhrberg B., Uria H., Behrmann R., Wolf R., Meyer T. J., Reiter R. J. On the primary functions of melatonin in evolution: mediation of photoperiodic signals in a unicell, photoxidation, and scavenging of free radicals. J. Pineal Res. 18:1995;104-111.
90. Harman D. Free radical theory of aging: origin of life, evolution, and aging. Age. 3:1980;100-102.
91. Harman D. The aging process: major risk factor for disease and death. Proc. natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 88:1991;5360-5633.
92. Harman D. Free radical theory of aging. Mutat. Res. 275:1992;257-266.
93. Harman D. Free radical theory of aging: Alzheimer's disease pathogenesis. Age. 18:1995;97-119.
94. Harris M. E., Hensley K., Butterfield D. A., Leedle R. A., Carney J. M. Direct evidence of oxidative injury produced by the Alzheimer's β-amyloid peptide (1-40) in cultured hippocampal neurons. Exp. Neurol. 131:1995;193-202.
95. Hattori A., Migitaka H., Masayake I., Itoh M., Yamamoto K., Ohtani-Kaneko R., Hara M., Suzuki T., Reiter R. J. Identification of melatonin in plants and its effects on plasma melatonin levels and binding to melatonin receptors in vertebrates. Biochem. Mol. Biol. Int. 35:1995;627-634.
96. Henden T., Stokkan K. A., Reiter R. J., Nonaka K. O., Lerchl A., Jones D. J. The age-associated reduction in pineal β-adrenergic receptor density is prevented by life-long food restriction. Biol. Signals. 1:1992;34-39.
97. Hensley K., Hall N., Subramanian R., Cole P., Harris M., Aksenov M., Aksenova M., Gabbita P., Wu J. F., Carney J. M., Lovell M., Markesbery W. R., Butterfield D. A. Brain regional correspondence between Alzheimer's disease histopathology and biomarkers of protein oxidation. J. Neurochem. 65:1995;2146-2156.
98. Hensley, K., Pye, Q. N., Tabatabaie, T., Stewart, C. A. and Floyd, R. A. (1997) Reactive oxygen involvement in neurodegenerative pathways. In: Neuroinflammation: Mechanisms and Management, pp. 265-281. Ed. P. L. Wood. Humana Press, Totowa.
99. Holmes S. W., Sugden D. The effect of melatonin on pinealectomy-induced hypertension in the rat. Br. J. Pharmac. 56:1976;360P-361P.
100. Hurn, P. D., Kirsch, J. R., Helfaer, M. A. and Traystman, R. J. (1996) Brain damage and free radicals, In: Tissue Perfusion and Organ Function: Ischemia/Reperfusion Injury, pp. 71-84. Eds. T. Kamada, T. Shiga and R. S. McCuskey. Elsevier Science, New York.
101. Iacovitti L., Stull N. D., Johnston K. Melatonin rescues dopamine neurons from cell death in tissue culture models of oxidative stress. Brain Res. 768:1997;317-326.
102. Ianas O., Olivescu R., Badescu I. Melatonin involvement in oxidative processes. Rom. J. Endocrin. 29:1991;117-123.
103. Iguchi H., Kato M., Ibayashi H. Age-dependent reduction in serum melatonin concentrations in healthy individuals. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 55:1982;27-29.
104. Imlay J. A., Chin S. M., Linn S. Toxic DNA damage by hydrogen peroxide through the Fenton reaction in vivo and in vitro. Science. 240:1988;1302-1309.
105. Jain A., Martensson J., Stole E., Auld P. A. M., Meister A. Glutathione deficiency leads to mitochondrial damage in brain. Proc. natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 88:1991;1913-1917.
106. Jaskot R. H., Charlet E. G., Grose E. C., Grady M. A. An automated analysis of glutathione peroxidase, S-transferase, and reductase activity in animal tissue. J. Anal. Toxic. 7:1983;86-88.
107. Johnson J. D., Conroy W. G., Burris K. D., Isom G. E. Peroxidation of brain lipids following cyanide intoxication in mice. Toxicology. 46:1987;21-28.
108. Kang I., Lemair H. G., Unterbeck A., Salbaum J. M., Masters L. L., Grzeshik K. H., Multhaup G., Beyreuther K., Müller-Hill B. The precursor of Alzheimer's disease A4 protein resembles a cell-surface receptor. Nature. 325:1987;733-736.
109. Karppanen H. Effect of propranolol on the blood pressure of normotensive and pinealectomized hypertensive rats. Naunyn-Schmiedeberg's Arch. Pharmac. 281:1974;1-12.
110. Kawakara M., Muramoto K., Kobayaski K., Kuroda Y. Functional and morphological changes in cultured neurons of rat cerebral cortex induced by long-term application of aluminum. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 189:1992;1317-1322.
