Thyroid hormone actions on cartilage and bone: Interactions with other hormones at the epiphyseal plate and effects on linear growth

Journal of Endocrinology

Volumn 157, Issue 3, 1998, Pages 391-403

  Williams, G R ^a,c   Robson, H ^b   Shalet, S M ^b  

^a HAMMERSMITH HOSPITAL   (United Kingdom)

^b CHRISTIE HOSPITAL   (United Kingdom)

^c IMPERIAL COLLEGE SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ANDROGEN; ANDROGEN RECEPTOR; CALCITRIOL; CALCITRIOL RECEPTOR; ESTROGEN; ESTROGEN RECEPTOR; GROWTH HORMONE; PARATHYROID HORMONE RELATED PROTEIN; RETINOID; SOMATOMEDIN C; THYROID HORMONE;

BONE GROWTH; CARTILAGE; CELL DIFFERENTIATION; EPIPHYSIS PLATE; GROWTH PLATE; HORMONE RESISTANCE; HUMAN; NONHUMAN; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION;

ANIMALS; BONE DEVELOPMENT; CARTILAGE; GROWTH PLATE; HUMANS; RATS; RECEPTORS, THYROID HORMONE; THYROID HORMONES; TRIIODOTHYRONINE;

EID: 0031831392     PISSN: 00220795     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1677/joe.0.1570391     Document Type: Review

References (113)

