Inbreeding and extinction: Island populations

Conservation Biology

Volumn 12, Issue 3, 1998, Pages 665-675

  Frankham, Richard ^a  

^a MACQUARIE UNIVERSITY   (Australia)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ENDEMIC SPECIES; EXTINCTION; INBREEDING; ISLAND POPULATION;

EID: 0031834547     PISSN: 08888892     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1523-1739.1998.96456.x     Document Type: Article

References (143)

1. Abplanalp, H. A. 1974. Inbreeding as a tool for poultry improvement. Proceedings of the first World Congress on Genetics Applied to Livestock Production 1:897-908.
2. Abplanalp, H., and A. E. Woodard. 1967. Inbreeding effects under continued sib-mating in turkeys. Poultry- Science 46:1225-1226.
3. Aquadro, C. F., and C. W. Kilpatrick. 1981. Morphological and biochemical variation and differentiation in insular and mainland deer mice (Perotnysais tnanfciilatus). Pages 214-230 in M. II. Smith and J. Joule, editors. Mammalian population genetics. University of Georgia Press, Athens.
4. Arnaud, J., B. Meier, J. M. Dugoujon, and Y. Rumpler. 1992. Study of the variability of erythrocyte enzymes in captive and wild populations of the black lemur (.Enlemiir macaco macaco). An indispensable preliminary to captive breeding programmes. Primates 33: 139-146.
5. Atkinson, I. 1989. Introduced animals and extinction. Pages 54-75 in D. Western and M. C. Pearl, editors. Conservation for the twenty-first century. Oxford University Press, New York.
6. Avanzati, A. M., M. Baratti, and F. Bernini. 1994. Molecular and morphological differentiation between steganacarid mites (Aacari: Oribatida) from the Canary Islands. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 52:325-340.
7. Avise, J. C., M. H. Smith, and R. K. Seiander. 1974rt. Biochemicalpolymorphism and systematics in the genus Peromyscits. VI. The boylil species group. Journal of Mammalogy 55:751-763.
8. Avise, J. C., M. H. Smith, R. K. Seiander, T. E. Lawlor, and P. R. Ramsey. 1974&. Biochemical polymorphism and systematics in the genus Pcromysctis. V. Insular and mainland species of the subgenus Haplomys. Systematic Zoology 23:226-238.
9. Avise, J. C., M. H. Smith, and R. K. Seiander. 1979. Biochemical polymorphism and systematics in the genus Peromysciis VIII. Geographic differentiation in members of the tritei and maniculatus species group. Journal of Mammalogy 60:177-192.
10. Ayala, F. J. 1975. Genetic differentiation during the speciatio'n process. Evolutionary Biology 8:1-78.
11. Ayala, F. J.,J. R. Powell, andT. Dobzhansky. 1971. Polymorphisms in continental and island populations of Drosophila U'illistoni. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 68:2480-2483.
12. Ayala, F. J., M. L. Tracey, L. G. Barr, and J. G. Ehrenfeld. 1974. Genetic and reproductive differentiation of the subspecies, Drosopbila cqitinoxinlisjcaribbcnsis. Evolution 28:24-41.
13. Baker, A. J., M. D. Dennison, A. Lynch, and G. Le Grand. 1990. Genetic divergence in peripherally isolated populations of chaffinches in the Atlantic islands. Evolution 44:981-999.
14. Barren, S. C. H., and B. C. Husband. 1989. The genetics of plant migration and colonization. Pages 254-277 in A. H. D. Brown, M. T. Clegg, A. L. Kahler, and B. S. Weir, editors. Plant populations genetics, breeding, and genetic resources. Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, Massachusetts.
15. Berry, R. J., and J. Peters. 1977. Heterogeneous heterozygosities in Mus initsciilns populations. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B 197:485-503.
16. Berry, R. J., J. Peters, and R. J. Van Aardc. 1978. Sub-antarctic house mice: colonization, survival and selection. Journal of Zoology (London) 184:127-141.
