Pharmacology of immunosuppressive drugs

Drugs of Today

Volumn 34, Issue 5, 1998, Pages 463-479

  Olyaei, Ali J ^a   De Mattos, Angelo M ^a   Bennett, William M ^a  

^a OREGON HEALTH AND SCIENCE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AZATHIOPRINE; CYCLOSPORIN A; GLUCOCORTICOID; IMMUNOSUPPRESSIVE AGENT; LYMPHOCYTE ANTIBODY; MYCOPHENOLIC ACID 2 MORPHOLINOETHYL ESTER; OKT 3; TACROLIMUS; THYMOCYTE ANTIBODY;

ANEMIA; BONE MARROW SUPPRESSION; CLINICAL TRIAL; DRUG ABSORPTION; DRUG BIOAVAILABILITY; DRUG BLOOD LEVEL; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG HALF LIFE; DRUG MECHANISM; DRUG MONITORING; DRUG SAFETY; DRUG TOLERABILITY; FLU LIKE SYNDROME; GASTROINTESTINAL SYMPTOM; GRAFT REJECTION; GRAFT SURVIVAL; HUMAN; HYPERTENSION; IMMUNOSUPPRESSIVE TREATMENT; LEUKOPENIA; LIVER TOXICITY; METABOLIC DISORDER; NEPHROTOXICITY; NEUROTOXICITY; ORGAN TRANSPLANTATION; REVIEW;

EID: 0031810230     PISSN: 16993993     EISSN: 16994019     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1358/dot.1998.34.5.485245     Document Type: Review

References (170)

1. Salomon, D.R. Rationale and mechanisms of immunosuppression. Kidney Int 1997, 51(Suppl. 58): S48-50.
2. de Mattos, A.M., Olyaei, A.J., Bennett, W.M. Pharmacology of immunosuppressive medications used in renal diseases and transplantation. Am J Kidney Dis 1996, 28(5): 631-67.
3. First, M.R. An update on new immunosuppressive drugs undergoing preclinical and clinical trials: Potential applications in organ transplantation. Am J Kidney Dis 1997, 29(2): 303-17.
4. Shocker, A.S. Immunopharmacologic therapy in renal transplantation. Pharmacotherapy 1996, 16(4): 562-75.
5. Haynes, R.C., Murad, F. Adrenocorticotropic hormone; adrenocortical steroids and their synthetic analogs; inhibitors of adrenocortical steroid biosynthesis. In: The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics. Gilman, A.G., Goodman, L.S. (Eds.). Macmilian: New York 1993, 1459-89.
6. Hume, D.M., Merrill, J.P., Miller, B.F., Thom, G.W. Experiences with renal homotransplantation in the human: Report of nine cases. J Clin Invest 1955, 34: 327-82.
7. Starzl, T.E., Marchioro, T.L., Wadded, W.R. The reversal of rejection in human renal homografts with subsequent development of homograft tolerance. Surg Gynecol Obstet 1963, 117: 385-95.
8. Boumpas, D.T., Chrousos, G.P., Wilder, R.L., Cupps, T.R., Balow, J.E. Glucocorticoid therapy for immune-mediated diseases: Basic and clinical correlates. Ann Intern Med 1993, 119(12): 1198-208.
9. Jusko, W.J., Ludwig, E.A. Corticosteroids, applied pharmacokinetics. In: Principles of Therapeutic Drug Monitoring. Evans, W.E., Schentag, J.J., Jusko, W.J., Vancover, W.A. (Eds.). Applied Therapeutics: Vancover, WA 1992, Chap. 27: 1-34.
10. English, J., Dunne, M., Marks, V. Diurnal variation in prednisolone kinetics. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1983, 33(3): 381-5.
11. Rose, J.Q., Nickelsen, J.A., Ellis, E.F., Middleton, E., Jusko, W.J. Prednisolone disposition in steroid-dependent asthmatic children. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1981, 67(3): 188-93.
12. Miller, P.F.W., Bowmer, C.J., Wheeldon, J., Brocklebank, J.T. Pharmacokinetics of prednisolone in children with nephrosis. Arch Dis Child 1990, 65(2): 196-200.
13. Jusko, W.J., Milad, M.A., Ludwig, E.A., Lew, K.H., Kohli, R.K. Methylprednisolone pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics in chronic renal failure. Clin Nephrol 1995, 43(1): S16-9.