111. Kehrer J. P. Free radicals, mediators of tissue injury and disease. Crit. Rev. Toxic. 23:1993;21-48.
112. King P. A., Anderson V. E., Edwards J. O., Gustafason G., Plumb R. C., Sugus J. W. A stable solid that generates hydroxyl radical upon dissolution in aqueous solution: reaction with proteins and nucleic acids. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 114:1992;5430-5432.
113. Kinouchi H., Epstein C. J., Mizae T. Attenuation of focal cerebral ischemic injury in transgenic mice over expressing CuZn superoxide dismutase. Proc. natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 88:1991;11158-11162.
114. Klaunig, J. E., Xu, Y., Bachowski, S. and Jiang, J. (1997) Free-radical oxygen-induced changes in chemical carcinogenesis. In: Free Radical Toxicology, pp. 375-400. Ed. K. B. Wallace. Taylor and Frances, Washington.
115. Koh J., Yang L. L., Cotman C. W. β-Amyloid protein increases the vulnerability of cultured cortical neurons to excitotoxic damage. Brain Res. 533:1990;315-320.
116. Köhler, C. (1984) Neuronal degeneration after intracerebral injections of excitotoxins. A histological analysis of kainic acid, ibotenic acid and quinolinic acid lesions in the brain. In: Excitotoxins, pp. 99-111. Eds. K. Fuke, P. Roberts and R. Schwarz. Plenum, New York.
117. Kotler M., Rodriquez C., Sainz R. M., Antolin I., Menendez-Pelaez A. Melatonin increases gene expression for antioxidant enzymes in rat brain cortex. J. Pineal Res. 24:1998;83-89.
118. Krause D. N., Barrios V. E., Duckles S. P. Melatonin receptors mediate potentiation of contractile responses to adrenergic nerve stimulation in rat caudal artery. Eur. J. Pharmac. 276:1995;207-213.
119. Krieglstein, J. and Oberpichler-Schwenk, H. (1994) Pharmacology of Cerebral Ischemia. Medpharm, Stuttgart.
120. Lai M., Griffiths H., Pall H., Williams A., Lunec J. An investigation into the role of reactive oxygen species in mechanisms of 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine toxicity using neuronal cell lines. Biochem. Pharmac. 45:1993;927-933.
121. Lees A. J. When did Ray Kennedy's Parkinson's disease being? Movement Discord. 7:1992;110-116.
122. Leigh, G. H. (1990) Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry. Blackwell Scientific, Oxford.
123. Levine R. L., Stadtman E. R. Oxidation of proteins during aging. Generations. 14:1992;39-42.
124. Lezoualc'h F., Skutella T., Widmann M., Behl C. Melatonin prevents oxidative stress-induced cell death in hippocampal cells. NeuroReport. 7:1996;2071-2077.
125. Lezoualc'h F., Sparapani M., Behl C. N-Acetyl-serotonin (normelatonin) and melatonin protect neurons against oxidative challenges and suppress the activity of the transcription factor NF-κB. J. Pineal Res. 24:1998;168-178.
126. Li X. J., Zhang L. M., Gu J., Zhang A. Z., Sun F. Y. Melatonin decreases production of hydroxyl radical during ischemia-reperfusion. Acta Pharmac. Sinica. 18:1997;394-396.
127. Liebler, D. C. (1993) Peroxyl radical trapping reactions of α-tocopherol in biomimetic systems. In: Vitamin E in Health and Disease, pp. 85-95. Eds. L. Packer and J. Fuchs. Dekker, New York.
128. Limson J., Nyokong T., Daya S. The interaction of melatonin and its precursors with aluminum, cadmium, copper, iron, lead, and zinc: an absorptive voltammetric study. J. Pineal Res. 24:1998;15-21.
129. Lipton S. A., Choi Y. B., Pan Z. H., Lei S. Z., Chen H. V. A redox-based mechanism in the neuroprotective and neurodestructive effect of nitric oxide and related nitroso-compounds. Nature. 364:1993;626-632.
130. Longoni B., Pryor W. A., Marchiafava P. Inhibition of lipid peroxidation by N-acetyserotonin and its role in retinal physiology. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 233:1997;778-780.
131. Löschmann P. A., Lange K. W., Wachtel H., Turski L. MPTP-induced degeneration: interference with glutaminergic activity. J. Neural Transm. 43(Suppl):1994;133-143.
132. Mainous M. R., Ertel W., Chaudry I. H., Deitch E. A. The gut: a cytokine-generating organ in system inflammation. Shock. 4:1995;193-199.
133. Malinski T., Bailey F., Zhang Z. G., Chopp M. Nitric oxide measured by a porphyrinic microsensor in rat brain after transient middle cerebral artery occlusion. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 13:1993;355-359.
134. Manchester L. C., Poeggeler B., Alvares F. L., Ogden G. B., Reiter R. J. Melatonin immunoreactivity in the photosynthetic prokaryote, Rhodospirillum rubrum: implications for an ancient antioxidant system. Cell. Mol. Biol. Res. 41:1995;391-395.
135. Manelli A. M., Puttfarcken P. S. β-Amyloid-induced toxicity in rat hippocampal cells: in vitro evidence for the involvement of free radicals. Brain Res. Bull. 38:1995;569-576.
136. Manev H. Uz T., Kharlamov A., Cagnoli C. M., Franseschini D., Giusti P. In vivo protection against kainate-induced apoptosis by the pineal hormone melatonin: effect of exogenous melatonin and circadian rhythm. Restr. Neurol. Neurosci. 9:1996;251-256.
137. Manev H., Uz T., Kharlamov A., Joo J. Y. Increased brain damage after stroke or excitotoxic seizures in melatonin-deficient rats. FASEB J. 10:1996;1546-1551.
138. Markesbery W. R. Oxidative stress hypothesis in Alzheimer's disease. Free Radical Biol. Med. 23:1997;134-137.
139. Marshall K. A., Reiter R. J., Poeggeler B., Aruoma O. I., Halliwell B. Evaluation of the antioxidant activity of melatonin in vitro. Free Radical Biol. Med. 21:1996;307-315.
140. Mattson M. P., Mark R. J., Furukawa K., Bruce A. J. Disruption of brain cell ion homeostasis in Alzheimer's disease by oxy radicals, and signaling pathways that protect therefrom. Chem. Res. Toxic. 10:1997;507-517.
141. Matuszak Z., Reszka K. J., Chignell C. F. Reaction of melatonin and related indoles with hydroxyl radicals: ESR and spin trapping investigations. Free Radical Biol. Med. 23:1997;367-372.
142. Mayo, J. C., Sainz, R. M., Uria, H., Antolin, I., Esteban, M. M. and Rodriquez, C. (1998a) Melatonin prevents apoptosis induced by 6-hydroxydopamine in neuronal cells: implications for Parkinson's disease. J. Pineal Res. 24, 179 - 192.
143. Mayo, J. C., Sainz, R. M., Uria, H., Antolin, I., Esteban, M. M. and Rodriquez, C. (1998b) Inhibition of cell proliferation: a mechanism likely to mediate prevention of neuronal cell death by melatonin. J. Pineal Res. 24, 179-192.
144. Meister A. Glutathione metabolism and its selective modification. J. Biol. Chem. 263:1988;17205-17208.
145. Melchiorri D., Reiter R. J., Sewerynek E., Chen L. D., Nistico G. Melatonin reduces kainate-induced lipid peroxidation in homogenates of different brain regions. FASEB J. 9:1995;1205-1210.
146. Melchiorri D., Reiter R. J., Chen L. D., Sewerynek E., Nistico G. Melatonin affords protection against kainate-induced in vitro lipid peroxidation in brain. Eur. J. Pharmac. 305:1996;239-242.
147. Menendez-Pelaez A., Reiter R. J. Distribution of melatonin in mammalian tissues: relative importance of nuclear verses cytosolic localization. J. Pineal Res. 15:1993;59-69.
148. Menendez-Pelaez A., Poeggeler B., Reiter R. J., Barlow-Walden L. R., Pablos M. I., Tan D. X. Nuclear localization of melatonin in different mammalian tissues: immunocytochemical and radioimmunoassay evidence. J. Cell. Biochem. 53:1993;572-582.
149. Mésenge, C., Margaill, I. Verrecchia, C., Allix, M., Boulu, R. G. and Plotkine, M. (1998) Protective effect of melatonin in a model of traumatic brain injury in mice. J. Pineal Res. in press.
150. Michel P. P., Hefty F. Toxicity of 6-hydroxydopamine and dopamine for dopaminergic neurons in culture. J. Neurosci. Res. 26:1990;428-435.
151. Miller J. W., Selhub J., Joseph J. A. Oxidative damage caused by free radicals produced during catecholamine autoxidation: protective effects of O-methylation and melatonin. Free Radical Biol. Med. 21:1996;241-249.
152. Moncada S., Palmer R. M. J., Higgs E. A. Nitric oxide: physiology, pathophysiology, and pharmacology. Pharmac. Rev. 43:1991;109-143.
153. Montilla P., Tunez I., Muñoz M. C., Soria J. V., Lopez A. Antioxidative effect of melatonin in rat brain oxidative stress induced by adriamycin. J. Physiol. Biochem. 53:1997;301-306.
154. Moore M. R. Biochemistry of porphyria. Int. J. Biochem. 25:1993;1353-1368.
155. Moreno J. J., Pryor W. A. Inactivation of α-1-proteinase inhibitor by peroxynitrite. Chem. Res. Toxic. 5:1992;425-431.
156. Murch S. J., Simmons C. B., Saxena P. K. Melatonin in feverfew and other medicinal plants. Lancet. 350:1997;1598-1599.