17. Berry, R. J., W. N. Bonner, and J. Peters. 1979. Natural selection in house mice (Altts iiisciitus) from South Georgia (South Atlantic Ocean). Journal of Zoology (London) 189:385-398.
18. Berry, R. J., R. D. Sage, W. Z. Lidicker, and W. B. Jackson. 1981. Genetic variation in three Pacific house mouse (Mus musculus) populations. Journal of Zoolog)- (London) 193:391-404.
19. Boone, J. L., J. Laerm, and M. H. Smith. 1993. Taxonomic status ofPcroinysais gossypintis aiuistttsae (Anastasia Island cotton mouse). Journal of Mammalogy 74:363-375.
20. Borlase, S. C., D. A. Loebel, R. Frankham, R. K. Nurthen, D. A. Briscoe, and G. E. Daggard, 1993. Modeling problems in conservation genetics using captive Drosophila populations: consequences of equalization of family sizes. Conservation Biology 7:122-131
21. Bowman, J. C., and D. S. Falconer. I960. Inbreeding depression and heterosis of litter size in mice. Genetical Research 1:262-274.
22. Brewer, B. A., R. C. Lacy, M. L. Foster, and G. Alaks. 1990. Inbreeding depression in insular and central populations of Peromysciis mice. Journal of Heredity 81:257-266.
23. Browne, R. A. 1977. Genetic variation in island and mainland populations of Peromysciis Icucopiis. American Midland Naturalist 97:1-9.
24. Cabrera, V. M., A. M. Gonzalez, and A. Gullon. 1980. Enzymatic polymorphism in Drosophita siibobsctira populations from the Canary Islands. Evolution 34:875-887.
25. Cariou, M. L, M. Solignac, M. Monnerot, andj. R. David. 1990. Lowallozyme and mtDNA variability in the island endemic species Drosofibita sccljellia (D. melanogaster complex). Experientia 46:101-104.
26. Carlquist, S. J. 1974. Island biology. Columbia University Press, New York.
27. Case, T. J., D. T. Böiger, and A. D. Richman. 1992. Reptilian extinctions: the last ten thousand years. Pages 90-125 in P. L. Fiedler and S. K. Jain, editors. Conservation biology: the theory and practice of nature conservation, preservation and management. Chapman and Hall, New York.
28. Charlesworth, D., and B. Charlesworth. 1987. Inbreeding depression and its evolutionäry consequences. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 18:237-268.
29. Chen, X. 1993. Comparison of inbreeding and outbreeding in hermaphroditic Arianta arbiistonun (L.) (land snail). Heredity 71: 456-461.
30. Chung, M. G. 1994. Allozyme diversity and population genetic structure in Hosta jonesii (liliaccae), a Korean endemic species. Korean Journal of Genetics 16:147-156.
31. Clayton, G. A., J. A. Morris, and A. Robertson. 1957. An experimental check on quantitative genetical theory. I. Short-term response to selection. Journal of Genetics 55:131-151.
32. Cody, M. L., and J. M. Overton. 1996. Short-term evolution of reduced dispersal ability in island plant populations. Journal of Ecology 84: 53-51.
33. Connor, J. L., and M. J. Bellucci. 1979- Natural selection resisting inbreeding depression in captive wild housemice (Mus tinisciiliis). Evolution 33:929-940.
34. Cooper, A., J. Rhymer, H. F.James, S. L. Oison, C. E. Mclntosh, M. D. Sorenson, and R. C. Fleischer. 1996. Ancient DNA and island endemics. Nature 381:484.
35. Corbin, K. W., C. G. Sibley, A. Ferguson, A. C. Wilson, A. H. Brush, and J. E. Ahlquist. 1974. Genetic polymorphism in New Guinea starlings of the genus Aplanis. Condor 76:307-318.
36. Cornelius, P. L., andj. W. Dudley. 1974. Effect of inbreeding by selfing and full-sib mating in a maize population. Crop Science 14:815-819.
37. Cothran, E. G., E. G. Zimmerman, and C. F. Nadler. 1977. Genie differentiation and evolution in the ground squirrel subgenus Icticlomys (Genus Spermopbilits). Journal of Mammalogy 58:610-622.