14. Gambertoglio, J.G., Amend, W.I.C., Benet, L.Z. Pharmacokinetics and bioavailability of prednisone and prednisolone in healthy volunteers and patients: A review. J Pharmacokinet Biopharm 1980, 8(1): 1-47.
15. Karin, M., Yang-Yen, H.-F., Chambard, J.-C., Deng, T., Saatcioglu, F. Various modes of gene regulation by nuclear receptors for steroid and thyroid hormones. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 1993, 45(1): S9-15.
16. Miesfeld, R.L. Molecular genetics of corticos- teroid action. Am Rev Respir Dis 1990, 141: S11-7.
17. Munck, A., Mendel, D.B., Smith, L.I., Orti, E. Glucocorticoid receptors and actions. Am Rev Respir Dis 1990, 141: S2-10.
18. Schleimer, R.P. An overview of glucocorticoid antiinflammatory actions. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 1993, 45(1): S3-7.
19. Ray, A., Sehgal, P.B. Cytokines and their receptors: Molecular mechanism of interleukin-6 gene repression by glucocorticoids. J Am Soc Nephrol 1992, 2: S214-21.
20. Yang-Yen, H.-F., Chambard, J.-C., Sun, Y.-L. et al. Transcriptional interference between c-Jun and the glucocorticoid receptor: Mutual inhibition of DNA binding due to direct protein-protein interaction. Cell 1990, 62: 1205-15.
21. Schule, R., Rangarajan, P., Kliewer, S. et al. Functional antagonism between oncoprotein c-Jun and the glucocorticoid receptor. Cell 1990, 62: 1217-26.
22. Williams, T.J., Yarwood, H. Effect of glucocorticosteroids on microvascular permeability. Am Rev Respir Dis 1990, 141: S39-43.
23. Friedman, J.E., Yun, J.S., Patel, Y.M., McGrane, M.M., Hanson, R.W. Glucocorticoids regulate the induction of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (GTP) gene transcription during diabetes. J Biol Chem 1993, 268(17): 12952-7.
24. Ong, C.S., Pollock, C.A., Caterson, R.J. Mahony, U., Waugh, D.A., Ibels, L.S. Hyperlipidemia in renal transplant recipients Natural history and response to treatment Medicine 1994, 73(4): 215-23.
25. Sharma, A.K., Myers, T.A., Hunninghake, D.B., Matas, A.J., Kashtan, C.E. Hyperlipidemia in long-term survivors of pediatric renal transplantation. Clin Transplant 1994, 8: 252-7.
26. Ingulli, E., Tejani, A., Markell, M. The beneficial effects of steroid withdrawal on blood pressure and lipid profile in children post-transplantation in the cyclosporine era. Transplantation 1993, 55(5): 1029-33.
27. Ponticelli, C., Passerini, P. Alkylating agents and purine analogues in primary glomerulonephritis with nephrotic syndrome. Nephrol Dial Transplant 1991, 6: 381-8.
28. Davison, A.M. Steroid therapy in primary glomerulonephritis. Nephrol Dial Transplant 1990, Suppl. 1:23-8.
29. Rondeau, E., Kourilsky, O., Peraldi, M.-N., Alberti, C., Kanfer, A., Sraer, J.-D. Methylprednisolone and cyclophosphamide pulse therapy in crescentic glomerulonephritis: Safety and effectiveness. Ren Fail 1993, 15(4): 495-501.
30. Kunis, C.L., Kiss, B., Williams, G., D'Agati, V., Appel, G.B. Intravenous "pulse" cydophosphamide therapy of crescentic glomerulonephritis. Clin Nephrol 1992, 37(1): 1-7.
31. Palmer, A., Cairns, T., Dische, F. et al. Treatment of rapidly progressive glomerulonephritis by extracorporeal immunoadsorption, prednisolone and cydophosphamide. Nephrol Dial Transplant 1991, 6: 536-42.
32. Bolton, W.K., Sturgill, B.C. Methylprednisolone therapy for acute crescentic rapidly progressive glomerulonephritis. Am J Nephrol 1989, 9: 368-75.
33. Keller, F., Oehlenberg, B., Kunzendorf, U., Schwarz, A., Offermann, G. Long-term treatment and prognosis of rapidly progressive glomerulonephritis. Clin Nephrol 1989, 31(4): 190-7.
34. Couser, W.G. Rapidly progressive glomerulonephritis: Classification, pathogenetic mechanisms, and therapy. Am J Kidney Dis 1988, 11(6): 449-64.
35. Bruns, F.J., Adler, S., Fraley, D.S., Segel, D.P. Long-term follow-up of aggressively treated idiopathic rapidly progressive glomerulonephritis. Am J Med 1989, 86: 400-6.
36. Schena, F.P., Montenegro, M., Scivittaro, V. Meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials in patients with primary IgA nephropathy (Berger's disease). Nephrol Dial Transplant 1990, Suppl. 1:47-52.
37. Ponticelli, C., Passerini, P. The natural history and therapy of idiopathic membranous nephropathy. Nephrol Dial Transplant 1990, Suppl. 1: 37-41.
38. Bruns, F.J., Adler, S., Fraley, D.S., Segel, D.P. Sustained remission of membranous glomerulonephritis after cydophosphamide and prednisone. Ann Intern Med 1991, 114: 725-30.
39. Falk, R.J., Hogan, S.L., Muller, K.E., Jennette, J.C. for the Glomerular Disease Collaborative Network. Treatment of progressive membranous glomerulopathy: A randomized trial comparing cydophosphamide and corticosteroids with corticosteroids alone. Ann Intern Med 1992, 116: 438-45.
40. Gertz, M.A., Kyle, R.A., Greipp, P.R. Response rates and survival in primary systemic amyloidosis. Blood 1991, 77(2): 257-62.
41. Goddard, I.R., Jackson, R., Boulton Jones, J.M. Amyloidosis: Therapeutic response in two patients with renal involvement. Nephrol Dial Transplant 1991, 6: 592-4.
42. Fauci, A.S., Haynes, B.F., Katz, P., Wolff, S.M. Wegener's granulomatosis: Prospective clinical and therapeutic experience with 85 patients for 21 years. Ann Intern Med 1983, 98: 76-85.
43. Donadio, J.V. Jr., Glassock, R.J. Immunosuppressive drug therapy in lupus nephritis. Am J Kidney Dis 1993, 21(3): 239-50.
44. Levey, A.S., Lan, S.-P., Corwin, H.L. et al. Progression and remission of renal disease in the lupus nephritis collaborative study. Ann Intern Med 1992, 116: 114-23.
45. Hricik, D.E., Almawi, W.Y., Strom, T.B. Trends in the use of glucocorticoids in renal transplantation. Transplantation 1994, 57(7): 979-89.
46. Chan, G.L.C., Canafax, D.M., Johnson, C.A. The therapeutic use of azathioprine in renal transplantation. Pharmacotherapy 1987, 7: 165-77.
47. Elion, G.B. The pharmacology of azathioprine. Ann NY Acad Sci 1993, 685: 401-7.
48. Cory, J.G. Purine and pyrimidine nucleotide metabolism. In: Textbook of Biochemistry: With Clinical Correlations. Devlin, T.M. (Ed.). Wiley-Liss: New York 1992, 529-73.
49. Lisker-Melman, M., Webb, D., Di Bisceglie, A.M. et al. Glomerulonephritis caused by chronic hepatitis B virus infection: Treatment with recombinant human α-interferon. Ann Intern Med 1989, 111(6): 479-83.
50. Lu, C.Y., Sicher, S.C., Vazquez, M.A. Prevention and treatment of renal allograft rejection: New therapeutic approaches and new insights into established therapies. J Am Soc Nephrol 1993, 4: 1239-56.
51. Mitchell, B.S., Dayton, J.S., Turka, L.A., Thompson, C.B. IMP dehydrogenase inhibitors as immunomodulators. Ann NY Acad Sci 1993, 685: 217-24.
52. St. Georgiev, V. Enzymes of the purine metabolism: Inhibition and therapeutic potential. Ann NY Acad Sci 1993, 685: 207-16.
53. Lennard, I., Brown, C.B., Fos, M., Maddocks, J.L. Azathioprine metabolism in kidney transplant recipients. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1984, 18: 693-700.
54. Pollak, R., Nishikawa, R.A., Mozes, M., Johasson, O. Azathioprine-induced leukopenia: Clinical significance in renal transplantation. J Surg Res 1980, 29: 258-64.
55. Sparburg, M., Simon, N., DeGreco, F. Intrahepatic cholestasis due to azathioprine. Gastroenterology 1969, 57: 439-41.
56. Pettrelli, M., Ricanati, E.S., McCullough, A.J. Hepatic veno-occlusive disease associated with renal transplantation and azathioprine therapy. Ann Intern Med 1986, 104: 651-5.
57. Ware, A.J., Luby, J.P., Hollinger, B. et al. Etiology of liver diseases in renal transplantation patients. Ann Intern Med 1979, 91: 364-71.
58. Weir, M., Kirkman, R.L., Strom, T.B., Tilney, N.L. Liver disease in recipients of long functioning renal allografts. Kidney Int 1985, 28: 839-44.
59. Bedrossian, C.W., Sussman, J., Conklin, R.H., Kahan, B.D. Azathioprine associated interstitial pneumonitis. Am J Clin Pathol 1984, 82: 148-54.
60. Allison, A.C., Eugui, E.M. Inhibitors of de novo purine and pyrimidine synthesis as immunosuppressive drugs. Transplant Proc 1993, 25(3): 8-18.
61. Yatscoff, R.W., Keenan, R., LeGatt, D.F. Single-dose pharmacokinetics of the new immunosuppressant RS-61443 in the rabbit. Ther Drug Monit 1993, 15: 400-4.
62. CellCept (mycophenolate mofetil capsules) package insert. Roche 1995.
63. Bullingham, R.E.S., Nicholls, A., Hale, M. Pharmacokinetics of mycophenolate mofetil (RS-61443): A short review. Transplant Proc 1996, 28(2): 925-9.
64. Eugui, E.M., Allison, A.C. Immunosuppressive activity of mycophenolate mofetil. Ann NY Acad Sci 1993, 685: 309-29.
65. Allison, A.C., Eugui, E.M. Preferential suppression of lymphocyte proliferation by mycophenolic acid and predicted long-term effects of mycophenolate mofetil in transplantation. Transplant Proc 1994, 26(6): 3205-10.
66. Cohen, M.B., Maybaum, J., Sadee, W. Guanine nucleotide depletion and toxicity in mouse T-lymphoma (S-49) cells. J Biol Chem 1981, 256(16): 8713-7.
67. Dayton, J.S., Turka, L.A., Thompson, C.B., Mitchell, B.S. Comparison of the effects of mizoribine with those of azathioprine, 6-mercaptopurine, and mycophenolic acid on T lymphocyte proliferation and purine ribonucleotide metabolism. Mol Pharmacol 1992, 41: 671-6.
68. Turka, L.A., Dayton, J., Sinclair, G., Thompson, C.B., Mitchell, B.S. Guanine ribonucleotide depletion inhibits T cell activation. Mechanism of action of the immunosuppressive drug mizoribine. J Clin Invest 1991, 87: 940-8.
69. Morris, R.E. New small molecule immuno-suppressants for transplantation: Review of essential concepts. J Heart Lung Transplant 1993, 12(6, part 2): S275-86.
70. European Mycophenolate Mofetil Cooperative Study Group. Placebo-controlled study of mycophenolate mofetil combined with cyclosporin and corticosteroids for prevention of acute rejection. Lancet 1995, 345: 1321-5.
71. Deierhoi, M.H., Kauffinan, R.S., Hudson, S.L. et al. Experience with mycophenolate mefetil (RS-61443) in renal transplantation at a single center. Ann Surg 1993, 217(5): 476-84.
72. Sollinger, H.W., Belzer, F.O., Deierhoi, M.H. et al. RS-61443 (mycophenolate mofetil): A multicenter study for refractory kidney transplant rejection. Ann Surg 1992, 216(4): 513-8.
73. Sollinger, H.W. for the U.S. Renal Transplant Mycophenolate Mofetil Study Group. Mycophenolate mofetil for the prevention of acute rejection in primary cadaveric renal allograft recipients. Transplantation 1995, 60(3): 225-32.
74. Tricontinental Mycophenolate Mofetil Renal Transplantation Study Group. A blinded, randomized clinical trial of mycophenolate mofetil for the prevention of acute rejection in cadaveric renal transplantation. Transplantation 1996, 61(7): 1029-37.
75. Yee, G.C., Mcguire, T.R. Pharmacokinetic drug interactions with cyclosporine (part I). Clin Pharmacokinet 1990, 19(5): 319-32.
76. Yee, G.C., Mcguire, T.R. Pharmacokinetic drug interactions with cyclosporine (part II). Clin Pharmacokinet 1990, 19(5): 400-15.
77. Lake, K.D. Management of drug interactions with cyclosporine. Pharmacotherapy 1991, 11(5): 110S-8S.
78. Yee, G.C. Recent advances in cyclosporine pharmacokinetics. Pharmacotherapy 1991, 11(5): 130S-4S.
79. Yee, G.C., Salomon, D.R. Cyclosporine, applied pharmacokinetics. In: Principles of Therapeutic Drug Monitoring. Evans, W.E., Schentag, J.J., Jusko, W.J., Vancover, W. (Eds.). Applied Therapeutics: Vancover, WA 1992, Chap. 28: 1-40.
80. Kahan, B.D., Welsh, M., Schoenberg, L. et al. Variable oral absorption of cyclosporine. A biopharmaceutical risk factor for chronic renal allograft rejection. Transplantation 1996, 62(5): 599-606.
81. Hemming, A.W., Greig, P.D., Cattral, M.S. et al. A microemulsion of cyclosporine without intravenous cyclosporine in liver transplantation. Transplantation 1996, 62(12): 1798-802.
82. Noble, S., Markham, A. Cyclosporin - A review of the pharmacokinetic properties, clinical efficacy and tolerability of a microemulsion-based formulation (Neoral). Drugs 1995, 50(5): 924-41.
83. Takasugi, M., Takasugi, J.K., Barba, L. Monitoring changes in cyclosporine dosage by trough level testing. Clin Transplant 1995, 9: 98-105.
84. Kunz, J., Hall, M.N. Cyclosporin A, FK-506 and rapamycin: More than just immunosuppression. Trends Biochem Sci 1993, 18(9): 334-8.
85. Andersson, J., Nagy, S., Groth, C.G., Andersson, U. Effects of FK-506 and cyclosporine A on cytokine production studied in vitro at a single-cell level. Immunology 1992, 75(1): 136-42.
86. Russell, R.G.G., Graveley, R., Coxon, F. et al. Cyclosporin A: Mode of action and effects on bone and joint tissues. Scand J Rheumatol 1992; 21(Suppl. 95): 9-18.
87. Wiederrecht, G., Lam, E., Hung, S., Martin, M., Sigal, N. The mechanism of action of FK-506 and cyclosporin A. Ann NY Acad Sci 1993, 696: 9-19.
88. Schreiber, S.L. Chemistry and biology of the immunophilins and their immunosuppressive ligands. Science 1991, 251: 283-7.
89. Clipstone, N.A., Crabtree, G.R. Calcineurin is a key signaling enzyme in T lymphocyte activation and the target of the immunosuppressive drugs. Ann NY Acad Sci 1993, 696: 20-30.
90. Myers, B.D., Ross, J., Newton, L., Luetscher, J., Perlroth, M. Cyclosporine-associated chronic nephropathy. New Engl J Med 1984, 311: 699-705.
91. Perico, N., Remuzzi, G. Cyclosporine-induced renal dysfunction in experimental animals and humans. Transplant Rev 1991, 5: 63-80.
92. Kahan, B.D. Cyclosporine. New Engl J Med 1989, 321: 1725-38.
93. Woo, J. Therapeutic monitoring of cyclosporine. Ann Clin Lab Sci 1994, 24(1): 60-8.
94. Dumont, F.J., Staruch, M.J., Koprak, S.L. et al. The immunosuppressive and toxic effects of FK-506 are mechanistically related: Pharmacology of a novel antagonist of FK-506 and rapamycin. J Exp Med 1992, 176: 751-60.
95. Sigal, N.H., Dumont, F., Durette, P. et al. Is cyclophilin involved in the immunosuppressive and nephrotoxic mechanism of action of cyclosporin A? J Exp Med 1991, 172: 619-28.
96. Serino, F., Grevel, J., Napoli, K.L., Kahan, B.D., Strobel, H.W. Generation of oxygen free radicals during the metabolism of cyclosporine A: A cause-effect relationship with metabolism inhibition. Mol Cell Biochem 1993, 122: 101-12.
97. Walker, P.D., Lazzaro, V.A., Duggin, G.G., Horvat, J.S., Tiller, D.J. Evidence that alteration in renal metabolism and lipid peroxidation may contribute to nephrotoxicity. Transplantation 1990, 50: 487-92.
98. Myers, B.D., Ross, J., Newton, L., Luetscher, J., Perlroth, M. Cyclosporine associated chronic nephropathy. New Engl J Med 1984, 311: 699-705.
99. Myers, B.D., Newton, L., Boshkos, C. Chronic injury of human renal microvessels with low-dose cyclosporine therapy. Transplantation 1988, 46: 694-703.
100. Young, E.W., Ellis, C.N., Messana, J.M. A prospective study of renal structure and function in psoriasis patients treated with cyclosporine. Kidney Int 1994, 46: 1216-22.
101. Zachariae, H., Hansen, H.E., Kragballe, K., Olsen, S. Morphologic renal changes during cyclosporine treatment of psoriasis. J Am Acad Dermatol 1992, 26: 415-9.
102. Mihatsch, M.J., Antonovych, T., Bohman, S.O. et al. Cyclosporin A nephropathy: Standardization of the evaluation of kidney biopsies Clin Nephrol 1994, 41: 23-32.
103. Bennett, W.M. The nephrotoxicity of immuno- suppressive drugs. Clin Nephrol 1995, 43(Suppl. 1):S3-7.
104. Shulman, H., Striker, G., Deeg, J.H., Kennedy, M., Storb, R., Thomas, E.D. Nephrotoxicity of cyclosporine A after allogenic marrow transplantation: Glomerular thrombosis and tubular injury. New Engl J Med 1981, 305: 1392-5.
105. Giroux, L., Smeesters, C., Corman, J. et al. Hemolytic uremic syndrome in renal allografted patients treated with cyclosporin. Can J Physiol Pharmacol 1987, 65: 1125-31.
106. Curtiss, J.J. Hypertension and kidney transplantation. Am J Kidney Dis 1986, 7: 181-96.
107. Bennett, W.M., Burdmann, E.A., Andoh, T.F., Houghton, D.C., Lindsley, J., Elzinga, L.W. Nephrotoxicity of immunosuppressive drugs Nephrol Dial Transplant 1994, 9: 141-5.
108. Textor, S.C., Wiesner, R., Wilson, D.J. et al. Systemic and renal hemodynamic differences between FK-506 and cyclosporine in liver transplant recipients. Transplantation 1993, 55: 1332-9.
109. Barros, E.J.G., Boim, M.A., Ajzen, H., Ramos, O.L., Schor, N. Glomerular hemodynamics and hormonal participation on cyclosporine nephrotoxicity. Kidney Int 1985, 32: 19-25.
110. Bantle, J.P., Paller, M.S., Bourdreau, R.M., Olivari, M.T., Ferris, T.F. Long-term effects of cyclosporine on renal function in organ transplant recipients. J Lab Clin Med 1990, 115: 233-40.
111. Peters, D.H., Fitton, A., Plosker, G.L., Faulds, D. Tacrolimus: A review of its pharmacology, and therapeutic potential in hepatic and renal transplantation. Drugs 1993, 46(4): 746-94.
112. Beysens, A.J., Wijnen, R.M.H., Beuman, G.H., van der Heyden, J., Kootstra, G., van As, H. FK-506: Monitoring in plasma or in whole blood? Transplant Proc 1991, 23(6): 2745-7.
113. Jusko, W.J., D'Ambrosio, R. Monitoring FK-506 concentrations in plasma and whole blood. Transplant Proc 1991, 23(6): 2732-5.
114. Warty, V.S., Venkataramanan, R., Zendehrouh, P. et al. Practical aspects of FK-506 analysis (Pittsburgh experience). Transplant Proc 1991, 23(6): 2730-1.
115. Venkataramanan, R., Jain, A., Warty, V.S. et al. Pharmacokinetics of FK-506 in transplant patients. Transplant Proc 1991, 23(6): 2736-40.
116. Henderson, D.J., Naya, I., Bundick, R.V. Comparison of the effects of FK-506. cyclosporine A and rapamycin on IL-2 production. Immunology 1991, 73: 316-21.
117. Harding, M.W., Galat, A., Uehling, D.E., Schreiber, S.L. A receptor for the immunosuppressant FK-506 is a cis-trans peptidyl-prolylisomerase. Nature 1989, 341(6244): 758-60.
118. Sehgal, S.N., Bansbach, C.C. Rapamycin: In vitro profile of a new immunosuppressive macrolide. Ann NY Acad Sci 1993, 685: 58-67.
119. Bierer, B.E., Mattila, P.S., Standaert, R.F. et al. Two distinct signal transmission pathways in T lymphocytes are inhibited by complexes formed between an immunophilin and either FK506 or rapamycin. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1990, 87(23): 9231-5.
120. Parsons, W.H., Sigal, N.H., Wyvratt, M.J. FK-506 - A novel immunosuppressant. Ann NY Acad Sci 1993, 685: 22-36.
121. Sigal, N.H., Dumont, F.J. Cyclosporin A. FK-506, and rapamycin: Pharmacologic probes of lymphocyte signal transduction. Annu Rev Immunol 1992, 10: 519-60.
122. Benigni, A., Morigi, M., Perico, N. et al. The acute effect of FK506 and cyclosporine on endothelial cell function and renal vascular resistance. Transplantation 1992, 54(5): 775-80.
123. Connolly, J.O., Gane, E., Higgins, R.M. et al. Renal arteriopathy associated with FK-506 therapy following liver transplantation. Nephrol Dial Transplant 1994, 9: 834-6.
124. Randhawa, P.S., Shapiro, R., Jordan, M.L., Starzl, T.E., Demetris, A.J. The histopathological changes associated with allograft rejection and drug toxicity in renal transplant recipients maintained on FK506. Am J Surg Pathol 1993, 17: 60-8.
125. Nalesnik, M.A., Lai, H.S., Murase, N., Todo, S., Starzl, T.E. The effect of FK506 and CyA on the Lewis rat renal ischemia model. Transplant Proc 1990, 22: 87-9.
126. Takeda, Y., Yoneda, T., Ito, Y., Miyamori, I., Takeda, R. Stimulation of endothelin mRNA and secretion in human endothelial cells by FK506. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 1992, 22(Suppl. 8): S310-2.
127. Fung, J.J., Alessiani, M., Abu-Elmagd, K. et al. Adverse effects associated with the use of FK-506. Transplant Proc 1991, 23(6): 3105-8.
128. Forsythe, J.L.R. ATG - A polyclonal sledge- hammer? Trans Immunol 1994, 2: 148-52.
129. Sommer, B.G., Henry, M., Ferguson, R.M. Sequential antilymphoblast globulin and cyclosporine for renal transplantation. Transplantation 1987, 43: 85-90.
130. Kohler, G., Milstein, C. Continuous cultures of fused cells secreting antibody of predefined Specificity. Nature 1975, 256: 495.
131. Chang, T.W., Kung, P.C., Gingras, S.P., Goldstein, G. Does OKT3 monoclonal antibody react with an antigen-recognition structure on human T cells? Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1981, 78: 1805-8.
132. Ortho Multicenter Transplant Study Group. A randomized clinical trial of OKT3 monoclonal antibody for acute rejection of cadaveric renal transplants. New Engl J Med 1985, 313(6): 337-42.
133. de Mattos, A.M., Norman, D.J. OKT3 for treatment of rejection in renal transplantation. Clin Transplant 1993, 7: 374-81.
134. Schroeder, T.J., Michael, A.T., First, M.R. et al. Variations in serum OKT3 concentration based upon age, sex, transplanted organ, treatment regimen, and anti-OKT3 antibody status. Ther Drug Monit 1994, 16: 361-7.
135. Sutherland, F.R., Aboujaoude, M., White, M.I. et al. Mechanisms of rejection during OKT3 therapy: Propagation and characterization of CD3 resistant allospecific cytotoxic T cells from a rejecting liver allograft. Clin Immunol Immunopathol 1991, 60: 40-54.
136. Roitt, I.M. OKT3: Immunology, production, purification, and pharmacokinetics. Clin Transplant 1993, 7: 367-73.
137. Goldstein, G., Fuccello, A.J., Norman, D.J., Shield, C.F. III, Colvin, R.B., Cosimi, A.B. OKT3 monoclonal antibody plasma levels during therapy and the subsequent development of host antibodies to OKT3. Transplantation 1986, 42(5): 507-16.
138. Alloway, R., Kotb, M., Hathaway, D., Ohman, M., Strain, S., Gaber, A.O. The pharmacokinetic profile of standard and low-dose OKT3 induction immunosuppression in renal transplant recipients. Transplantation 1994, 58(2): 249-53.
139. Sancho, J., Silverman, L.B., Castigh, E. et al. