Optimization of vaccine responses in early life: The role of delivery systems and immunomodulators

Immunology and Cell Biology

Volumn 76, Issue 3, 1998, Pages 222-236

  Kovarik, Jiri ^a   Siegrist, Claire Anne ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF GENEVA   (Switzerland)

Author keywords

Adjuvants; Delivery systems; Immunization; Immunomodulators; Maternal immunity; Newborn infants; Th1 Th2; Vaccines

Indexed keywords

IMMUNOMODULATING AGENT; VACCINE;

ANTIBODY RESPONSE; ARTICLE; CYTOTOXIC T LYMPHOCYTE; DRUG DELIVERY SYSTEM; HUMAN; IMMUNIZATION; IMMUNOMODULATION; INFANT; INFANT DISEASE; VACCINATION;

ADJUVANTS, IMMUNOLOGIC; ANIMALS; BACTERIAL VACCINES; DRUG DELIVERY SYSTEMS; HUMANS; INFANT, NEWBORN; VACCINATION; VIRAL VACCINES;

EID: 0031814939     PISSN: 08189641     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1046/j.1440-1711.1998.00746.x     Document Type: Article

References (134)

1. Schroeder HW Jr, Mortari F, Shiokawa S, Kirkham PM, Elgavish RA, Bertrand FE III. Developmental regulation of the human antibody repertoire. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 1945; 764: 242-60.
2. Booy R, Aitken SJ, Taylor S et al. Immunogenicity of combined diphtheria, tetanus, and pertussis vaccine given at 2, 3 and 4 months versus 3, 5 and 9 months of age. Lancet 1992; 339: 507-10.
3. Lucas AH, Azmi KH, Mink CM, Granoff DM. Age-dependent V region expression in the human antibody response to the Haemophilus influenzae type b polysaccharide. J. Immunol. 1993; 150: 2056-61.
4. Griffioen AW, Franklin SW, Zegers BJ, Rijkers GT. Expression and functional characteristics of the complement receptor type 2 on adult and neonatal B lymphocytes. Clin. Immunol. Immunopathol. 1993; 69: 1-8.
5. Servet-Delprat C, Bridon JM, Djossou O, Yahia SA, Banchereau J, Briere F. Delayed IgG2 humoral response in infants is not due to intrinsic T or B cell defects. Int. Immunol. 1996; 8: 1495-502.
6. Barrios C, Brawand P, Berney M, Brandt C, Lambert PH, Siegrist CA. Neonatal and early life immune responses to various forms of vaccine antigens qualitatively differ from adult responses: Predominance of a Th2-biased pattern which persists alter adult boosting. Eur. J. Immunol. 1996; 26: 1489-96.
7. Brandt C, Power UF, Plotnicky-Gilquin H et al. Protective immunity against respiratory syncylial virus in early life after murine maternal or neonatal vaccination with the recombinant G fusion protein BBG2Na. J. Infect. Dis. 1997; 176: 884-91.
8. Billingham RE, Brent L, Medawar PB. Actively acquired tolerance of foreign cells. Nature 1953; 172: 603-6.
9. Burnet FM. The Clonal Selection Theory of Acquired Immunity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1959.
10. Cihak J, Lehmann-Grube F. Immunological tolerance to lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus in neonatally infected virus carrier mice: Evidence supporting a clonal inactivation mechanism. Immunology 1978; 34: 265-75.
11. White J, Herman Aj, Pullen AM, Kubo R, Kappler JW, Marrack P. The V beta-specific superantigen staphylococcal enterotoxin B: Stimulation of mature T cells and clonal deletion in neonatal mice. Cell 1989; 56: 27-35.
12. Ridge JP, Kuchs EJ, Matzinger P. Neonatal tolerance revisited: Turning on newborn T cells with dendritic cells. Science 1996; 271: 1723-6.
13. Sarzotti M, Robbins DS, Hoffman PM. Induction of protective CTL responses in newborn mice by a murine retrovirus Science 1996; 271: 1726-8.
14. Korsthuber T, Yip HC, Lehmann PV. Induction of TH1 and TH2 immunity in neonatal mice. Science 1996; 271: 1728-30.
15. Singh RR, Hahn BH, Sercarz EE. Neonatal peptide exposure can prime T cells and, upon subsequent immunization, induce their immune deviation: Implications for antibody vs. T cell-mediated autoimmunily. J. Exp. Med. 1996; 183: 1613-21.
16. Demeure CE, Yang LP, Byun DG, Ishihara H, Vezzio N, Delespesse G. Human naive CD4 T cells produce interleukin-4 at priming and acquire a Th2 phenotype upon repetitive stimulations in neutral conditions. Eur. J. Immunol. 1995; 25: 2722-5.
17. Yang LP, Byun DG, Demeure CE, Vezzio N, Delespesse G. Delault development of cloned human naive CD4 T cells into interleukin-4-and interleukin-5-producing effector cells. Eur. J. Immunol. 1995; 25: 3517-20.
18. Shu U, Demeure CE, Byun DG, Podlaski F, Stern AS, Delespesse G. Interleukin 12 exerts a differential effect on the maturation of neonatal and adult human CD45R0-CD4 T cells. J. Clin. Invest. 1994; 94: 1352-8.
19. Hassan J, O'Neill S, O'Neill LA, Pattison U, Reen DJ. Signalling via CD28 of human naive neonatal T lymphocytes. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 1995; 102: 192-8.
20. Szabo SJ, Dighe AS, Gubler U, Murphy KM. Regulation of the interleukin (1L)-12R beta 2 subunit expression in developing T helper 1 (Th1) and Th2 cells. J. Exp. Med. 1997; 185: 817-24.
21. Simister NE, Story CM, Chen HL, Hunt JS. An IgG-transporting Fc receptor expressed in the syncytiotrophoblast of human placenta. Eur. J. Immunol. 1996; 26: 1527-31.
22. Albrecht P, Ennis FA, Saltzman EJ, Krugman S. Persistence of maternal antibody in infants beyond 12 months: Mechanism of measles vaccine failure. J. Pediatr. 1977; 91: 715-18.
23. Perkins HT, Yetts R, Gaisford W. Response of infants given a third dose of poliomyelitis vaccine ten to twelve months after primary immunization. BMJ 1959; 1: 680.
24. Englund JA, Anderson EL, Reed G et al. The effect of maternal antibody on the serologic response and the incidence of adverse reactions after primary immunization with acellular and whole-cell pertussis vaccines combined with diphtheria and tetanus toxoids. Pediatrics 1995; 96: 580-4.
25. Quintanu IZ, Silveira AV, Moller G. Regulation of the antibody response to sheep erythrocytes by monoclonal IgG antibodies. Eur. J. Immunol. 1987; 17: 1343-9.
26. Gupta RK, Rost BE, Relyveld E, Siber GR. Adjuvant properties of aluminium and calcium compounds. In: Powell MF, Newman MJ (eds) Vaccine Design: The Subunit and Adjuvant Approach. New York: Plenum Publishing. 1995; 229-48.
27. Claesson BA, Trollfors B, Lagergard T et al. Clinical and immunologic responses to the capsular polysaccharide of Haemophilus influenzae type b alone or conjugated to tetanus toxoid in 18-to 23-month-old children. J. Pediatr. 1988; 112: 695-702.
28. Audibert FM, Lise LD. Adjuvants: Current status, clinical perspectives and future prospects. Immunol. Today 1993; 14: 281-4.
29. Barrios C, Brandt C, Berney M, Lambert PH, Siegrist CA. Partial correction of the TH2/TH1 imbalance in neonatal murine responses to vaccine antigens through selective adjuvant effects. Eur. J. Immunol. 1996; 26: 2666-70.
30. Gupta RK, Relyveld EH, Lindblad EB, Bizzini B, Ben-Efraim S, Gupta CK. Adjuvants: A balance between toxicity and adjuvanticity. Vaccine 1993; 11: 293-306.
31. Herbert WJ. Antigenicity of soluble protein in the presence of high levels of antibody: A possible mode of action of the antigen adjuvants. Nature 1966; 210: 747-8.
32. Achour A, Moukrim Z, Picard O, Bizzini B, Burny A, Zagury D. HIV-1 soluble antigens induced CD8+ cytotoxic T-cell responses in an immunized individual. Cell. Mol. Biol. 1995; 41: 395-400.
33. Pietrobon PJ. Liposome design and vaccine development. Pharm. Biotechnol. 1995; 6: 347-61.
34. Alving CR, Koulchin V, Glenn GM, Rao M. Liposomes as carriers of peptide antigens: Induction of antibodies and cytotoxic T lymphocytes to conjugated and unconjugated peptides. Immunol. Rev. 1995; 145: 5-31.
35. Fortin A, Shahum E, Krzystyniak K, Therien HM. Differential activation of cell-mediated immune functions by encapsulated and surface-linked liposomal antigens. Cell. Immunol. 1996; 169: 208-17.
36. Gluck R, Mischler R, Brantschen S, Just M, Althaus B, Cryz SJ Jr. Immunopotentiating reconstituted influenza virus virosome vaccine delivery system for immunization against hepatitis A. J. Clin. Invest. 1992; 90: 2491-5.
37. Loutan L, Bovier P, Althaus B, Gluck R. Inactivated virosome hepatitis A vaccine. Lancet 1994; 343: 322-4.
38. Poovorawan Y, Theamboonlers A, Chumdermpadetsuk S, Gluck R, Cryz SJ Jr. Safety, immunogenicity, and kinetics of the immune response to a single dose of virosome-formulated hepatitis A vaccine in Thais. Vaccine 1995; 13: 891-3.
39. Mengiardi B, Berger R, Just M, Gluck R. Virosomes as carriers for combined vaccines. Vaccine 1995; 13: 1306-15.
40. Langer R. New methods of drug delivery. Science 1990; 249: 1527-33.
41. Aguado MT, Lambert PH. Controlled-release vaccines:biodegradable polylactide/polyglycolide (PL PG) microspheres as antigen vehicles. Immunobiology 1992; 184: 113-25.
42. Men Y, Thomasin C, Merkle HP, Gander B, Corradin G. A single administration of tetanus toxoid in biodegradable microspheres elicits T cell and antibody responses similar or superior to those obtained with aluminum hydroxide. Vaccine 1995; 13: 683-9.
43. Sander B, Skansen-Saphir U, Damm O, Hakansson L, Andersson J, Andersson U. Sequential production of Th1 and Th2 cytokines in response to live bacillus Calmette-Guerin. Immunology 1995; 86: 512-18.
44. Ildirim I, Sapan N, Cavusoglu B. Comparison of BCG vaccination at birth and at third month of life. Arch. Dis. Child. 1992; 67: 80-2.
45. Pabst HF, Godel JC, Spady DW, McKechnie J, Grace M. Prospective trial of timing of bacillus Calmette-Guerin vaccination in Canadian Cree infants. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 1989; 140: 1007-11.
46. Fennelly GJ, Flynn JL, ter Meulen V, Liebert UG, Bloom BR. Recombinant bacille Calmette-Guerin priming against measles. J. Infect. Dis. 1995; 172: 698-705.
47. Fischetti VA, Medaglini D, Pozzi G. Gram-positive commensal bacteria for mucosal vaccine delivery. Curr. Opin. Biotechnol. 1996; 7: 659-66.
48. Minor PD. Recent developments in the design of viral vaccines. Dev. Biol. Stand. 1996; 87: 51-7.
49. Paoletti E. Applications of pox virus vectors to vaccination: An update. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 1996; 93: 11 349-53.
50. Taylor J, Meignier B, Tartaglia J et al. Biological and immunogenic properties of a canarypox-rabies recombinant, AL-VAC-RG (vCP65) in non-avian species. Vaccine 1995; 13: 539-49.
51. Fries LF, Tartaglia J, Taylor J et al. Human safety and immunogenicity of a canarypox-rabies glycoprotein recombinant vaccine: An alternative poxvirus vector system. Vaccine 1996; 14: 428-34.
52. Egan MA, Pavlat WA, Tartaglia J et al. Induction of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1)-specific cytolytic T lymphocyte responses in seronegative adults by a nonreplicating, host-range-restricted canarypox vector (ALVAC) carrying the HIV-IMN env gene. J. Infect. Dis. 1995; 171: 1623-7.
53. Wolff JA, Malone RW, Williams P et al. Direct gene transfer into mouse muscle in vivo. Science 1990; 247: 1465-8.
54. Cohen J. Naked DNA points way to vaccines. Science 1993; 259: 1691-2.
55. Ulmer JB, Donnelly JJ, Parker SE et al. Heterologous protection against influenza by injection of DNA encoding a viral protein. Science 1993; 259: 1745-9.
56. Ulmer JB, Sadoff JC, Liu MA. DNA vaccines. Curr. Opin. Immunol. 1996; 8: 531-6.
57. Martinez X, Brandt C, Saddallah F et al. DNA immunization circumvents deficient induction of T helper type 1 and cytotoxic T lymphocyte responses in neonates and during early life. Proc. Nail Acad. Sci. USA 1997; 94: 8726-31.
58. Bot A, Antohi S, Bona C. Immune response of neonates elicited by somatic transgene vaccination with naked DNA. Front. Biosci. 1997; 2: D173-88.
59. Hassett DE, Zhang J, Whitton JL. Neonatal DNA immunization with a plasmid encoding aninternal viral protein is effective in the presence of maternal antibodies and protects against subsequent viral challenge. J. Virol. 1997; 71: 7881-8.
60. Sarzotti M, Dean TA, Remington MP, Ly CD, Furth PA, Robbins DS. Induction of cytotoxic T cell responses in newborn mice by DNA immunization. Vaccine 1997; 15: 795-7.
61. Wang Y, Xiang Z, Pasquini S, Ertl HC. Immune response to neonatal genetic immunization. Virology 1997; 228: 278-84.
62. Manickan E, Yu Z, Rouse BT. DNA Immunization of neonates induces immunity despite the presence of maternal antibody. J Clin. Invest. 1997; 100: 2371-5.
63. Mor G, Yamshchikov G, Sedegah M et al. Induction of neonatal tolerance by plasmid DNA vaccination of mice. J. Clin. Invest. 1996; 98: 2700-5.
64. Prince AM, Whalen R, Brotman B. Successful nucleic acid based immunization of newborn chimpanzees against hepatitis B virus. Vaccine 1997; 15: 916-19.
65. Monteil M, Le Potier MK, Guillotin J, Cariolet R, Houdayer C, Eloit M. Genetic immunization of seronegative one-day-old piglets against pseudorabics induces neutralizing antibodies but not protection and is ineffective in piglets from immune dams. Vet. Res. 1996; 27: 443-52.
66. Tsuji T, Hamajima K, Fukushima J et al. Enhancement of cell-mediated immunity against HIV-1 induced by coinoculation of plasmid-encoded HIV-1 antigen with plasmid expressing IL 12. J. Immunol. 1997; 158: 4008-13.
67. Iwasaki A, Stiernholm BJ, Chan AK, Berinstein NL, Barber BH. Enhanced CTL responses mediated by plasmid DNA immunogens encoding costimulatory molecules and cytokines. J. Immunol. 1997; 158: 4591-601.
68. Rudbach JA, Cantrell JL, Ulrich JT, Mitchell MS. Immunotherapy with bacterial endotoxins. Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. 1990; 256: 665-76.
69. Perera PY, Manthey CL, Stutz PL, Hildebrandt J, Vogel SN. Induction of early gene expression in murine macrophages by synthetic lipid A analogs with differing endotoxic potentials. Infect. Immun. 1993; 61: 2015-23.
70. Mattern T, Thanhauser A, Reiling N et al. Endotoxin and lipid A stimulate proliferation of human T cells in the presence of autologous monocytcs. J. Immunol. 1994; 153: 2996-3004.
71. Ulrich JT, Myers KR. Monophosphoryl lipid A as an adjuvant: Past experiences and new directions. Pharm. Biotechnol. 1995; 6: 495-524.
72. Kensil CR, Wu JY, Soltysik S. Structural and immunological characterization of the vaccine adjuvant QS 21. Pharm. Biotechnol. 1995; 6: 525-41.
73. Wu JY, Gardner BH, Murphy CI et al. Saponin adjuvant enhancement of antigen-specific immune responses to an experimental HIV-1 vaccine. J. Immunol. 1992; 148: 1519-25.
74. Powell MF, Cleland JL, Eastman DJ et al. Immunogenicity and HIV-1 virus neutralization of MN recombinant glycoprotein 120, HIV-1 QS21 vaccine in baboons. AIDS Res. Hum. Retroviruses 1994; 10 (Suppl. 2): 105-8.
75. Newman MJ, Munroe KJ, Anderson CA et al. Induction of antigen-specific killer T lymphocyte responses using subunit SIVmac251 gag and env vaccines containing QS-21 saponin adjuvant. AIDS Res. Hum. Retroviruses 1994; 10: 853-61.
76. Ellouz F, Adam A, Ciorbaru R, Lederer E. Minimal structural requirements for adjuvant activity of bacterial peptidoglycan derivatives. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 1974; 59: 1317-25.
77. Victoratos P, Yiangou M, Avramidis N, Hadjipetrou L. Regulation of cytokine gene expression by adjuvants in vivo. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 1997; 109: 569-78.
78. Hess G, Kreiter F, Kosters W, Deusch K. The effect of granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) on hepatitis B vaccination in haemodialysis patients. J. Viral Hepat. 1996; 3: 149-53.
79. Tarr PE, Lin R, Mueller EA, Kovarik JM, Guillaume M, Jones TC. Evaluation of tolerability and antibody response after recombinant human granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (rhGM-CSF) and a single dose of recombinant hepatitis B vaccine. Vaccine 1996; 14: 1199-204.
80. Heath AW, Playfair JH. Cytokines as immunological adjuvants. Vaccine 1992; 10: 427-34.
81. Grob PJ, Joller-Jemelka HI, Binswanger U, Zaruba K, Descoeudres C, Fernex M. Interferon as an adjuvant for hepatitis B vaccination in non-and low-responder populations. Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. 1984; 3: 195-8.
82. Sturchler D, Berger R, Etlinger H et al. Effects of interferons on immune response to a synthetic peptidc malaria sporozoite vaccine in non-immune adults. Vaccine 1989; 7: 457-61.
83. El Kassas H, Kirkwood JM. Adjuvant application of interferons. Semin. Oncol. 1996; 23: 737-43.
84. Seder RA, Gazzinelli R, Sher A, Paul WE. Interleukin 12 acts directly on CD4+ T cells to enhance priming for interferon gamma production and diminishes interleukin 4 inhibition of such priming. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 1993; 90: 10188-92.
85. Wolf SF, Temple PA, Kobayashi M et al. Cloning of cDNA for natural killer cell stimulatory factor, a heterodimeric cytokine with multiple biologic effects on T and natural killer cells. J. Immunol. 1991; 146: 3074-81.
86. Perussia B, Chan SH, D'Andrea A et al. Natural killer (NK) cell stimulatory factor or IL-12 has differential effects on the proliferation of TCR-alpha beta +, TCR-gamma delta + T lymphocytes, and NK cells. J. Immunol. 1992; 149: 3495-502.
87. Chchimi J, Valiante NM, D'Andrea A et al. Enhancing effect of natural killer cell stimulatory factor (NKSF/interleukin-12) on cell-mediated cytotoxicity against tumor-derived and virus-infected cells. Eur. J. Immunol. 1993; 23: 1826-30.
88. Gately MK, Wolitzky AG, Quinn PM, Chizzonite R. Regulation of human cytotytic lymphocyte responses by interleukin 12. Cell. Immunol. 1992; 143: 127-42.
89. Germann T, Guckes S, Bongartz M et al. Administration of IL-12 during ongoing immune responses fails to permanently suppress and can even enhance the synthesis of antigen-specific IgE. Int. Immunol. 1995; 7: 1649-57.
90. McKnight AJ, Zimmer GJ, Fogelman I, Wolf SF, Abbas AK. Effects of IL-12 on helper T cell-dependent immune responses in vivo. J. Immunol. 1994; 152: 2172-9.
91. Junkovic D, Caspar P, Zweig M et al. Adsorption to aluminum hydroxide promotes the activity of IL-12 as an adjuvant for antibody as well as type 1 cytokine responses to HIV-1 gp120. J. Imnnmol. 1997; 159: 2409-17.
92. Metzger DW, McNutt RM, Collins JT, Buchanan JM, Van Cleave VH, Dunnick WA. Interleukin-12 acts as an adjuvant for humoral immunity through interferon-gamma-dependent and -independent mechanisms. Eur. J. Immunol. 1997; 27: 1958-65.
93. O'Toole M, Wooters J, Brown E et al. Interleukin-12 as adjuvant in peptide vaccines. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 1996; 795: 379-81.
94. Scott P, Trinchieri G. IL-12 as an adjuvant for cell-mediated immunity. Semin. Immunol. 1997; 9: 285-91.
95. Lotze MT, Zitvogel L, Campbell R et al. Cytokine gene therapy of cancer using interleukin-12: Murine and clinical trials. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 1996; 795: 440-54.
96. Orange JS, Salazar-Mather TP, Opal SM et al. Mechanism of interleukin 12-mediated toxicities during experimental viral infections: Role of tumor necrosis factor and glucocorticoids. J. Exp. Med. 1995; 181: 901-14.
97. Rempel JD, Wang M, HayGlass KT. In vivo IL-12 administration induces profound but transient commitment to T helper cell type 1-associated patterns of cytokine and antibody production. J. Immunol. 1997; 159: 1490-6.
98. Kim JJ, Ayyavoo V, Bagarazzi ML et al. In vivo engineering of a cellular immune response by coadministration of IL-12 expression vector with a DNA immunogen. J. Immunol. 1997; 158: 816-26.
99. Geissler M, Gesien A, Tokushige K, Wands JR. Enhancement of cellular and humoral immune responses to hepatitis C virus core protein using DNA-based vaccines augmented with cytokine-expressing plasmids. J. Imnnmol. 1997; 158: 1231-7.
100. Pisetsky DS. Immune activation by bacterial DNA: A new genetic code. Immunity 1996; 5: 303-10.
101. Klinman DM, Yi AK, Beaucage SL, Conover J, Krieg AM. CpG motifs present in bacteria DNA rapidly induce lymphocytes to secrete interleukin 6, interleukin 12, and interferon gamma. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 1996; 93: 2879-83.
102. Sato Y, Roman M, Tighe H et al. Immunostimulatory DNA sequences necessary for effective intradermal gene immunization. Science 1996; 273: 352-4.
103. Ballas ZK, Rasmussen WL, Krieg AM. Induction of NK activity in murine and human cells by CpG motifs in oligodeoxynucleotides and bacterial DNA. J. Immunol. 1996; 157: 1840-5.
104. Krieg AM, Yi AK, Maison S et al. CpG motifs in bacterial DNA trigger direct B-cell activation. Nature 1995; 374: 546-9.
105. Branda RK, Moore AL, Lafayette AR et al. Amplification of antibody production by phosphorothioate oligodeoxynucleotides. J. Lab. Clin. Med. 1996; 128: 329-38.
106. Roman M, Martin-Orozco E, Goodman JS et al. Immunostimulatory DNA sequences function as T helper-1-promoting adjuvants. Nat. Med. 1997; 3: 849-54.
107. Klinman DM, Yamshchikov G, Ishigatsubo Y. Contribution of CpG motifs to the immunogenicity of DNA vaccines. J. Immunol. 1997; 158: 3635-9.
108. Weiner GJ, Liu HM, Wooldridge JE, Dahle CE, Krieg AM. Immunostimulatory oligodeoxynucleotides containing the CpG motif are effective as immune adjuvants in tumor antigen immunization. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 1997; 94: 10833-7.
109. Chu RS, Targoni OS, Krieg AM, Lehmann PV, Harding CV. CpG oligodeoxynucleotides act as adjuvants that switch on T helper 1 (Th1) immunity. J. Exp. Med. 1997; 186: 1623-31.
110. Stacey KJ, Sweet MJ, Hume DA. Macrophages ingest and are activated by bacterial DNA. J. Immunol. 1996; 157: 2116-22.
111. Sparwasser T, Miethke T, Lipford G et al. Bacterial DNA causes septic shock. Nature 1997; 386: 336-7.
112. Cowdery JS, Chace JH, Yi AK, Krieg AM. Bacterial DNA induces NK cells to produce IFN-gamma in vivo and increases the toxicity of lipopolysaccharides. J. Immunol. 1996; 156: 4570-5.
113. Yi AK, Hornbeck P, Lafrenz DE, Krieg AM. CpG DNA rescue of murine B lymphoma cells from anti-IgM-induced growth arrest and programmed cell death is associated with increased expression of c-myc and bcl-xL. J. Immunol. 1996; 157: 4918-25.
114. Gilkeson GS, Ruiz P, Pippen AM, Alexander AL, Lefkowith JB, Pisetsky DS. Modulation of renal disease in autoimmune NZB NZW mice by immunization with bacterial DNA. J. Exp. Med. 1996; 183: 1389-97.
115. Mor G, Singla M, Steinberg AD, Hoffman SL, Okuda K, Klinman DM. Do DNA vaccines induce autoimmune disease? Hum. Gene Ther. 1997; 8: 293-300.
116. Morein B, Sundquist B, Hoglund S, Dalsgaard K, Osterhaus A. Iscom, a novel structure for antigenic presentation of membrane proteins from enveloped viruses. Nature 1984; 308: 457-60.
117. Barr IG, Mitchell GF. ISCOMs (immunostimulating complexes): The first decade. Immunol. Cell Biol. 1996; 74: 8-25.
118. Claassen IJ, Osterhaus AD, Claassen E. Antigen detection in vivo after immunization with different presentation forms of rabies virus antigen: Involvement of marginal metallophilic macrophages in the uptake of immune-stimulating complexes. Eur. J. Immunol. 1995; 25: 1446-52.
119. Villacres-Eriksson M. Antigen presentation by naive macrophages, dendritic cells and B cells to primed T lymphocytes and their cytokine production following exposure to immunostimulating complexes. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 1995; 102: 46-52.
120. Jiang W, Swiggard WJ, Heufler C et al. The receptor DEC-205 expressed by dendritic cells and thymic epithelial cells is involved in antigen processing. Nature 1995; 375: 151-5.
121. Mowat AM, Donachie AM, Reid G, Jarrett O. Immune-stimulating complexes containing Quil A and protein antigen prime class I MHC-restricted T lymphocytes in vivo and are immunogenic by the oral route. Immunology 1991; 72: 317-22.
122. Varsanyi TM, Morein B, Love A, Norrby E. Protection against lethal measles virus infection in mice by immune-stimulating complexes containing the hemagglutinin or fusion protein. J. Virol. 1987; 61: 3896-901.
123. van Binnendijk RS, Poelen MC, van Amerongen G, de Vries P, Osterhaus AD. Protective immunity in macaques vaccinated with live attenuated, recombinant, and subunit measles vaccines in the presence of passively acquired antibodies. J. Infect. Dis. 1997; 175: 524-32.
124. Ronnberg B, Fekadu M, Morein B. Adjuvant activity of non-toxic Quillaja saponaria Molina components for use in ISCOM matrix. Vaccine 1995; 13: 1375-82.
125. Cox JC, Coulter AR. Adjuvants: A classification and review of their modes of action. Vaccine 1997; 15: 248-56.
126. Grun JL, Maurer PH. Different T helper cell subsets elicited in mice utilizing two different adjuvant vehicles: The role of endogenous interleukin 1 in proliferative responses. Cell. Immunol. 1989; 121: 134-45.
127. Edelman R. Vaccine adjuvants. Rer. Infect. Dis. 1980; 2: 370-83.
128. Hunter R, Olsen M, Buynitzky S. Adjuvant activity of non-ionic block copolymers: IV. Effect of molecular weight and formulation on titre and isotype of antibody. Vaccine 1991; 9: 250-6.
129. Brey RN. Development of vaccines based on formulations containing nonionic block copolymers. Pharm. Biotechnol. 1995; 6: 297-311.
130. Ott G, Barchfeld GL, Van Nest G. Enhancement of humoral response against human influenza vaccine with the simple submicron oil/water emulsion adjuvant MF59. Vaccine 1995; 13: 1557-62.
131. Traquina P, Morandi M, Contorni M, Van Nest G. MF59 adjuvant enhances the antibody response to recombinant hepatitis B surface antigen vaccine in primates. J. Infect. Dis. 1996; 174: 1168-75.
132. Milagres LG, Ramos SR, Sacchi CT et al. Immune response of Brazilian children to a Neisseria meningitidis serogroup B outer membrane protein vaccine: Comparison with efficacy. Infect. Immun. 1994; 62: 4419-24.
133. Granoff DM, McHugh YE, Raff HV, Mokatrin AS, Van Nest GA. MF59 adjuvant enhances antibody responses of infant baboons immunized with Haemophilus influenzae type b and Neisseria meningitidis group C oligosaccharide-CRM 197 conjugate vaccine. Infect. Immun. 1997; 65: 1710-15.
134. Stoute JA, Slaoui M, Heppner DG et al. A preliminary evaluation of a recombinant circumsporozoite protein vaccine against Plasmodium falciparum malaria: RTS, S Malaria Vaccine Evaluation Group. N. Engl. J. Med. 1997; 336: 86-91.