1. Abu EO, Bord S, Horner A, Chatterjee VKK & Compston JE 1997 The expression of thyroid hormone receptors in human bone. Bone 21 137-142.
2. Ackerman RJ Jr & Hamilton DW 1976 Testosterone metabolism in male rat epiphysis. Calcified Tissue Research 20 31-40.
3. 3 inhibits cell growth and chondrogenesis of a clonal mouse EC cell line, ATDC5. Journal of Bone and Mineral Research 11 22-28.
4. Alini M, Kofsky Y, Wu W, Pidoux I & Poole AR 1996 In serum-free culture thyroid hormones can induce full expression of chondrocyte hypertrophy leading to matrix calcification. Journal of Bone and Mineral Research 11 105-113.
5. Allain TJ & McGregor AM 1993 Thyroid hormones and bone. Journal of Endocrinology 139 9-18.
6. Allain TJ, Chambers TJ, Flanagan AM & McGregor AM 1992 Tri-iodothyronine stimulates rat osteoclastic bone resorption by an indirect effect. Journal of Endocrinology 133 327-331.
7. Ballock RT & Reddi AH 1994 Thyroxine is the serum factor that regulates morphogenesis of columnar cartilage from isolated chondrocytes in chemically defined medium. Journal of Cell Biology 126 1311-1318.
8. Ballock RT, Heydemann A, Wakefield LM, Flanders KC, Roberts AB & Sporn MB 1994 Inhibition of the chondrocyte phenotype by retinoic acid involves upregulation of metalloprotease genes independent of TGF-β. Journal of Cellular Physiology 159 340-346.
9. 3 receptor immunolocalization and mineralization induction in long-term primary cultures of rat epiphyseal chondrocytes. Bone 17 37-45.
10. Benya PD & Padilla SR 1986 Modulation of the rabbit chondrocyte phenotype by retinoic acid terminates type II collagen synthesis without inducing type I collagen: the modulated phenotype differs from that produced by subculture. Developmental Biology 118 296-305.
11. Berry JL, Farquharson C, Whitehead CC & Mawer EB 1996 Growth plate chondrocyte vitamin D receptor number and affinity are reduced in avian tibial dyschondroplastic lesions. Bone 19 197-203.
12. Blanchard O, Tsagris L, Rappaport R, Duval Beaupere G & Corvol M 1991 Age-dependent responsiveness of rabbit and human cartilage cells to sex steroids in vitro. Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology 40 711-716.
13. Bland R, Sammons RL, Sheppard MC & Williams GR 1997 Thyroid hormone, vitamin D and retinoid receptor expression and signalling in primary cultures of rat osteoblastic and immortalised osteosarcoma cells. Journal of Endocrinology 154 63-64.
14. Boersma B & Wit JM 1997 Catch-up growth. Endocrine Reviews 18 646-661.
15. Bohme K, Conscience Egli M, Tschan T, Winterhalter KH & Bruckner P 1992 Induction of proliferation or hypertrophy of chondrocytes in serum-free culture: the role of insulin-like growth factor-I, insulin, or thyroxine. Journal of Cellular Biology 116 1035-1042.
16. Bohme K, Winterhalter KH & Bruckner P 1995 Terminal differentiation of chondrocytes in culture is a spontaneous process and is arrested by transforming growth factor-β 2 and basic fibroblast growth factor in synergy. Experimental Cell Research 216 191-198.
17. Braidman IP, Davenport LK, Carter DH, Selby PL, Mawer EB & Freemont AJ 1995 Preliminary in situ identification of estrogen target cells in bone. Journal of Bone and Mineral Research 10 74-80.
18. Britto JM, Fenton AJ, Holloway WR & Nicholson GC 1994 Osteoblasts mediate thyroid hormone stimulation of osteoclastic bone resorption. Endocrinology 134 169-176.
19. Burch WM & Lebovitz HE 1982a Triiodothyronine stimulates maturation of porcine growth-plate cartilage in vitro. Journal of Clinical Investigation 70 496-504.
20. Burch WM & Lebovitz HE 1982b Triiodothyronine stimulation of in vitro growth and maturation ot embryonic chick cartilage. Endocrinology 111 462-468.
21. Burch WM & McCarty KS Jr 1984 Hormonal stimulation of avian embryonic cartilage growth in vitro: histologic and ultrastructural features. In Vitro 20 329-338.
22. Burch WM & Van Wyk JJ 1987 Triiodothyronine stimulates cartilage growth and maturation by different mechanisms. American Journal of Physiology 252 E176-E182.
23. Carrascosa A, Audi L, Ferrandez MA & Ballabriga A 1990 Biological effects of androgens and identification of specific dihydrotestosterone-binding sites in cultured human fetal epiphyseal chondrocytes. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 70 134-140.
24. 3-binding sites in cultured human fetal epiphyseal chondrocytes. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 75 140-144.
25. Cash DE, Bock CB, Schughart K, Linney E & Underhill TM 1997 Retinoic acid receptor a function in vertebrate limb skeletogenesis: a modulator of chondrogenesis. Journal of Cell Biology 136 445-457.
26. Compston JE 1993 Thyroid hormone therapy and the skeleton. Clinical Endocrinology 39 519-520.
27. Corvol MT, Carrascosa A, Tsagris L, Blanchard O & Rappaport R 1987 Evidence for a direct in vitro action of sex steroids on rabbit cartilage cells during skeletal growth: influence of age and sex. Endocrinology 120 1422-1429.
28. Dayani N, Corvol MT, Robel P, Eychenne B, Moncharmont B, Tsagris L & Rappaport R 1988 Estrogen receptors in cultured rabbit articular chondrocytes: influence of age. Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology 31 351-356.
29. Diamond T, Nery L & Hales I 1991 A therapeutic dilemma: suppressive doses of thyroxine significantly reduce bone mineral measurements in both premenopausal and postmenopausal women with thyroid carcinoma. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 72 1184-1188.
30. DiPippo VA & Powers CA 1997 Tamoxifen and ICI 182,780 interactions with thyroid hormone in the ovariectomized-thyroidectomized rat. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics 281 142-148.
31. DiPippo VA, Lindsay R & Powers CA 1995 Estradiol and tamoxifen interactions with thyroid hormone in the ovariectomized-thyroidectomized rat. Endocrinology 136 1020-1033.
32. Dolle P, Ruberte E, Leroy P, Morriss Kay G & Chambon P 1990 Retinoic acid receptors and cellular retinoid binding proteins. I: A systematic study ot their differential pattern ot transcription during mouse organogenesis. Development 110 1133-1151.
33. Duncan WE, Chang A, Solomon B & Wartofsky L 1994 Influence of clinical characteristics and parameters associated with thyroid hormone therapy on the bone mineral density of women treated with thyroid hormone. Thyroid 4 183-190.
34. 3 on cultured osteoblasts from mature rats. Bone and Mineral 11 273-283.
35. Falcone M, Miyamoto T, Fierro Renoy F, Macchia E & DeGroot LJ 1992 Antipeptide polyclonal antibodies specifically recognize each human thyroid hormone receptor isoform. Endocrinology 131 2419-2429.
36. Fisher D & Plok D 1995 Thyroid disease in the fetus, neonate and child. In Endocrinology, pp 78-798. Ed LJ DeGroot. Philadelphia, PA, USA: WB Saunders.
37. Forrest D, Erway LC, Ng L, Altschuler R & Curran T 1996a Thyroid hormone receptor β is essential for development of auditory function. Nature Genetics 13 354-357.
38. Forrest D, Hanebuth E, Smeyne RJ, Everds N, Stewart CL, Wehner JM & Curran T 1996b Recessive resistance to thyroid hormone in mice lacking thyroid hormone receptor β: evidence tor tissue-specific modulation of receptor function. EMBO Journal 15 3006-3015.
39. 3R α gene encoding a thyroid hormone receptor is essential for post-natal development and thyroid hormone production. EMBO Journal 16 4412-4420.
40. Franklyn J, Betteridge J, Holder R, Daykin J, Lilley J & Sheppard M 1994 Bone mineral density in thyroxine treated females with or without a previous history of thyrotoxicosis. Clinical Endocrinology 41 425-432.
41. Gentili C, Bianco P, Neri M, Malpeli M, Campanile G, Castagnola P, Cancedda R & Cancedda FD 1993 Cell proliferation, extracellular matrix mineralization, and ovotransferrin transient expression during in vitro differentiation of chick hypertrophic chondrocytes into osteoblast-like cells. Journal of Cellular Biology 122 703-712.
42. Gevers EF, Milne J, Robinson IC & Loveridge N 1996 Single cell enzyme activity and proliferation in the growth plate: effects of growth hormone. Journal of Bone and Mineral Research 11 1103-1111.
43. Glantschnig H, Varga F & Klaushofer K 1996 Thyroid hormone and retinoic acid induce the synthesis of insulin-like growth factor-binding protein-4 in mouse osteoblastic cells. Endocrinology 137 281-286.
44. Glass CK 1994 Differential recognition of target genes by nuclear receptor monomers, dimers, and heterodimers. Endocrine Reviews 15 391-407.
45. Hagiwara H, Inoue A, Nakajo S, Nakaya K, Kojima S & Hirose S 1996 Inhibition of proliferation of chondrocytes by specific receptors in response to retinoids. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications 222 220-224.
46. Horton WE, Yamada Y & Hassell JR 1987 Retinoic acid rapidly reduces cartilage matrix synthesis by altering gene transcription in chondrocytes. Developmental Biology 123 508-516.
47. Hunziker EB, Wagner J & Zapf J 1994 Differential effects of insulin-like growth factor I and growth hormone on developmental stages of rat growth plate chondrocytes in vivo. Journal of Clinical Investigation 93 1078-1086.
48. Ikegami A, Inoue S, Hosoi T, Mizuno Y, Nakamura T, Ouchi Y & Orimo H 1993 Immunohistochemical and northern blot analysis of estrogen receptor in osteoblastic cells. Journal of Bone and Mineral Research 8 1103-1110.
49. Itagane Y, Inada H, Fujita K & Isshiki G 1991 Interactions between steroid hormones and insulin-like growth factor-I in rabbit chondrocytes. Endocrinology 128 1419-1424.
50. Jikko A, Aoba T, Murakami H, Takano Y, Iwamoto M & Kato Y 1993 Characterization of the mineralization process in cultures of rabbit growth plate chondrocytes. Developmental Biology 156 372-380.
51. Kapur SP & Reddi AH 1989 Influence of testosterone and dihydrotestosterone on bone-matrix induced endochondral bone formation. Calcified Tissue International 44 108-113.
52. Kasono K, Sato K, Han DC, Fujii Y, Tsushima T & Shizume K 1988 Stimulation of alkaline phosphatase activity by thyroid hormone in mouse osteoblast-like cells (MC3T3-E1): a possible mechanism of hyperalkaline phosphatasia in hyperthyroidism. Bone and Mineral 4 355-363.
53. Kato Y, Shimazu A, Iwamoto M, Nakashima K, Koike T, Suzuki F, Nishii Y & Sato K 1990 Role of 1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol in growth-plate cartilage: inhibition of terminal differentiation of chondrocytes m vitro and in vivo. Proceeding of the National Acadamy of Sciences of the USA 87 6522-6526.
54. 3 effects in primary cultures of growth cartilage cells of the rat. Calcified Tissue International 49 340-348.
55. 3 on proliferation and vitamin D receptor expression of rat growth cartilage cells. Endocrinology 135 1307-1315.
56. Klaushofer K, Varga F, Glantschnig H, Fratzl Zelman N, Czerwenka E, Leis HJ, Koller K & Peterlik M 1995 The regulatory role of thyroid hormones in bone cell growth and differentiation. Journal of Nutrition 125 1996S-2003S.
57. Klinge CM, Bodenner DL, Desai D, Niles RM & Traish AM 1997 Binding of type II nuclear receptors and estrogen receptor to full and half-site estrogen response elements in vitro. Nucleic Acids Research 25 1903-1912.
58. Krieger NS, Stappenbeck TS & Stern PH 1988 Characterization of specific thyroid hormone receptors in bone. Journal of Bone and Mineral Research 3 473-478.
59. Lanske B, Karaplis AC, Lee K, Luz A, Vortkamp A, Pirro A, Karperien M, Defize LHK, Ho C, Mulligan RC, Abou Samra AB, Juppner H, Segre GV & Kronenberg HM 1996 PTH/PTHrP receptor in early development and Indian hedgehog-regulated bone growth. Science 273 663-666.
60. LeBron BA, Pekary AE, Mirell C, Hahn TJ & Hershman JM 1989 Thyroid hormone 5′-deiodinase activity, nuclear binding, and effects on mitogenesis in UMR-106 osteoblastic osteosarcoma cells. Journal of Bone and Mineral Research 4 173-178.
61. Lee K, Lanske B, Karaplis AC, Deeds JD, Kohno H, Nissenson RA, Kronenberg HM & Segre GV 1996 Parathyroid hormone-related peptide delays terminal differentiation of chondrocytes during endochondral bone development. Endocrinology 137 5109-5118.
62. Lewinson D, Harel Z, Shenzer P, Silbermann M & Hochberg Z 1989 Effect of thyroid hormone and growth hormone on recovery from hypothyroidism of epiphyseal growth plate cartilage and its adjacent bone. Endocrinology 124 937-945.
63. Lewinson D, Bialik GM & Hochberg Z 1994 Differential effects of hypothyroidism on the cartilage and the osteogenic process in the mandibular condyle: recovery by growth hormone and thyroxine. Endocrinology 135 1504-1510.
64. Lohnes D, Kastner P, Dierich A, Mark M, LeMeur M & Chambon P 1993 Function of retinoic acid receptor γ in the mouse. Cell 73 643-658.
65. Loveridge N & Farquharson C 1993 Studies on growth plate chondrocytes in situ: cell proliferation and differentiation. Acta Paediatrica, Supplement 391 42-48.
66. Luo J, Pasceri P, Conlon R A, Rossant J & Giguere V 1995 Mice lacking all isoforms of retinoic acid receptor β develop normally and are susceptible to the teratogenic effects of retinoic acid. Mechanisms in Development 53 61-71.
67. Macchia E, Nakai A, Janiga A, Sakurai A, Fisfalen ME, Gardner P, Soltani K & DeGroot LJ 1990 Characterization of site-specific polyclonal antibodies to c-erbA peptides recognizing human thyroid hormone receptors α1, α2, and β and native 3,5,3′-triiodothyronine receptor, and study of tissue distribution of the antigen. Endocrinology 126 3232-3239.