157. Nakanishi S. Molecular diversity of glutamate receptors and implications for brain function. Science. 258:1992;597-603.
158. Nakazono K., Watanabe N., Matsuno K., Sasaki J., Sato T., Inoul M. Does superoxide underlay the pathogenesis of hypertension? Proc. natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 88:1991;10045-10048.
159. Nava F., Calapai G., Facciola G., Cuzzocrea S., Giuliani G., DeSarro A., Caputi A. P. Melatonin effects on inhibition of thrist and fever induced by lipopolysaccharide in rat. Eur. J. Pharmac. 331:1997;267-274.
160. Nohl H., Hegner D. Do mitochondria produce oxygen free radicals in vivo? Eur. J. Biochem. 82:1978;563-567.
161. Novelli A., Reilly J. A., Lysko P. G., Henneberry R. C. Glutamate becomes neurotoxic via the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor when intracellular energy levels are reduced. Brain Res. 451:1988;205-212.
162. O'Banion M. K., Coleman P. D., Callahan L. M. Regional neuronal loss in aging and Alzheimer's disease: a brief review. Sem. Neurosci. 6:1994;307-314.
163. Ohtsuki T., Matsumoto M., Hayachi Y., Yamamoto K., Kitogawa K., Ogawa S., Yamamoto S., Kamada T. Reperfusion induces 5-lipoxygenase translocation and leukotiene C4 production in ischemic brain. Am. J. Physiol. 268:1995;H1249-H1257.
164. Olanow C. W. Oxidation reactions in Parkinson's disease. Neurology. 40(Suppl. 3):1990;32-37.
165. 2+ in toxic cell killing. Trends Pharmac. Sci. 10:1989;281-285.
166. Pablos M. I., Agapito M. T., Gutierrez R., Recio J. M., Reiter R. J., Barlow-Walden L. R., Acuña-Castroviejo D., Menendez-Pelaez A. Melatonin stimulates the activity of the detoxifying enzyme glutathione peroxidase in several tissues of chicks. J. Pineal Res. 19:1995;111-115.
167. Pablos M. I., Chuang J. I., Reiter R. J., Ortiz G. G., Daniels W. M. U., Sewerynek E., Melchiorri D., Poeggeler B. Time course of melatonin-induced increase in glutathione peroxidase activity in chick tissues. Biol. Signals. 4:1995;325-330.
168. Pablos M. I., Guerrero J. M., Ortiz G. G., Agapito M. T., Reiter R. J. Both melatonin and a putative nuclear melatonin receptor agonist CGP 52608 stimulate glutathione peroxidase and glutathione reductase activities in mouse brain in vivo. Neuroendocrin. Lett. 18:1997;49-58.
169. Pablos M. I., Reiter R. J., Chuang J. I., Ortiz G. G., Guerrero J. M., Sewerynek E., Agapito M. T., Melchiorri D., Lawrence R., Deneke S. M. Acutely administered melatonin reduces oxidative damage in lung and brain induced by hyperbaric oxygen. J. Appl. Physiol. 83:1997;354-558.
170. Pablos M. I., Reiter R. J., Ortiz G. G., Guerrero J. M., Agapito M. T., Chuang J. I., Sewerynek E. Rhythms of glutathione peroxidase and glutathione reductase in brain of chicks and their inhibition by light. Neurochem. Int. 32:1998;69-75.
171. Packer L. Vitamin E is nature's master antioxidant. Sci. Am. (Sci. Med.). Mar/Apr:1994;54-63.
172. Pähkla R., Zilmer M., Kullisaar T., Rägo L. Comparison of the antioxidant activity of melatonin and pinoline in vitro. J. Pineal Res. 24:1998;96-101.
173. Pappolla M. A., Sas M., Omar R. A., Bick R. J., Hickson-Bick D. L. M., Reiter R. J., Efthimiopoulos S., Robakis N. K. Melatonin prevents death of neuroblastoma cells exposed to the Alzheimer amyloid peptide. J. Neurosci. 17:1997;1683-1690.
174. Pappolla, M. A., Sas, M., Bick, R. J., Omar, R. A., Hickson-Bick, D. L. M., Reiter, R. J., Efthimiopoulous, S., Sambamurti, K. and Rubakis, N. K. (1997b) Oxidative damage and cell death induced by an amyloid peptide fragment is completely prevented by melatonin. In: Alzheimer's Disease: Biology, Diagnosis and Therapeutics, pp. 741-749. Eds. K. Iqbal, B. Winblad, T. Nishimura, M. Takeda and H. M. Wisniewski. Wiley, New York.
175. Pappolla, M. A., Soto, C., Bozner, P., Frangione, B. and Ghiso, J. (1997c) Disruption of β-fibrillogenesis by the pineal hormone melatonin. Abstr. Soc. Neurosci., Abstract No. 731.1.
176. Pappolla, M. A., Bozner, P., Soto, C., Shao, H., Robakis, N. K., Zagorski, M., Frangione, B. and Ghiso, J. (1998) Inhibition of Alzheimer's β-fibrillogenesis by melatonin. J. Biol. Chem. in press.
177. Perry T. L., Young V. W. Idiopathic Parkinson's disease, progressive supranuclear palsy and glutathione metabolism in the substantia nigra of patients. Neurosci. Lett. 67:1986;269-274.
178. Pieri C., Marra M., Moroni F., Recchioni R., Marcheselli F. Melatonin: a peroxyl radical scavenger more effective than vitamin E. Life Sci. 55:1994;PL271-PL276.
179. Pieri C., Moroni F., Marra M., Marcheselli F., Recchioni R. Melatonin is an efficient antioxidant. Arch. Gerontol. Geriatrics. 20:1995;159-165.
180. Pierrefiche G., Laborit H. Oxygen radicals, melatonin and aging. Exp. Gerontol. 30:1995;213-227.
181. Poeggeler B., Balzer I., Hardeland R., Lerchl A. Pineal hormone melatonin oscillates also in the dinoflagellate, Gonyaulax polyedra. Naturwissenschaften. 78:1991;268-269.
182. Poeggeler B., Reiter R. J., Tan D. X., Chen L. D., Manchester L. C. Melatonin, hydroxyl radical-mediated oxidative damage, and aging: a hypothesis. J. Pineal Res. 14:1993;151-168.
183. Poeggeler B., Saarela S., Reiter R. J., Tan D. X., Chen L. D., Manchester L. C., Barlow-Walden L. R. Melatonin - a highly potent endogenous radical scavenger and electron donor: new aspects of the oxidation chemistry of this indole assessed in vitro. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 738:1994;419-420.
184. Poeggeler B., Reiter R. J., Hardeland R., Sewerynek E., Melchiorri D., Barlow-Walden L. R. Melatonin, a mediator of electron transfer and repair reactions, acts synergistically with the chain-breaking antioxidants ascorbate, trolox and glutathione. Neuroendocrin. Lett. 17:1995;87-92.
185. Poeggeler B., Reiter R. J., Hardeland R., Tan D. X., Barlow-Walden L. R. Melatonin and structurally-related, endogenous indoles act as potent electron donors and radical scavengers in vitro. Redox Report. 2:1996;179-184.
186. Pozo D., Reiter R. J., Calvo J. R., Guerrero J. M. Physiological concentrations of melatonin inhibit nitric oxide synthase in rat cerebellum. Life Sci. 55:1994;PL455-PL460.
187. Pozo D., Reiter R. J., Calvo J. R., Guerrero J. M. Inhibition of cerebellar nitric oxide synthase and cyclic GMP production by melatonin via complex formation with calmodulin. J. Cell. Biochem. 65:1997;430-442.
188. Princ F. G., Juknat A. A., Maxit A. G., Cardalda C., Batlle A. Melatonin's antioxidant protection against δ-aminolevulinic acid-induced oxidative damage in the rat cerebellum. J. Pineal Res. 23:1997;40-46.
189. Princ F. G., Maxit A. G., Cardala C., Batlle A., Juknat A. A. In vivo protection by melatonin against δ-aminolevulinic acid-induced oxidative damage and its antioxidant effect on the activity of haem enzymes. J. Pineal Res. 24:1998;1-8.
190. Pryor W., Squadrito G. The chemistry of peroxynitrite: a product from the reaction of nitric oxide with superoxide. Am. J. Physiol. 268:1995;L699-L722.
191. Puy H., Deybach J. C., Baudry J., Touitou Y., Nordmann Y. Decreased nocturnal plasma melatonin levels in patients with recurrent acute intermittent porphyria attacks. Life Sci. 53:1993;621-627.
192. Puy H., Deybach J. C., Bogdan A., Callebert J., Baumgartner M., Voisin P., Nordmann Y., Touitou Y. Increased δ-aminolevulinic acid and decreased melatonin production. J. Clin. Invest. 97:1996;104-110.
193. Radi R., Beckman J. S., Bush K. M., Freeman B. A. Peroxynitrite oxidation of sulfhydryls. The cytotoxic potential of superoxide and nitric oxide. J. Biol. Chem. 266:1991;4244-4250.
194. Radi R., Beckman J. S., Bush K. M., Freeman B. A. Peroxynitrite induced membrane lipid peroxidation. The cytotoxic potential of superoxide and nitric oxide. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 288:1991;481-487.
195. Reiter R. J. Pineal melatonin: cell biology of its synthesis and of its physiological interactions. Endocrine Rev. 12:1991;151-180.
