The generosity moment: Ethnic politics, democratic consolidation and the state in Yugoslavia (Croatia), South Africa and Czechoslovakia

Democratization

Volumn 5, Issue 1, 1998, Pages 64-89

  Hislope, Robert ^a  

^a Antioch College   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

COMPARATIVE STUDY; ETHNIC CONFICT; ETHNIC CONFLICT; ETHNIC INTEGRATION;

CROATIA; CZECH REPUBLIC; SLOVAKIA; SOUTH AFRICA;

EID: 0031820123     PISSN: 13510347     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/13510349808403548     Document Type: Article

References (133)

1. From 'Considerations on Representative Government', first published in 1861 and reprinted in John Stuart Mill, Three Essays (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1975), p.382. Ken Jowitt, for one, approaches this sentiment when he writes that Eastern Europe really faces, in the short-term, only two alternatives: (1) undesirable 'religio-ethnic, militant nationalist, even fascist regimes', or (2) a more practical and acceptable 'liberal authoritarianism'.Democracy, in his view, is purely utopian. Ken Jowitt, 'The Leninist Legacy,' in Ivo Banac (ed.), Eastern Europe in Revolution (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1992), pp.207-24. Claus Offe also offers a pessimistic diagnosis in which the 'triple transition', that is, territorial, regime, and economic issues, creates the space for 'charismatic' politics. Claus Offe, 'Capitalism by Democratic Design? Democratic Theory Facing the Triple Transition in East Central Europe', Social Research, Vol.58, No.4 (1991), pp.865-92.
2. From 'Considerations on Representative Government', first published in 1861 and reprinted in John Stuart Mill, Three Essays (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1975), p.382. Ken Jowitt, for one, approaches this sentiment when he writes that Eastern Europe really faces, in the short-term, only two alternatives: (1) undesirable 'religio-ethnic, militant nationalist, even fascist regimes', or (2) a more practical and acceptable 'liberal authoritarianism'.Democracy, in his view, is purely utopian. Ken Jowitt, 'The Leninist Legacy,' in Ivo Banac (ed.), Eastern Europe in Revolution (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1992), pp.207-24. Claus Offe also offers a pessimistic diagnosis in which the 'triple transition', that is, territorial, regime, and economic issues, creates the space for 'charismatic' politics. Claus Offe, 'Capitalism by Democratic Design? Democratic Theory Facing the Triple Transition in East Central Europe', Social Research, Vol.58, No.4 (1991), pp.865-92.
3. From 'Considerations on Representative Government', first published in 1861 and reprinted in John Stuart Mill, Three Essays (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1975), p.382. Ken Jowitt, for one, approaches this sentiment when he writes that Eastern Europe really faces, in the short-term, only two alternatives: (1) undesirable 'religio-ethnic, militant nationalist, even fascist regimes', or (2) a more practical and acceptable 'liberal authoritarianism'.Democracy, in his view, is purely utopian. Ken Jowitt, 'The Leninist Legacy,' in Ivo Banac (ed.), Eastern Europe in Revolution (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1992), pp.207-24. Claus Offe also offers a pessimistic diagnosis in which the 'triple transition', that is, territorial, regime, and economic issues, creates the space for 'charismatic' politics. Claus Offe, 'Capitalism by Democratic Design? Democratic Theory Facing the Triple Transition in East Central Europe', Social Research, Vol.58, No.4 (1991), pp.865-92.
4. Regime transitions may be defined as 'the interval between one political regime and another'. Democratic transitions are the period between the signal that an authoritarian regime is open to political reforms and the instalment of a new democratic regime by a free, competitive election. Guillermo O'Donnell and Philippe C. Schmitter, 'Tentative Conclusions about Uncertain Democracies', in Guillermo O'Donnell, Philippe C. Schmitter, and Laurence Whitehead (eds)., Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Prospects for Democracy, Part IV (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986), pp.6, 10-11. Democratic consolidation will be discussed below.
5. This claim about the comparability of ethnic politics in different nation-states is based on Donald Horowitz's study, which finds 'universality and uniformity' along many dimensions of ethnic, religious, and racial conflict. Donald L. Horowitz, Ethnic Groups in Conflict (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1985), pp.5-6.
6. In making this claim, I reemphasize the strict definition of transition outlined in note 2.
7. Collier and Collier define a critical juncture as 'a period of significant change, which typically occurs in distinct ways in different countries ... and which is hypothesized to produce distinct legacies'. Ruth Berins Collier and David Collier, Shaping the Political Arena: Critical Junctures, The Labor Movement, and Regime Dynamics in Latin America (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1991), p.29.