68. Mendelsohn C, Ruberte E, LeMeur M, Morriss Kay G & Chambon P 1991 Developmental analysis of the retinoic acid-inducible RAR-β 2 promoter in transgenic animals. Development 113 723-734.
69. Miell JP, Taylor AM, Zini M, Maheshwari HG, Ross RJ & Valcavi R 1993 Effects of hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism on insulin-like growth factors (IGFs) and growth hormone- and IGF-binding proteins. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 76 950-955.
70. Morishima A, Grumbach MM, Simpson ER, Fisher C & Qin K 1995 Aromatase deficiency in male and female siblings caused by a novel mutation and the physiological role of estrogens. Journal of Clinital Endocrinology and Metabolism 80 3689-3698.
71. Mosekilde L, Eriksen E & Charles P 1990 Effects of thyroid hormone on bone and mineral metabolism. Endocrinology and Metabolism Clinics of North America 19 35-62.
72. Mundy GR, Shapiro JL, Bandelin JG, Canalis EM & Raisz LG 1976 Direct stimulation of bone resorption by thyroid hormones. Journal of Clinical Investigation 58 529-534.
73. Nilsson A, Ohlsson C, Isaksson OG, Lindahl A & Isgaard J 1994 Hormonal regulation of longitudinal bone growth. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 48 S150-S160.
74. Noji S, Yamaai T, Koyama E, Nohno T & Taniguchi S 1989 Spatial and temporal expression pattern of retinoic acid receptor genes during mouse bone development. FEBS Letters 257 93-96.
75. 3H]thymidine incorporation and IGF-I receptor mRNA in cultured rat epiphyseal chondrocytes. Journal of Endocrinology 135 115-123.
76. Ohlsson C, Isgaard J, Tornell J, Nilsson A, Isaksson OG & Lindahl A 1993 Endocrine regulation of longitudinal bone growth. Acta Paediatrica, Supplement 391 33-40.
77. Pensler JM, Langman CB, Radesovich JA, Maminta JA, Mangkornkanok M, Higbee R & Molteni A 1990 Sex steroid hormone receptors in normal and dysplastic bone disorders in children. Journal of Bone and Mineral Research 5 493-498.
78. Phillip M, Palese T, Hernandez ER, Roberts CT Jr, LeRoith D & Kowarski AA 1992 Effect of testosterone on insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I) and IGF-I receptor gene expression in the hypophysectomized rat. Endocrinology 130 2865-2870.
79. Quarto R, Campanile G, Cancedda R & Dozin B 1992 Thyroid hormone, insulin, and glucocorticoids are sufficient to support chondrocyte differentiation to hypertrophy: a serum-free analysis. Journal of Cell Biology 119 989-995.
80. Refetoff S, DeWind LT & DeGroot LJ 1967 Familial syndrome combining deafmutism, stippled epiphyses, goiter, and abnormally high PBI: possible target organ refractoriness to thyroid hormone. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 27 279-294.
81. Refetoff S, Weiss RE & Usala SJ 1993 The syndromes of resistance to thyroid hormone. Endocrine Reviews 14 348-399.
82. Ren SG, Malozowski S, Sanchez P, Sweet DE, Loriaux DL & Cassorla F 1989 Direct administration of testosterone increases rat tibial epiphyseal growth plate width. Acta Endocrinologica Copenhagen 121 401-405.
83. Rizzoli R, Poser J & Burgi U 1986 Nuclear thyroid hormone receptors in cultured bone cells. Metabolism 35 71-74.
84. 3R) isoforms α1 and β1 in rat tibial growth plate cartilage and adjacent bone. Journal of Eudocrinology 155 (Suppl 2) O26.
85. Rosen ED, Beninghof EG & Koenig RJ 1993 Dimerization interfaces of thyroid hormone, retinoic acid, vitamin D, and retinoid X receptors. Journal of Biological Chemistry 268 11534-11541.
86. Rosner IA, Manni A, Malemud CJ, Boja B & Moskowitz RW 1982 Estradiol receptors in articular chondrocytes. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications 106 1378-1382.
87. Ruberte E, Dolle P, Krust A, Zelent A, Morriss Kay G & Chambon P 1990 Specific spatial and temporal distribution of retinoic acid receptor γ transcripts during mouse embryogenesis. Development 108 213-222.
88. Sato K, Han DC, Fujii Y, Tsushima T & Shizume K 1987 Thyroid hormone stimulates alkaline phosphatase activity in cultured rat osteoblastic cells (ROS 17/28) through 3,5,3′-triiodo-L-thyronine nuclear receptors. Endocrinology 120 1873-1881.
89. 3) stimulates insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-1 and IGF binding protein (IGFBP)-2 production by rat osteoblasts in vitro. Acta Endocrinologica Copenhagen 126 467-473.
90. Schneider DL, Barren Connor EL & Morton DJ 1994 Thyroid hormone use and bone mineral density in elderly women. Effects of estrogen. Journal of the American Medical Association 271 1245-1249.
91. Schrader M, Muller KM & Carlberg C 1994 Specificity and flexibility of vitamin D signaling. Modulation of the activation of natural vitamin D response elements by thyroid hormone. Journal of Biological Chemistry 269 5501-5504.
92. Schwartz Z, Nasatzky E, Ornoy A, Brooks BP, Soskolne WA & Boyan BD 1994 Gender-specific, maturation-dependent effects of testosterone on chondrocytes in culture. Endocrinology 134 1640-1647.
93. Shao ZM, Sheikh MS, Rishi AK, Dawson MI, Li XS, Wilber JF, Feng P & Fontana JA 1995 Thyroid hormone enhancement of estradiol stimulation of breast carcinoma proliferation. Experimental Cell Research 218 1-8.
94. 3 receptors in human osteoblast-like cells. Journal of Bone and Mineral Research 11 (Suppl 1) S321.
95. Smith EP, Boyd J, Frank GR, Takahashi H, Cohen RM, Specker B, Williams TC, Lubahn DB & Korach KS 1994 Estrogen resistance caused by a mutation in the estrogen-receptor gene in a man. New England Journal of Medicine 331 1056-1061.
96. Somjen D, Weisman Y, Mor Z, Harell A & Kaye AM 1991 Regulation of proliferation of rat cartilage and bone by sex steroid hormones. Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology 40 717-723.
97. Spagnoli A & Rosenfeld RG 1996 The mechanisms by which growth hormone brings about growth. The relative contributions of growth hormone and insulin-like growth factors. Endocrinology and Metabolism Clinics of North America 25 615-631.
98. Standeven AM, Davies PJ, Chandraratna RA, Mader DR, Johnson AT & Thomazy VA 1996 Retinoid-induced epiphyseal plate closure in guinea pigs. Fundamentals of Applied Toxicology 34 91-98.
99. Sucov HM, Izpisua Belmonte JC, Ganan Y & Evans RM 1995 Mouse embryos lacking RXR α are resistant to retinoic-acid-induced limb defects. Development 121 3997-4003.
100. 3 on chondrogenesis ot chick limb bud mesenchymal cells: interactions of their receptors. International Journal of Developmental Biology 40 1053-1059.
101. Underwood LE & Van Wyk JJ 1992 Normal and aberrant growth. In Williams Textbook of Endocrinology, pp 1079-1138. Eds JD Wilson & DW Foster. Philadelphia, PA, USA: WB Saunders Company.
102. 3 increases IGF-I transcription in osteoblast cell cultures derived from adult vertebral bone marrow but not femoral bone marrow. Journal of Bone and Mineral Research 12 (Suppl 1) T414.
103. Vortkamp A, Lee K, Lanske B, Segre GV, Kronenberg HM & Tabin CJ 1996 Regulation of rate of cartilage differentiation by Indian hedgehog and PTH-related protein. Science 273 613-622.
104. Wallis GA 1996 Bone growth: coordinating chondrocyte differentiation. Current Biology 6 1577-1580.
105. Weiss RE & Refetoff S 1996 Effect of thyroid hormone on growth: lessons from the syndrome of resistance ro thyroid hormone. Endocrinology and Metabolism Clinics of North America 25 719-730.
106. Werther GA, Haynes K, Edmonson S, Oakes S, Buchanan CJ, Herington AC & Waters MJ 1993 Identification of growth hormone receptors on human growth plate chondrocytes. Acta Paediatrica. Supplement 391 50-53.
107. 3, and retinoid signaling. Endocrinology 135 2375-2385.
108. 3 and thyroid hormone in three osteosarcoma cell lines. Endocrinology 136 4304-4314.
109. Wolf M, Ingbar SH & Moses AC 1989 Thyroid hormone and growth hormone interact to regulate insulin-like growth factor-I messenger ribonucleic acid and circulating levels in the rat. Endocrinology 125 2905-2914.
110. Yoshizawa T, Handa Y, Uematsu Y, Takeda S, Sekine K, Yoshihara Y, Kawakami T, Arioka K, Sato H, Uchiyama Y, Masushige S, Fukamizu A, Matsumoto T & Kato S 1997 Mice lacking the vitamin D receptor exhibit impaired bone formation, uterine hypoplasia and growth retardation after weaning. Nature Genetics 16 391-396.
111. Yu YM, Domene HM, Sztein J, Counts DR & Cassorla F 1996 Developmental changes and differential regulation by testosterone and estradiol of growth hormone receptor expression in the rabbit. European Journal of Endocrinology 135 583-590.
112. Zhou X, Mita BC & Ballock RT 1997 Both vitamin D and retinoic acid inhibit thyroid hormone induced terminal differentiation of growth plate chondrocytes. Journal of Bone and Mineral Research 12 (Suppl 1) F270.
113. Zhu YS, Yen PM, Chin WW & Pfaff DW 1996 Estrogen and thyroid hormone interaction on regulation of gene expression. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 93 12587-12592.