196. Reiter R. J. The aging pineal gland and its physiological consequences. Bio Essays. 14:1992;169-175.
197. Reiter R. J. Oxidative processes and antioxidative defense mechanisms in the aging brain. FASEB J. 9:1995;526-533.
198. Reiter R. J. Functional pleiotropy of the neurohormone melatonin: antioxidant protection and neuroendocrine regulation. Front. Neuroendocrinol. 16:1995;385-415.
199. Reiter R. J. Oxygen radical detoxification processes during aging: the functional importance of melatonin. Aging Exp. Clin. Res. 7:1995;340-351.
200. Reiter R. J. Antioxidant actions of melatonin. Adv. Pharmac. 38:1997;103-117.
201. Reiter, R. J. (1997b) Aging and oxygen toxicity: relation to changes in melatonin. Age.
202. Reiter R. J., Richardson B. A., Johnson L. Y., Ferguson B. N., Dinh D. T. Pineal melatonin rhythm: reduction in aging Syrian hamsters. Science. 210:1980;1372-1373.
203. Reiter R. J., Craft C. M., Johnson J. E. Jr., King T. S., Richardson B. A., Vaughan G. M., Vaughan M. K. Age-associated reduction in nocturnal pineal melatonin levels in female rats. Endocrinology. 109:1981;1295-1297.
204. Reiter R. J., Tan D. X., Poeggeler B., Menendez-Peloez A., Chen L. D., Saarela S. Melatonin as a free radical scavenger: implications for aging and age-related diseases. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 719:1994;1-12.
205. Reiter R. J., Melchiorri D., Sewerynek E., Poeggeler B., Barlow-Walden L. R., Chuang J. I., Ortiz G. G., Acuña-Castroviejo D. A review of the evidence supporting melatonin's role as an antioxidant. J. Pineal Res. 18:1995;1-11.
206. Reiter R. J., Pablos M. I., Agapito T. T., Guerrero J. M. Melatonin in the context of the free radical theory of aging. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 786:1996;362-378.
207. Reiter R. J., Oh C. S., Fujimori O. Melatonin: its intracellular and genomic actions. Trends Endocrin. Metab. 7:1996;22-27.
208. Reiter R. J., Tang L., Garcia J. J., Muñoz-Hoyos A. Pharmacological actions of melatonin in oxygen radical pathophysiology. Life Sci. 60:1997;2255-2271.
209. Reiter R. J., Carneiro R. C., Oh C. S. Melatonin in relation to cellular antioxidative defense mechanisms. Horm. Metab. Res. 29:1997;363-372.
210. Reiter R. J., Guerrero J. M., Escames G., Pappolla M. A., Acuña-Castroviejo D. Prophylactic actions of melatonin in oxidative neurotoxicity. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 825:1997;70-78.
211. Reiter, R. J., Pie, J. and Garcia, J. J. (1998a) Oxidative toxicity in models of neurodegeneration: responses to melatonin. Restor. Neurol. Neurosci. in press.
212. Reiter, R. J., Guerrero, J. M., Garcia, J. J. and Acuña-Castroviejo, D. (1998b) Reactive oxygen intermediates, molecular damage and aging: relation to melatonin. Ann N. Y. Acad. Sci. in press.
213. Richardson J. S., Zhou Y. Oxidative stress in the production and expression of neurotoxic β-amyloid. Restr. Neurol. Neurosci. 9:1996;207-211.
214. Robakis N. K., Pappolla M. A. Oxygen-free radicals and amyloidosis in Alzheimer's disease: is there a connection? Neurobiol. Aging. 15:1994;457-459.
215. Sack R. L., Lewy A. J., Erb D. L., Vollmer W. M., Singer C. M. Human melatonin production decreases with age. J. Pineal Res. 3:1986;379-388.
216. Sadrzadeh S. M., Anderson D. K., Panter S. S., Hallaway P. E., Eaton J. W. Hemoglobin potentiates central nervous system damage. J. Clin. Invest. 79:1987;662-664.
217. 2. : implications for the action of endothelium-releasing factor Free Radical Res. Commun. 10:1990;221-226.
218. Savolainen H. Superoxidase dismutase and glutathione peroxidase activities in rat brain. Res. Commun. Chem. Pathol. Pharmac. 21:1978;173-176.
219. Scaiano J. C. Exploratory laser flash photolysis study of free radical reactions and magnetic field effects in melatonin chemistry. J. Pineal Res. 19:1995;189-195.
220. Schulz J. B., Henshaw D. R., Siwek D., Jenkins B. G., Ferrante R. J., Cippoloni P. B., Kowall N. W., Rosen B. R., Beal M. F. Involvement of free radicals in excitotoxicity in vivo. J. Neurochem. 64:1995;2239-2247.
221. Selkoe D. J. Amyloid beta-protein and the genetics of Alzheimer's disease. A. Rev. Neurosci. 17:1994;489-517.
222. Sevanian, A. and McLeod, L. (1997) Formation and biological reactivity of lipid peroxidation products. In: Free Radical Toxicology, pp. 47-70. Ed. K. B. Wallace. Taylor and Francis, Washington.
223. Sewerynek E., Melchiorri D., Chen L. D., Reiter R. J. Melatonin reduces both basal and bacterial lipopolysaccharide-induced lipid peroxidation in vitro. Free Radical Biol. Med. 19:1995;903-909.
224. Sewerynek E., Abe M., Reiter R. J., Barlow-Walden L. R., Chen L. D., McCabe T. J., Roman L. J., Diaz-Lopez B. Melatonin administration prevents lipopolysaccharide-induced oxidative damage in phenobarbital-treated animals. J. Cell. Biochem. 58:1995;436-444.
225. 2-induced lipid peroxidation in homogenates of different rat brain regions. J. Pineal Res. 19:1995;51-56.
226. Shaikh A. Y., Xu J., Wu Y., He L., Hsu C. Y. Melatonin protects bovine cerebral endothelial cells from hyperoxia-induced DNA damage and death. Neurosci. Lett. 229:1997;193-197.
227. Shida C. S., Castrucci A. M. L., Larmy-Freund M. T. High melatonin solubility in aqueous medium. J. Pineal Res. 16:1994;198-201.
228. Sies H. Strategies of antioxidative defense. Eur. J. Biochem. 215:1993;213-219.
229. Sies H., Stahl W. Vitamins E and C, β-carotene, and other carotenoids as antioxidants. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 62(Suppl.):1995;1315S-1321S.
230. Sohal R. S. Mitochondria generate superoxide anion radicals and hydrogen peroxide. FASEB J. 11:1997;1309-1315.
231. Song W., Lahiri D. K. Melatonin alters the metabolism of the β-amyloid precursor protein in the neuroendocrine cell line PC12. J. Mol. Neurosci. 9:1997;75-92.
232. Stadtman E. R. Protein oxidation and aging. Science. 257:1992;1220-1224.
233. Stasica, P., Ulanski, P. and Rosiak, J. M. (1998) Melatonin as a hydroxyl radical scavenger. J. Pineal Res. in press.
234. Stokkan K. A., Reiter J. R., Nonaka K. D., Lerchl A., Yu B. P. Food restriction retards aging of the pineal gland. Brain Res. 545:1991;66-72.
235. Susa N., Ueno S., Furukawa Y., Ueda J., Sugiyama M. Potent protective effect of melatonin on chromium (VI)-induced DNA single-strand breaks, cytotoxicity, and lipid peroxidation in primary cultures of rat hepotocytes. Toxic. Appl. Pharmac. 144:1997;377-384.
236. Szabo C. The role of peroxynitrite in the pathophysiology of shock, inflammation and ischemia-reperfusion injury. Shock. 6:1996;79-88.
237. Tan D. X., Chen L. D., Poeggeler B., Manchester L. C., Reiter R. J. Melatonin: a potent, endogenous hydroxyl radical scavenger. Endocrine J. 1:1993;57-60.
238. Tan D. X., Poeggeler B., Reiter R. J., Chen L. D., Chen S., Manchester L. C., Barlow-Walden L. R. The pineal hormone melatonin inhibits DNA-adduct formation induced by the chemical carcinogen safrole in vivo. Cancer Lett. 70:1993;65-71.
239. Tan D. X., Reiter R. J., Chen L. D., Poeggeler B., Manchester L. C., Barlow-Walden L. R. Both physiological and pharmacological levels of melatonin reduce DNA adduct formation induced by the carcinogen safrole. Carcinogenesis. 15:1994;215-218.
240. Tang, P. L., Chan, T. Y. and Zian, Z. M. (1996) Melatonin as an antioxidant: an assessment of its properties in vitro. In: Melatonin: A Universal Photoperiodic Signal with Diverse Actions, pp. 167-173. Eds. P. L. Tang, S. F. Pang and R. J. Reiter. Karger, Basel.
241. Tilden A. R., Becker M. A., Amma L. L., Arceniega J., McGaw A. K. Melatonin production in a aerobic photosynthetic bacterium: an evolutionary early association with darkness. J. Pineal Res. 22:1997;102-106.
242. Torbati D., Church D. F., Keller J. M., Pryor W. A. Free radical generation in the brain precedes hyperbaric oxygen-induced comulsions. Free Radical Biol. Med. 13:1992;101-106.
243. Touati D. The molecular genetics of superoxide dismutase in E. coli. An approach to understanding the biological role and regulation of SODs in relation to other elements of the defense system against oxygen toxicity. Free Radical Biol. Med. 8:1989;1-9.
244. Touitou V., Fevre M., Langugvey M., Carayon A., Boydan A., Reinhert A. Age and mental health related circadian rhythms of plasma levels of melatonin, prolactin, luteinizing hormone and follicle stimulating hormone. J. Endocrin. 9:1981;467-475.