8. O'Donnell and Schmitter, op. cit., pp.39-47.
9. Susan Woodward, for one, locates the demise of Yugoslavia in deteriorating economic conditions and the rapidly changing international order that undermined the legitimacy and functioning of the Yugoslav state. Susan Woodward, Balkan Tragedy: Chaos and Dissolution after the Cold War (Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution, 1995).
10. Donald L. Horowitz, 'Making Moderation Pay: The Comparative Politics of Ethnic Conflict Management', in Joseph V. Montville (ed.), Conflict and Peacemaking in Multiethnic Societies (Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1990), pp.451-2, 458.
11. Timothy M. Frye, 'Ethnicity, Sovereignty, and Transitions from Non-Democratic Rule', Journal of International Affairs, Vol.45, No.2 (1992), p.618.
12. Arend Lijphart, Democracy in Plural Societies: A Comparative Exploration (New Haven, CT and London: Yale University Press, 1977), pp.87-99.
13. A loose paraphrase from Machiavelli's The Prince. Peter Bondanella and Mark Musa (eds.), The Portable Machiavelli (New York: Viking Penguin, 1979).
14. For a discussion of the special intractability of ethnic problems, see Horowitz, Ethnic Groups in Conflict, pp.89-92, 566; Joseph Rothschild, Ethnopolitics: A Conceptual Framework (New York: Columbia University, 1981), pp.60-55; George Schöpflin, 'Nationalism and National Minorities in East and Central Europe,' Journal of International Affairs, Vol.45, No.1 (1991), pp.51-65; and Ted Robert Gurr, 'Peoples Against States: Ethnopolitical Conflict and the Changing World System,' International Studies Quarterly, Vol.38 (1994), pp.364-5.
15. For a discussion of the special intractability of ethnic problems, see Horowitz, Ethnic Groups in Conflict, pp.89-92, 566; Joseph Rothschild, Ethnopolitics: A Conceptual Framework (New York: Columbia University, 1981), pp.60-55; George Schöpflin, 'Nationalism and National Minorities in East and Central Europe,' Journal of International Affairs, Vol.45, No.1 (1991), pp.51-65; and Ted Robert Gurr, 'Peoples Against States: Ethnopolitical Conflict and the Changing World System,' International Studies Quarterly, Vol.38 (1994), pp.364-5.
16. For a discussion of the special intractability of ethnic problems, see Horowitz, Ethnic Groups in Conflict, pp.89-92, 566; Joseph Rothschild, Ethnopolitics: A Conceptual Framework (New York: Columbia University, 1981), pp.60-55; George Schöpflin, 'Nationalism and National Minorities in East and Central Europe,' Journal of International Affairs, Vol.45, No.1 (1991), pp.51-65; and Ted Robert Gurr, 'Peoples Against States: Ethnopolitical Conflict and the Changing World System,' International Studies Quarterly, Vol.38 (1994), pp.364-5.
17. For a discussion of the special intractability of ethnic problems, see Horowitz, Ethnic Groups in Conflict, pp.89-92, 566; Joseph Rothschild, Ethnopolitics: A Conceptual Framework (New York: Columbia University, 1981), pp.60-55; George Schöpflin, 'Nationalism and National Minorities in East and Central Europe,' Journal of International Affairs, Vol.45, No.1 (1991), pp.51-65; and Ted Robert Gurr, 'Peoples Against States: Ethnopolitical Conflict and the Changing World System,' International Studies Quarterly, Vol.38 (1994), pp.364-5.
18. Offe, op. cit., p.872. Such observations have earned empirical support, as Ted Robert Gurr has found a high association between what he calls power transitions and intense intercommunal conflict. See Gurr, pp.359-63.
19. Horowitz, op. cit., p.188.
20. Ibid., pp.83-6, 326-30, 360.
21. Following the definition provided by Gunther, Puhle, and Diamandorous, democratic consolidation refers to a situation in which anitudinally all politically significant groups accept the democratic rules of the game as legitimate and behaviorally all politically significant groups respect democratic norms. Richard Gunther, Hans-Jürgen Puhle, and Nikiforos Diamandorous, 'Introduction: The Politics of Democratic Consolidation', in Richard Gunther, Nikiforos Diamandorous and Hans-Jürgen Puhle (eds.), The Politics of Democratic Consolidation: Southern Europe in Comparative Perspective (Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995), pp.1-32.
22. O'Donnell and Schmitter, op. cit., pp.3-5, 11-14;, 28-32, 61-4, 69-70; Adam Przeworski, 'Some Problems in the Study of the Transition to Democracy', in O'Donnell, Schmitter, and Whitehead, op. cit., Part III, pp.60-3; Guiseppe Di Palma, To Craft Democracies: An Essay on Democratic Transitions (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1990), pp.78-9,106-8, 124-5.
23. O'Donnell and Schmitter, op. cit., pp.3-5, 11-14;, 28-32, 61-4, 69-70; Adam Przeworski, 'Some Problems in the Study of the Transition to Democracy', in O'Donnell, Schmitter, and Whitehead, op. cit., Part III, pp.60-3; Guiseppe Di Palma, To Craft Democracies: An Essay on Democratic Transitions (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1990), pp.78-9,106-8, 124-5.
24. O'Donnell and Schmitter, op. cit., pp.3-5, 11-14;, 28-32, 61-4, 69-70; Adam Przeworski, 'Some Problems in the Study of the Transition to Democracy', in O'Donnell, Schmitter, and Whitehead, op. cit., Part III, pp.60-3; Guiseppe Di Palma, To Craft Democracies: An Essay on Democratic Transitions (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1990), pp.78-9,106-8, 124-5.
25. Rothschild, op. cit., pp.155-60.
26. Foreign Broadcast Information Service, Daily Report (Eastern Europe), (30 June 1989), pp.2-5. All subsequent references to this source will be abbreviated to FBIS, date and page number.
27. See Michael Burton, Richard Gunther, and John Higley, 'Introduction: Elite Transformations and Democratic Regimes', in John Higley and Richard Gunther (eds.), Elites and Democratic Consolidation in Latin America and Southern Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), pp. 13-24, for a discussion of elite settlements; and Richard Gunther, 'Spain: The Very Model of The Modem Elite Settlement', in Higley and Gunther, op. cit., pp.70-73, on the virtues of private, inclusive negotiations.
28. See Michael Burton, Richard Gunther, and John Higley, 'Introduction: Elite Transformations and Democratic Regimes', in John Higley and Richard Gunther (eds.), Elites and Democratic Consolidation in Latin America and Southern Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), pp. 13-24, for a discussion of elite settlements; and Richard Gunther, 'Spain: The Very Model of The Modem Elite Settlement', in Higley and Gunther, op. cit., pp.70-73, on the virtues of private, inclusive negotiations.
29. Gunther, ibid, pp.40-1, 54-5; Burton, Gunther, and Higley, op. cit., pp. 10-11.
30. Gunther, ibid, pp.40-1, 54-5; Burton, Gunther, and Higley, op. cit., pp. 10-11.
31. Anthony Mughan, 'Accommodation or Defusion in the Management of Linguistic Conflict in Belgium?', Political Studies, Vol.31 (1983), pp.434-51.
32. Horowitz, op. cit., p.333.
33. Goldie Shabad, 'After Autonomy: The Dynamics of Regionalism in Spain', in Stanley G. Payne (ed.), The Politics of Democratic Spain (Chicago, IL: The Chicago Council on Foreign Relations, 1986), pp.111-80; Gunther, op. cit., pp.41-2, 63-6; Jyotirindra Das Gupta, 'India: Democratic Becoming and Combined Development', in Larry Diamond, Juan J. Linz, and Seymour Martin Lipset (eds.), Democracy in Developing Countries: Asia, Volume III (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1989), pp.53-104; Horowitz, 'Making Moderation Pay', (pp.451-75), and Donald L. Horowitz, 'Ethnic Conflict Management for Policymakers' (pp.115-30) in Joseph V. Montville (ed.), Conflict and Peacemaking in Multiethnic Societies (Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1990).
34. Goldie Shabad, 'After Autonomy: The Dynamics of Regionalism in Spain', in Stanley G. Payne (ed.), The Politics of Democratic Spain (Chicago, IL: The Chicago Council on Foreign Relations, 1986), pp.111-80; Gunther, op. cit., pp.41-2, 63-6; Jyotirindra Das Gupta, 'India: Democratic Becoming and Combined Development', in Larry Diamond, Juan J. Linz, and Seymour Martin Lipset (eds.), Democracy in Developing Countries: Asia, Volume III (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1989), pp.53-104; Horowitz, 'Making Moderation Pay', (pp.451-75), and Donald L. Horowitz, 'Ethnic Conflict Management for Policymakers' (pp.115-30) in Joseph V. Montville (ed.), Conflict and Peacemaking in Multiethnic Societies (Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1990).
35. Goldie Shabad, 'After Autonomy: The Dynamics of Regionalism in Spain', in Stanley G. Payne (ed.), The Politics of Democratic Spain (Chicago, IL: The Chicago Council on Foreign Relations, 1986), pp.111-80; Gunther, op. cit., pp.41-2, 63-6; Jyotirindra Das Gupta, 'India: Democratic Becoming and Combined Development', in Larry Diamond, Juan J. Linz, and Seymour Martin Lipset (eds.), Democracy in Developing Countries: Asia, Volume III (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1989), pp.53-104; Horowitz, 'Making Moderation Pay', (pp.451-75), and Donald L. Horowitz, 'Ethnic Conflict Management for Policymakers' (pp.115-30) in Joseph V. Montville (ed.), Conflict and Peacemaking in Multiethnic Societies (Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1990).
36. Goldie Shabad, 'After Autonomy: The Dynamics of Regionalism in Spain', in Stanley G. Payne (ed.), The Politics of Democratic Spain (Chicago, IL: The Chicago Council on Foreign Relations, 1986), pp.111-80; Gunther, op. cit., pp.41-2, 63-6; Jyotirindra Das Gupta, 'India: Democratic Becoming and Combined Development', in Larry Diamond, Juan J. Linz, and Seymour Martin Lipset (eds.), Democracy in Developing Countries: Asia, Volume III (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1989), pp.53-104; Horowitz, 'Making Moderation Pay', (pp.451-75), and Donald L. Horowitz, 'Ethnic Conflict Management for Policymakers' (pp.115-30) in Joseph V. Montville (ed.), Conflict and Peacemaking in Multiethnic Societies (Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1990).
37. Goldie Shabad, 'After Autonomy: The Dynamics of Regionalism in Spain', in Stanley G. Payne (ed.), The Politics of Democratic Spain (Chicago, IL: The Chicago Council on Foreign Relations, 1986), pp.111-80; Gunther, op. cit., pp.41-2, 63-6; Jyotirindra Das Gupta, 'India: Democratic Becoming and Combined Development', in Larry Diamond, Juan J. Linz, and Seymour Martin Lipset (eds.), Democracy in Developing Countries: Asia, Volume III (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1989), pp.53-104; Horowitz, 'Making Moderation Pay', (pp.451-75), and Donald L. Horowitz, 'Ethnic Conflict Management for Policymakers' (pp.115-30) in Joseph V. Montville (ed.), Conflict and Peacemaking in Multiethnic Societies (Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1990).
38. Robert Hislope, 'Intraethnic Conflict in Croatia and Serbia: Flanking and the Consequences for Democracy', East European Quarterly, Vol..XXX, No.4 (1997), pp.471-94.
39. The term is borrowed from Horowitz, Ethnic Groups in Conflict, pp.247-9.
40. Robert Hislope, Nationalism. Ethnic Politics, and Democratic Consolidation: A Comparative Study of Croatia, Serbia, and Bosnia-Hercegovina (unpublished dissertation), The Ohio State University (1995), pp.126-35.
41. According to the 1991 census, 580,762 of Croatia's inhabitants (12.2 per cent) were Serb. The number of Serbs was undoubtedly higher than this figure given that there were 104,728 Yugoslav identifiers, a category disproportionally chosen by ethnic Serbs. 'Nacionalni Sastav Stanovnistva, 1991', Jugoslovenski Pregled, No.1 (1992), pp.3-22.
42. Ivan Siber, 'The Impact of Nationalism, Values, and Ideological Orientations on Multi-Party Elections in Croatia', in Jim Seroka and Vukasin Pavlovic' (eds.), The Tragedy of Yugoslavia: The Failure of Democratic Transformation (Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 1992), pp.141-71; Mark Thompson, A Paper House: The Ending of Yugoslavia (New York: Pantheon Books, 1992), p.281.
43. Ivan Siber, 'The Impact of Nationalism, Values, and Ideological Orientations on Multi-Party Elections in Croatia', in Jim Seroka and Vukasin Pavlovic' (eds.), The Tragedy of Yugoslavia: The Failure of Democratic Transformation (Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 1992), pp.141-71; Mark Thompson, A Paper House: The Ending of Yugoslavia (New York: Pantheon Books, 1992), p.281.
44. For an analysis of Rasković's ideology, see Hislope, op. cit., pp.167-75.
45. Misha Glenny, The Fall of Yugoslavia: The Third Balkan War (New York: Penguin Books, 1992), pp.13, 77, 107; Robert Hayden, 'Constitutional Nationalism in the Formerly Yugoslav Republics', Slavic Review, Vol.51, No.4 (1992), pp.654-73. The term bureaucratic cleansing comes from Hayden.
46. Misha Glenny, The Fall of Yugoslavia: The Third Balkan War (New York: Penguin Books, 1992), pp.13, 77, 107; Robert Hayden, 'Constitutional Nationalism in the Formerly Yugoslav Republics', Slavic Review, Vol.51, No.4 (1992), pp.654-73. The term bureaucratic cleansing comes from Hayden.
47. FBIS (27 July 1990), p.36; FBIS (10 Aug. 1990), pp.39-10; FBIS (20 Aug. 1990), pp.70-72; FBIS (10 May 1990), p.66; FBIS (19 June 1990), p.84.
48. FBIS (27 July 1990), p.36; FBIS (10 Aug. 1990), pp.39-10; FBIS (20 Aug. 1990), pp.70-72; FBIS (10 May 1990), p.66; FBIS (19 June 1990), p.84.
49. FBIS (27 July 1990), p.36; FBIS (10 Aug. 1990), pp.39-10; FBIS (20 Aug. 1990), pp.70-72; FBIS (10 May 1990), p.66; FBIS (19 June 1990), p.84.
50. FBIS (27 July 1990), p.36; FBIS (10 Aug. 1990), pp.39-10; FBIS (20 Aug. 1990), pp.70-72; FBIS (10 May 1990), p.66; FBIS (19 June 1990), p.84.
51. FBIS (27 July 1990), p.36; FBIS (10 Aug. 1990), pp.39-10; FBIS (20 Aug. 1990), pp.70-72; FBIS (10 May 1990), p.66; FBIS (19 June 1990), p.84.
52. For an analysis of the July events, see Hislope, op. cit., pp.170-72, 175-6, 216.
53. Ratko Dmitrović, 'Povratak Krajine: Hrvatska i Njen Novi Ustav', NIN (20 Dec.1991), pp.12-14; Milos Vasić, 'Labudova pesma dr Milan Babić, Vreme (10 Feb. 1992), pp.13-15; FBIS (3 Jan. 1991), p.41; FBIS (24 Dec. 1991), pp.56-7.
54. Ratko Dmitrović, 'Povratak Krajine: Hrvatska i Njen Novi Ustav', NIN (20 Dec.1991), pp.12-14; Milos Vasić, 'Labudova pesma dr Milan Babić, Vreme (10 Feb. 1992), pp.13-15; FBIS (3 Jan. 1991), p.41; FBIS (24 Dec. 1991), pp.56-7.
55. Ratko Dmitrović, 'Povratak Krajine: Hrvatska i Njen Novi Ustav', NIN (20 Dec.1991), pp.12-14; Milos Vasić, 'Labudova pesma dr Milan Babić, Vreme (10 Feb. 1992), pp.13-15; FBIS (3 Jan. 1991), p.41; FBIS (24 Dec. 1991), pp.56-7.
56. Ratko Dmitrović, 'Povratak Krajine: Hrvatska i Njen Novi Ustav', NIN (20 Dec.1991), pp.12-14; Milos Vasić, 'Labudova pesma dr Milan Babić, Vreme (10 Feb. 1992), pp.13-15; FBIS (3 Jan. 1991), p.41; FBIS (24 Dec. 1991), pp.56-7.
57. In the Second World War the 'Chetniks' fought for the Serbian monarchy. The Krajina, a historically and culturally distinct region in Croatia with a majority Serb population (that is, prior to August 1995), overwhelmingly supported the Chetniks against Tito's Partisans. Slavonian Serbs lived in highly mixed settlement patterns in which Croats equalled or exceeded their size. In the Second World War, they contributed to the Partisan cause. Today, Chetnik signifies Serbs who feel a common life with Croatians is impossible. Partisan refers to both Croatians and Serbs who support a multiethnic, multicultural society. And Ustasha, or the Croatian fascists in the Second World War, today reject a common life with Serbs.
58. 'Vreme Round Table: Serbs in Croatia', Vreme News Digest, No..206 (11 Sept. 1995); FBIS (14 March 1991), p.58; FBIS (15 March 1991), p.56; FBIS (26 March 1991), p.54; FBIS (16 April 1991), p.40.
59. 'Vreme Round Table: Serbs in Croatia', Vreme News Digest, No..206 (11 Sept. 1995); FBIS (14 March 1991), p.58; FBIS (15 March 1991), p.56; FBIS (26 March 1991), p.54; FBIS (16 April 1991), p.40.
60. 'Vreme Round Table: Serbs in Croatia', Vreme News Digest, No..206 (11 Sept. 1995); FBIS (14 March 1991), p.58; FBIS (15 March 1991), p.56; FBIS (26 March 1991), p.54; FBIS (16 April 1991), p.40.
61. 'Vreme Round Table: Serbs in Croatia', Vreme News Digest, No..206 (11 Sept. 1995); FBIS (14 March 1991), p.58; FBIS (15 March 1991), p.56; FBIS (26 March 1991), p.54; FBIS (16 April 1991), p.40.
62. 'Vreme Round Table: Serbs in Croatia', Vreme News Digest, No..206 (11 Sept. 1995); FBIS (14 March 1991), p.58; FBIS (15 March 1991), p.56; FBIS (26 March 1991), p.54; FBIS (16 April 1991), p.40.
63. For a study of Babić's ideology, see Hislope, op. cit., pp.175-84, 223.
64. FBIS (5 April 1991), pp.34-5.
65. The New York Times (18 Dec. 1994).
66. For example, will the head of the IFP, Chief Mangosuthu Buthelezi, attempt to play the role of an obstructionist again? In an ominous sign, Buthelezi's IFP boycotted both the constitutional negotiations and the parliamentary vote on the constitution, in 1996. The KwaZulu/Natal region is still volatile and could very well be the site of future political violence. There is also a leftist bloc in the ANC opposed to accommodation (led by Winnie Mandela, Harry Gwala, and Blade Nzimande) that adds an element of uncertainty to the future political direction of this organization.
67. The New York Times (3 May 1994; 7 May 1994; 12 May 1994; 27 April 1994); The Economist (13 Feb. 1993), p.44.
68. The New York Times (3 May 1994; 7 May 1994; 12 May 1994; 27 April 1994); The Economist (13 Feb. 1993), p.44.
69. Sarah Baxter, 'The Mouse That Roared', New Statesman & Society (15 April 1994), pp.24-5; Sarah Baxter, 'A Better Life for All?', New Statesman & Society (22 April 1994), pp.24-6.
70. Sarah Baxter, 'The Mouse That Roared', New Statesman & Society (15 April 1994), pp.24-5; Sarah Baxter, 'A Better Life for All?', New Statesman & Society (22 April 1994), pp.24-6.
71. The New York Times (30 April 1994).
72. The New York Times (19 April 1994; 20 April 1994; 22 April 1994). Mandela's most recent effort to reconcile Buthelezi to. the regime was to appoint him president for a day during a brief absence from the country. Buthelezi was reportedly 'filled with awe' by this gesture of trust. The New York Times (1 Feb. 1997).
73. The New York Times (19 April 1994; 20 April 1994; 22 April 1994). Mandela's most recent effort to reconcile Buthelezi to. the regime was to appoint him president for a day during a brief absence from the country. Buthelezi was reportedly 'filled with awe' by this gesture of trust. The New York Times (1 Feb. 1997).
74. Sarah Baxter, 'Rebirth of A Nation', New Statesman & Society (6 May 1994), pp.24-5; Patrick Laurence, 'The 11th Hour', Africa Report (March/April 1994), pp.36-9; The New York Times (25 April 1994).
75. Sarah Baxter, 'Rebirth of A Nation', New Statesman & Society (6 May 1994), pp.24-5; Patrick Laurence, 'The 11th Hour', Africa Report (March/April 1994), pp.36-9; The New York Times (25 April 1994).
76. Sarah Baxter, 'Rebirth of A Nation', New Statesman & Society (6 May 1994), pp.24-5; Patrick Laurence, 'The 11th Hour', Africa Report (March/April 1994), pp.36-9; The New York Times (25 April 1994).
77. Patrick Laurence, 'Diehards and Dealmakers', Africa Report (Nov/Dec. 1993), pp.14-16; Anne Shepherd, 'A Wing and a Prayer', Africa Report (March/April 1994), pp.40-43.
78. Patrick Laurence, 'Diehards and Dealmakers', Africa Report (Nov/Dec. 1993), pp.14-16; Anne Shepherd, 'A Wing and a Prayer', Africa Report (March/April 1994), pp.40-43.
79. The New York Times (24 April 1994).
80. FBIS (30 March 1990), pp.22-3.
81. FBIS (9 April 1990), p.19; FBIS (12 April 1990), p.15; FBIS (April 20, 1990), p.21.
82. FBIS (9 April 1990), p.19; FBIS (12 April 1990), p.15; FBIS (April 20, 1990), p.21.
83. FBIS (9 April 1990), p.19; FBIS (12 April 1990), p.15; FBIS (April 20, 1990), p.21.
84. FBIS (17 Aug. 1990), pp.14-15; FBIS (21 Aug. 1990), pp.9-14.
85. FBIS (17 Aug. 1990), pp.14-15; FBIS (21 Aug. 1990), pp.9-14.
86. FBIS (17 Aug. 1990), p.7; FBIS (22 Aug. 1990), p.19; FBIS (23 Aug. 1990), pp.10-11; FBIS (5 Sept. 1990), pp.8-13.
87. FBIS (17 Aug. 1990), p.7; FBIS (22 Aug. 1990), p.19; FBIS (23 Aug. 1990), pp.10-11; FBIS (5 Sept. 1990), pp.8-13.
88. FBIS (17 Aug. 1990), p.7; FBIS (22 Aug. 1990), p.19; FBIS (23 Aug. 1990), pp.10-11; FBIS (5 Sept. 1990), pp.8-13.
89. FBIS (17 Aug. 1990), p.7; FBIS (22 Aug. 1990), p.19; FBIS (23 Aug. 1990), pp.10-11; FBIS (5 Sept. 1990), pp.8-13.
90. FBIS (14 Nov. 1990), p. 18; FBIS (27 Nov. 1990), pp.22-3; FBIS (10 Dec. 1990), pp.26-9; FBIS (17 Dec. 1990), pp.26-7.
91. FBIS (14 Nov. 1990), p. 18; FBIS (27 Nov. 1990), pp.22-3; FBIS (10 Dec. 1990), pp.26-9; FBIS (17 Dec. 1990), pp.26-7.
92. FBIS (14 Nov. 1990), p. 18; FBIS (27 Nov. 1990), pp.22-3; FBIS (10 Dec. 1990), pp.26-9; FBIS (17 Dec. 1990), pp.26-7.
93. FBIS (14 Nov. 1990), p. 18; FBIS (27 Nov. 1990), pp.22-3; FBIS (10 Dec. 1990), pp.26-9; FBIS (17 Dec. 1990), pp.26-7.
94. FBIS (14 Dec. 1990), p.14.
95. FBIS (8 Nov. 1990), p.17; FBIS (27 Nov. 1990), pp.20-21.
96. FBIS (8 Nov. 1990), p.17; FBIS (27 Nov. 1990), pp.20-21.
97. FBIS (28 Dec. 1990), pp.21-2; FBIS (12 Dec. 1990), pp.19-21; FBIS (27 Nov. 1990), pp.22-3.
98. FBIS (28 Dec. 1990), pp.21-2; FBIS (12 Dec. 1990), pp.19-21; FBIS (27 Nov. 1990), pp.22-3.
99. FBIS (28 Dec. 1990), pp.21-2; FBIS (12 Dec. 1990), pp.19-21; FBIS (27 Nov. 1990), pp.22-3.
100. FBIS (14 Nov. 1990), p.20.
101. FBIS (6 May 1991), p.7; FBIS (29 April 1991), p.17; FBIS (16 May 1991), p.8.
102. FBIS (6 May 1991), p.7; FBIS (29 April 1991), p.17; FBIS (16 May 1991), p.8.
103. FBIS (6 May 1991), p.7; FBIS (29 April 1991), p.17; FBIS (16 May 1991), p.8.
104. FBIS (13 May 1991), pp.23-4; FBIS (24 June 1991), pp.15-16.
105. FBIS (13 May 1991), pp.23-4; FBIS (24 June 1991), pp.15-16.
106. FBIS (29 July 1991), pp.12-13.
107. FBIS (19 Feb. 1992).
108. Goldie Shabad, Sharon A. Shible and John F. Zurovchak, 'When Push Comes to Shove: An Explanation of the Dissolution of the Czechoslovak State' (19 Dec. 1995) (unpublished manuscript), pp.3-4, 26-8.
109. FBIS (22 Jan. 1992), pp.12-14.
110. FBIS (24 Feb. 1992), pp.12-13.
111. FBIS (12 Feb. 1992), pp.11-12; FBIS (31 Jan. 1992), pp.15-16; FBIS (9 July 1992).
112. FBIS (12 Feb. 1992), pp.11-12; FBIS (31 Jan. 1992), pp.15-16; FBIS (9 July 1992).
113. FBIS (12 Feb. 1992), pp.11-12; FBIS (31 Jan. 1992), pp.15-16; FBIS (9 July 1992).
114. FBIS (9 June 1992), p.14.
115. Prior to the breakup, 300,000 Slovaks lived in the Czech Republic. That amounted to only three per cent of the population in the Czech Lands. In Slovakia, there were 40,000 Czechs, or one per cent of the population. Jiri Pehe, 'Czechs and Slovaks Define Postdivorce Relations,' RFE/RL Research Report, Vol.1, No.45 (13 Nov. 1992), p.10; Milica Z. Bookman, 'War and Peace: The Divergent Breakups of Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia', Journal of Peace Research, Vol.31, No.2 (1994), p.184.
116. Prior to the breakup, 300,000 Slovaks lived in the Czech Republic. That amounted to only three per cent of the population in the Czech Lands. In Slovakia, there were 40,000 Czechs, or one per cent of the population. Jiri Pehe, 'Czechs and Slovaks Define Postdivorce Relations,' RFE/RL Research Report, Vol.1, No.45 (13 Nov. 1992), p.10; Milica Z. Bookman, 'War and Peace: The Divergent Breakups of Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia', Journal of Peace Research, Vol.31, No.2 (1994), p.184.
117. See the discussion of this term in Juan J. Linz, Alfred Stepan, and Richard Gunther, 'Democratic Transition and Consolidation in Southern Europe, with Reflections on Latin America and Eastern Europe', in Gunther, Diamandorous, and Puhle, op. cit., pp.77-123; and Juan J. Linz and Alfred Stepan, Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation: Southern Europe, South America, and Post-Communist Europe (Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996), pp.16-37.
118. See the discussion of this term in Juan J. Linz, Alfred Stepan, and Richard Gunther, 'Democratic Transition and Consolidation in Southern Europe, with Reflections on Latin America and Eastern Europe', in Gunther, Diamandorous, and Puhle, op. cit., pp.77-123; and Juan J. Linz and Alfred Stepan, Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation: Southern Europe, South America, and Post-Communist Europe (Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996), pp.16-37.
119. Arend Lijphart, Power-Sharing in South Africa (University of California, Berkeley: Institute of International Studies, 1985), pp.31-46. The white population is South Africa is àpproximatey five million, or 13.6 per cent of the total population.
120. Lijphart reports that the white community was not in favor of leaving the country (ibid., p.46), and Manzo and McGowan analyze polling data which indicate that by the 1980s Afrikaners had come to identify the system of apartheid as a cause of instability and insecurity. Kate Manzo and Pat McGowan, 'Afrikaner Fears and the Politics of Despair: Understanding Change in South Africa', International Studies Quarterly, Vol.36 (1992), pp. 1-24.
121. Lijphart reports that the white community was not in favor of leaving the country (ibid., p.46), and Manzo and McGowan analyze polling data which indicate that by the 1980s Afrikaners had come to identify the system of apartheid as a cause of instability and insecurity. Kate Manzo and Pat McGowan, 'Afrikaner Fears and the Politics of Despair: Understanding Change in South Africa', International Studies Quarterly, Vol.36 (1992), pp. 1-24.
122. By afford, I mean an actor stands to receive benefits at little cost or risk.
123. FBIS (5 Oct. 1990), pp.53-4; FBIS (24 July 1991), p.37; FBIS (25 July 1991), pp.47-50; FBIS (1 Aug. 1991), pp.33-5; FBIS (14 Aug. 1991), p.34.
124. FBIS (5 Oct. 1990), pp.53-4; FBIS (24 July 1991), p.37; FBIS (25 July 1991), pp.47-50; FBIS (1 Aug. 1991), pp.33-5; FBIS (14 Aug. 1991), p.34.
125. FBIS (5 Oct. 1990), pp.53-4; FBIS (24 July 1991), p.37; FBIS (25 July 1991), pp.47-50; FBIS (1 Aug. 1991), pp.33-5; FBIS (14 Aug. 1991), p.34.
126. FBIS (5 Oct. 1990), pp.53-4; FBIS (24 July 1991), p.37; FBIS (25 July 1991), pp.47-50; FBIS (1 Aug. 1991), pp.33-5; FBIS (14 Aug. 1991), p.34.
127. FBIS (5 Oct. 1990), pp.53-4; FBIS (24 July 1991), p.37; FBIS (25 July 1991), pp.47-50; FBIS (1 Aug. 1991), pp.33-5; FBIS (14 Aug. 1991), p.34.
128. Lenard J. Cohen, Broken Bonds: The Disintegration of Yugoslavia (Boulder, CO: Westview ess, 1993), pp.195-214.
129. For an analysis of Panić's ideology, see Hislope, op. cit., pp.401-4.
130. For Mandela's personal history of brokering deals (often behind the backs of his colleagues) see Nelson Mandela, Long Walk To Freedom (Boston, MA: Little, Brown & Co., 1994).
131. Ernest Gellner comments instructively on Czech political culture: 'The interesting thing is that the Prague Castle has in this century experienced virtually the entire gamut of possible regimes: Habsburg Counter-Reformation traditionalism, Masarykian liberalism, Hitler, a short interregnum, Stalinism, another interregnum, Brezhnevism, and now Havel. But, every single time, the outgoing powerholders negotiated, haggled a bit if they could, and signed.' Ernest Gellner, Encounters with Nationalism (Oxford and Cambridge: Blackwell, 1994), p.120 (Gellner's emphasis).
132. Jiri Pehe, 'Czechoslovakia's Political Balance Sheet, 1990 to 1992', RFE/RL Research Report, Vol.1, No.25 (19 June 1992), p.27. The Czechoslovak outcome calls for an amendment to Lijphart's claim that segmental isolation is more conducive to political stability than mixed settlement patterns. While this case indicates that geographical concentration (along with uncontested borders and the absence of a history and culture of war) might be conducive to interethnic peace, the survivability of the state in these conditions is not guaranteed. See Lijphart, op. cit., pp.87-99.
133. Jiri Pehe, 'Czechoslovakia's Political Balance Sheet, 1990 to 1992', RFE/RL Research Report, Vol.1, No.25 (19 June 1992), p.27. The Czechoslovak outcome calls for an amendment to Lijphart's claim that segmental isolation is more conducive to political stability than mixed settlement patterns. While this case indicates that geographical concentration (along with uncontested borders and the absence of a history and culture of war) might be conducive to interethnic peace, the survivability of the state in these conditions is not guaranteed. See Lijphart, op. cit., pp.87-99.