38. Crawford, D. J., T. F. Stuessy, R. Rodriguez, and M. Rondinelli. 1993. Genetic diversity in Rhaphithamniis venustus (Verbenaceae), a species endemic to the Juan Femandez Islands. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club 120:23-28.
39. Dejoode, D. R., andj. F. Wendel. 1992. Genetic diversity and the origin of the Hawaiian islands cotton, Gossypiuin toiiwiitosiiin. American Journal of Botany 79:1311-1319.
40. Dessauer, H. C., E. Nevo, and K.-C. Chuang. 1975. High genetic variability in an ecologically variable venebrate, Bitfo viridis. Biochemical Genetics 13:651-661.
41. Diamond, J. M. 1984a. Historic extinctions: their mechanisms, and lessons for understanding prehistoric extinctions. Pages 824-862 in P. S. Martin and R. Klein, editors. Quartenary extinctions. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.
42. Diamond, J. M. 1984&. extinctions of isolated populations. Pages 191-246 in M. H. Niecki, editor. Extinctions. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
43. Dobson, A. P., and R. M. May. 1986. Disease and conservation. Pages 345-365 in M. E. Soûlé, editor. Conservation biology: the science of scarcity and diversity. Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, Massachusetts.
44. Duplantier, J. M., L. Granjon, E. Mathieu, and F. Bonhomme. 1990.
45. Structures génétiques comparées de trios espèces de rongeurs africaines du genre Atastomys au Senegal. Genetica 81:179-192.
46. Ehiobu, N. G., M. E. Goddard, andj. F. Taylor. 1989. Effect of rate of inbreeding on inbreeding depression in Drosopbila melanogaster. Theoretical and Applied Genetics 77:123-127.
47. Eisen, E. J., andj. P. Hanrahan. 1974. Genetic drift and inbreeding depression measured from control populations of mice. Canadian Journal of Genetics and Cytology 16:91-104.
48. Elisens, V. J. 1992. Genetic divergence in Galvezia (Scrophulariaceae): evolutionary and biogeographic relationships among South American and Galapagos species. American Journal of Botany 79: 198-206.
49. Falconer, D. S., and T. F. C. Mackay. 1996. Introduction to quantitative genetics. 4th edition. Longman, Harlow, United Kingdom.
50. Flesness, N. R. 1989- Mammalian extinction rates: background to the black-footed ferret drama. Pages 3-9 in U. S. Seal, E. T. Thorne, M. A. Bogan, and S. H. Anderson, editors. Conservation biology of the black-footed ferret. Yale University Press, New Haven, Connecticut.
51. Frankcl, O. H., and M. E. Soûlé. 1981. Conservation and evolution. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom.
52. Frankham, R. 1995a. Conservation genetics. Annual Review of Genetics 29:305-327.
53. Frankham, R. 19956. Inbreeding and extinction: a threshold effect. Conservation Biology 9:792-799.
54. Frankham, R. 1997. Do island populations have lower genetic variation than mainland populations? Heredity 78:311-327.
55. Frankham, R., G. J. Smith, and D. A. Briscoe. 1993- Effects on heterozygosity and reproductive fitness of inbreeding with and without selection on fitness in Drosopbila nit'laiiogaster. Theoretical and Applied Genetics 86:1023-1027.
56. Garten, C. T. J. 1976. Relationships between aggressive behavior and genie heterozygosity in the oldfield mouse Peromyscus polionotiis. Evolution 30:59-72.
57. Gill, A. E. 1980. Evolutionary genetics of California island Peromyscus. Pages 719-743 in D. M. Power, editor. The California islands: proceedings of a multidisciplinary symposium. Santa Barbara Museum of Natural History, Santa Barbara, California.
58. Gilligan, D..'-'., L~ M. Woodworth, M. E. Montgomery, D. A. Briscoe, and R. Frankham, 1997. Is mutation accumulation a threat to the survival of endangered populations? Conservation Biology 11: 1235-1241.
59. Glover, D. A., and S. C. H. Barrett. 1987. Genetic variation in continental and island populations of Eicbbornla paniailata (Pontederiaceae). Heredity 59:7-17.
60. Good, R. L, and A. R. Hallauer. 1977. Inbreeding depression in maize by selfing and full-sibbing. Crop Science 17:935-940.
61. Gorman, G. C., M. E. Soûlé, S. Y. Yang, and E. Nevo. 1975. Evolutionary genetics of insular Adriatic lizards. Evolution 29:52-71.
62. Greenbaum, I. F., and R. J. Baker. 1976. Evolutionary relationships in Macrotus (Mammalia: Chiroptera): biochemical variation and karyology. Systematic Zoology 25:15-25.
63. Gyllensten, U., N. Ryman, and T. Saether. 1985. Genetic divergence between willow grouse (Lagopus lagopus L.) and rock ptarmigan (.Lagopus mutiis L.) and the genetic structure of Scandinavian grouse populations. Hereditas 102:47-55.
64. Hoffmann, A. A., and P. A. Parsons. 1991. Evolutionary genetics and environmental stress. Oxford University Press, Oxford, United Kingdom.
65. Hranitz, J. M., T. S. Klinger, F. C. Hill, R. G. Sagar, T. Mencken, and F. Carr. 1993- Morphometric variation between Bttfo wooilljonsii fowleri Hinckley (Anura: Büfonidae) on Assateague Island, Virginia and the adjacent mainland. Brimleyana 19:65-75.
66. Inoue, K., and T. Kawahara. 1990. Allozyme differentiation and genetic structure in island and mainland Japanese populations of Campanula punctata (Campanulaceae). American Journal of Botany 77:1440-1448.
67. Ito, M., and M. Ono. 1990. Allozyme diversity and the evolution ofCre-
68. pldlastrttin (Compositae). Tlie Botanical Magazine, Tokyo 103: 449-459.
69. Jimcnez, J. A., K. A. Hughes, G. Alaks, L. Graham, and R. C. Lacy. 1994. An experimental study of inbreeding depression in a natural habitat. Science 266:271-273.
70. Johansson, I. 1961. Studies on the genetics of ranch bred mink. I. The results of an inbreeding experiment. Zeitschrift für Tierzuchtung und Zuchtungsbiologie 72:293-297.
71. Johnson, N. K., and J. A. Marten. 1988. Evolutionäry genetics of flycatchers. II. Differentiation of the Empidonax ilifficilis complex. Auk 105:177-191.
72. Johnson, N. K., J. A. Marten, and C. J. Ralph. 1989. Genetic evidence for the. origin and relationships of Hawaiian honeycreepers (Aves: Fringillidae). Condor 91:379-396.
73. Johnson, V. E., and R. K. Seiander. 1971. Protein variation and systematics in kangaroo rats (Genus Dipodomys). Systematic Zoology 20: 377-405.
74. Johnson, V. E., and R. K. Seiander. 1972. Biochemical genetics of sibling species of the cotton rat (Sigmodoii). University of Texas Studies in Genetics 7:297-305.
75. Keller, L. F., P. Arcese, J. M. N. Smith, V. M. Hochachka, and S. C. Stearns. 1994. Selection against inbred Song Sparrows during a natural population bottleneck. Nature 372:356-357.
76. Kilpatrick, C. W. 1981. Genetic structure of insular populations. Pages 28-59 in M. H. Smith and J. Joule, editors. Mammalian population genetics. University of Georgia Press, Athens.
77. Kilpatrick, C. W., and E. G. Zimmerman. 1975. Genetic variation and systematics of four species of mice of the Pcromyscns boylii species group. Systematic Zoology 24:143-162.
78. Kohn, P. II., and R. H. Tamarin. 1978. Selection at electrophoretic loci for reproductive parameters in island and mainland voles. Evolution 32:15-28.
79. Kondo, M., Y. Kawamoto, K. Nozawa, K. Matsubayashi, T. Watanabe, O. Griffiths, and M. Stanley. 1993. Population genetics of crab-eating macaques (.Macacu-fasciciilaris) on the island of Mauritius. American Journal of Primatology 29:167-182.