245. Urano S., Matsuo M. Membrane-stabilizing effect of vitamin E. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 570:1989;524-526.
246. Uz T., Giusti P., Franceschini D., Kharlamov A., Manev H. Protective effect of melatonin against hippocampal DNA damage induced by intraperitoneal administration of kainate to rats. Neuroscience. 73:1996;631-636.
247. Uz T., Longone P., Manev H. Increased hippocampal 5-lipoxygenase mRNA content in melatonin-deficient, pinealectomized rats. J. Neurochem. 69:1997;2220-2223.
248. Vatassery, G. T. (1997) Vitamin E. Neurochemical aspects and relevance to nervous system disorders. In: Metals and Oxidative Damage in Neurological Disorders, pp. 175-188. Ed. P. M. Conner. Plenum, New York.
249. Victor T., van der Merwe N., Benadi A. J. S., LaCock C., Lochner A. Mitochondrial phospholipid composition and microviscosity in myocardial ischemia. Biochem. Biophys. Acta. 834:1985;215-223.
250. Vivien-Roels B., Pevet P. Melatonin presence and formation in invertebrates. Experientia. 49:1993;642-647.
251. Wallace D. C. Mitochondrial genetics: a paradigm for aging and degenerative diseases. Science. 256:1992;628-632.
252. Watanabe H., Kobayashi A., Yamamoto T., Suzuki S., Hayashi H., Yamazaki N. Alterations of human erythrocyte membrane fluidity by oxygen-derived free radicals and calcium. Free Radical Biol. Med. 9:1990;507-514.
253. Wei J., Huang N. G., Quest M. J. Hydroxyl radical formation in hyperglycemic rats during middle cerebral artery occulsion/reperfusion. Free Radical Biol. Med. 23:1997;986-995.
254. Yamamoto H. A., Yang H. W. Preventive effect of melatonin against cyanide-induced seizures and lipid peroxidation in mice. Neurosci. Lett. 207:1996;89-92.
255. Yamamoto H. A., Yang H. W. Antagonistic effect of melatonin against cyanide-induced seizures and acute lethality in mice. Toxic. Lett. 87:1996;19-24.
256. Yamamoto H. A., Yang H. W. Effect of melatonin, piperonyl butoxide, or cobalt chloride on L-cysteine-induced lipid peroxidation in homogenate from whole brain of mice. Toxic. Lett. 89:1996;51-56.
257. Yamamoto H. A., Yang H. W. Melatonin attenuates L-cysteine-induced seizures and lipid peroxidation in the brain of mice. J. Pineal Res. 21:1996;108-113.
258. Yamasaki I., Piette L. H. EPR spin trapping study on the oxidizing species formed in the reaction of the ferrous ion with hydrogen peroxide. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 113:1991;7588-7593.
259. Yeleswaram K., McLaughlin L. G., Knipe J. O., Schabdoch D. Pharmacokinetics and oral bioavailability of exogenous melatonin in preclinical animal models and clinical implications. J. Pineal Res. 22:1997;45-51.
260. Yoshikawa K. Neurotoxicity of β-amyloid. Nature. 361:1993;122-123.
261. Yoshikawa T. Free radicals and their scavengers in Parkinson's disease. Eur. Neurol. 33(Suppl 1):1993;60-68.
262. Yoshikawa Y., Takano H., Takahashi S., Ichikawa H., Kondo M. Changes in tissue antioxidant enzyme activities and lipid peroxides in endotoxin-induced multiple organ failure. Circul. Shock. 42:1994;53-58.
263. Youdim M. B. H., Ben-Shackar D., Eshel G., Finberg J. P. M., Riederer P. The neurotoxicity of iron and nitric oxide. Adv. Neurol. 60:1993;259-266.
264. Zhang J., Dawson V. L., Dawson T. M., Snyder S. H. Nitric oxide activation of poly(ADP-ribose) synthetase in neurotoxicity. Science. 263:1994;687-689.
265. Zhang Y., Marcillar O., Giulivi C., Eymster L., Davis K. J. The oxidative inactivation of mitochondrial electron transport chain components of ATPase. J. Biol. Chem. 265:1990;16330-16336.
266. Zigmond M. J., Sticker E. M. Animal models of Parkinsonism using selective neurotoxins: clinical and basic implications. Int. Rev. Neurbiol. 31:1989;1-79.
267. Zimmer, G. (1984) Fluidity of cell membranes in the presence of some drugs and inhibitors. In: Biomembranes, pp. 169-203. Eds. M. Kates and L. A. Manson. Plenum, New York.
268. Zimmer, G. and Freisleben, H. J. (1988) Membrane fluidity determinations from viscosity. In: Advances in Membrane Fluidity, Vol. 1, pp. 279-318. Eds. C. C. Curtain and L. M. Gordon. Alan R. Liss, New York.