80. Kosuda, K. 1972. Synergistic effects of inbreeding on viability in Drosopbila virilis. Genetics 72:461-468.
81. Kulenkamp, A. W., C. M. Kulenkamp, and T. H. Coleman. 1973. The effects of intensive inbreeding (brother × sister) on various traits in Japanese quail. Poultry Science 52:1240-1246.
82. Latter, B. D. H., J. C. Mulley, D. Reid, and L. Pascoe. 1995. Reduced genetic load revealed by slow inbreeding in Drosophila melanogaster. Genetics 139:287-297.
83. Lorenc, E. 1980. Analysis of fertility in inbred lines of mice derived from populations differing in the genetic load. Zwierzeta Laboratoryjne 17:3-16.
84. Lynch, C. B. 1977. Inbreeding effects upon animals derived from a wild population of Mus iniisciiltts. Evolution 31:526-537.
85. McDowall, R. M. 1969. Extinction and cndemism in New Zealand land birds. Tuatara 17:1-12.
86. McKinney, C. O., R. K. Seiander, W. E. Johnson, and S. Y. Yang. 1972. Genetic variation in the side-blotched lizard (Uta stansbnriana). University of Texas Studies in Genetics 7213:307-318.
87. Mina, N. S., B. L. Sheldon, B. H. Yoo, and R. Frankham. 1991. Heterozygosity at protein loci in inbred and outbred lines of chickens. Poultry Science 70:1864-1872.
88. Miththapala, S., J. Seidensticker, L. G. Phillips, K. L. Goodrowe, S. B. U. Fernando, L. Forman, and S. J. O'Brien. 1991. Genetic variation in Sri Lankan leopards. Zoo Biology 10:139-146.
89. Myers, N. 1979. The sinking ark: a new look at the problem of disappearing species. Pergamon Press, New York.
90. Navajas y Navarro, M., and J. Britton-Davidian. 1989. Genetic structure of insular Mediterranean populations of the house mouse. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 36:377-390.
91. Newman, D., and D. Pilson. 1997. Increased probability of extinction due to decreased genetic effective populations size: experimental populations of Clarkia piildjell. Evolution 51:354-362.
92. Nozawa, K., T. Shotake, and Y. Okura. 1975. Blood protein polymorphisms and population structure of the Japanese macaque Macaca fttscataftiscata. Pages 225-2-41 in C. L. Marken, editor. Isozymes. rv. Genetics and evolution. Academic Press, New York.
93. Nozawa, K., T. Shotake, M. Minezawa, Y. Kawamoto, K. Hayasaka, S. Kawamoto, and S.-I. Ito. 1991. Population genetics of Japanese monkeys. III. Ancestry and differentiation of local populations. Primates 32:41 1-435.
94. O'Brien, S. J., and J. F. Evermann. 1988. Interactive influence of infectious disease and genetic diversity in natural populations. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 3:254-259.
95. Olson, S. L. 1989. Extinction on islands: man as a catastrophe. Pages 50-53 in D. Western and M. C. Pearl, editors. Conservation for the twenty-first century. Oxford University Press, New York.
96. Paetkau, D., and C. Strobeck. 1994. Microsatellite analysis of genetic variation in black bear populations. Molecular Ecology 3:489-495.
97. Patton, J. L., S. Y. Yang, and P. Myers. 1975. Genetic and morphological divergence among introduced rat populations (Rattus ralttis) of the Galapagos archipelago, Ecuador. Systematic Zoology 24: 296-310.
98. Percy, T. G., and J. F. Wendel. 1990. Allozyme evidence for the origin and diversification of Gossypitim bcirbaclcnsc L. Theoretical and Applied Genetics 79:529-542.
99. Pimni, S. L. 1991. The balance of nature: ecological issues in the conservation of species and communities. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
100. Polans, N. O., and R. W. Allard. 1989. An experimental evaluation of the recover)' potential of ryegrass populations from genetic stress resulting from restriction of population size. Evolution 43:1320-1324.
101. Powell, J. R. 1975. Protein variation in natural populations of animals. Evolutionary Biology 8:79-119.
102. Quammen, D. 1996. Song of the dodo: island biogeography in an age of extinction. Hutchinson, London.
103. Rails, K., J., D. Ballon, and A. Templeton. 1988. Estimates of lethal equivalents and the cost of inbreeding in mammals. Conservation Biology 2:185-193.
104. Reid, W. V., and K. R. Miller. 1989. Keeping options alive: the scientific basis for conserving biodiversity. World Resources Institute, Washington, D.C.
105. Rumball, W., I. R. Franklin, R. Frankham, and li. L. Sheldon. 1994. Decline in heterozygosity under full-sib and double first-cousin inbreeding in Drosopblla mctanogaster. Genetics 136:1039-1049.
106. Sarrc, S., T. D. Schwaner, and A. Georges. 1990. Genetic variation among insular populations of the sleepy lizard, Tracbydasattms rttgosus Gray (Squamata: Scincidae). Australian Journal of Zoology 38:602-616.
107. Saura, A., O. Halkka, and J. Lokki. 1973- Enzyme gene heterozygosity in small island populations of Pbilaenus spwnariiis (L.) (Homoptera). Genetica 44:459-473.
108. Schmitt, L. H. 1978. Genetic variation in isolated populations of the Australian bush-rat, Rattus fuscipes. Evolution 32:1-14.
109. Seiander, R. K., M. H. Smith, S. Y. Yang, W. E.Johnson, and J. B. Gentry. 1971. Biochemical polymorphism and systematics in the genus Peroinyscus. I. Variation in the old-field mouse (Peromyscus polionotus). University of Texas Publications in Genetics 7103:49-90.
110. Shapcott, A. 1994. Genetic and ecological variation in Alherosjierma tnoscbatiini and the implications for conservation of its biodiversity. Australian Journal of Botany 42:663-686.
111. Smith, F. D. M., R. M. May, R. Pellew, T. H.Johnson, and K. R. Walter. 1993. How much do we know about the current extinction rate? Trends in Ecology and Evolution 8:375-378.
112. Soûlé, M. E. 1980. Thresholds for survival: maintaining fitness and evo-
113. lutionary potential. Pages 151-169 in M. E. Soule and B. A. Wilcox, editors. Conservation biology: an evolutionary-ecological perspective. Sinaucr Associates, Sunderland, Massachusetts.
114. Soule, M. E. 1983. What do we really know about extinction? Pages 111-125 in C. M. Schonewald-Cox, S. M. Chambers, B. MacBryde, and L. Thomas, editors. Genetics and conservation: a reference for managing wild animal and plant populations. Benjamin/Cummings, Menlo Park, California.
115. Soule, M. E., and S. Y. Yang. 1973. Genetic variation in side-blotched lizards in the Gulf of California. Evolution 27:593-600.
116. Spooner, D. M., D. S. Douches, and A. Contreras M. 1992. Allozyme variation within Solanum Sect. Petota, ser Etuberosa (Solanaceae). American Journal of Botany 79:467-471.
117. Steiner, W. W. M., K. C. Sung, and Y. K. Paik. 1976. Electrophoretic variability in island populations of Drosopbila simiilans and Drosopbila iinniigrans. Biochemical Genetics 14:495-506.
118. Stewart, D. T., and A. J. Baker. 1992. Genetic differentiation and biogeography of the masked shrew in Atlantic Canada. Canadian Journal of Zoology 70:106-114.
119. Tantawy, A. O., and E. C. R. Reeve. 1956. Studies in quantitative inheritance. IX. The effects of inbreeding at different rates in Drosopbila tnclanogaster. Zeitschrift für Indukt Abstamm -und Vererblehre 87:648-667.
120. Temple, S. 1985. Why endemic island birds are so vulnerable to extinction. Pages 3-6 in S. Temple, editor. Bird conservation 2. University of Wisconsin Press, Madison.
121. Thornhill, N. V., editor. 1993. The natural history of inbreeding and outbreeding: theoretical and empirical perspectives. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
122. Vitousek, P. M. 1988. Diversity and biological invasions of oceanic islands. Pages 181-189 in E. O. Wilson and F. M. Peters, editors. Biodiversity. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.
123. Warner, R. E. 1968. The role of introduced diseases in the extinction of the endemic Hawaiian avifauna. Condor 70:101-120.
124. Wayne, R. K., S. B. George, D. Gilbert, P. W. Collins, S. D. Kovach, D. Girman, and N. Lehman. 1991a. A morphological and genetic study of the island fox, Urocyon tittoralis. Evolution 45:1849-1868.
125. Wayne, R. K., N. Lehman, D. Girman, P. J. P. Gogan, D. A. Gilbert, K. Hansen, R. O. Peterson, U. S. Seal, A. Eisenhawker, L. D. Mcch, and R. J. Krumenaker. 1991&. Conservation genetics of the endangered Isle Royale gray wolf. Conservation Biology 5:41-51.
126. Webster, T. P., R. K. Sclander, and S. Y. Yang. 1972. Genetic variability and similarity in the Anolls lizards of Bimini. Evolution 26:523-535.
127. Weiner, J. 1994. The beak of the finch. Vintage Books, New York.
128. Wendel, J. F., and A. E. Percival. 1990. Molecular divergence in the Galapagos Islands-Baja California species pair, Gossypintn klotzscbianum and G. tlavidsontl (Malvaceae). Plant Systematics and Evolution 171:99-115.
129. Wendel, J. F., and R. G. Percy. 1990. Allozymic diversity and introgression in the Galapagos Islands endemic Gossypium ilaruinii and its relationship to contintenal G. barbculcnsc. Biochemical Systematics and Ecology 18:517-528.
130. Wendel, J. F., C. L. Brubaker, and E. A. Percival. 1992. Genetic diversity in Gossypium birsiituin and the origin of upland cotton. American Journal of Botany 79:1291-1310.
131. Williamson, M. 1981. Island populations. Oxford University Press, Oxford, United Kingdom.
132. Woodard, A. E., H. Abplanalp, J. M. Pisenti, and L. R. Snyder. 1983. Inbreeding effects on reproductive traits in ring-necked pheasant. Poultry Science 62:1725-1730.
133. Woodruff, D. S. 1975. Allozyrme variation and genie heterozygosity in the Bahaman pulmonate snail Cerion benclnlli. Malacological Review 8:47-55.
134. Woodworth, L. M. 1996. Population size in captive breeding programs. Ph.D. thesis, Macguaire University, Australia.
135. Woodworth, L. M., M. E. Montgomery, R. K. Nurthen, D. A. Briscoe,
136. and R. Frankham. 1994. Modelling problems in conservation genetics using Drosopbila: consequences of fluctuating population sizes. Molecular Ecology 3:393-399.
137. Wool, D., and O. Rergerson. 1986. Random environmental variation and inbreeding: effect on pure-strain and hybrid populations of flour beetles (Jriboiwn). Canadian Journal of Genetics and Cytolology 28:889-898.
138. Wool, D., and E. Svcrdlov. 1976. Sib-mating populations in an unpredictable environment: effects on components of fitness. Evolution 30:119-129.
139. World Conservation Monitoring Centre. 1992. Global biodiversity: status of the earth's living resources. Chapman and Hall, London.
140. Wright, S. 1922. The effects of inbreeding and crossbreeding of guinea-pigs. I. Decline in vigor. Bulletin no. 1090. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C.
141. Wright, S. 1977. Evolution and the genetics of populations. Volume 3. Experimental results and evolutionäry deductions. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
142. Zanetto, A., and A. Kremer. 1995. Geographic structure of gene diversit)' in Qttcraispetruca (Matt.) Liebl. I. Monolocus patterns of variation. Heredity 75:506-517.
143. Zink, R. M., D. F. Lott, and D. W. Anderson. 1987. Genetic variation, population structure, and evolution of California Quail. Condor 89: 395-405.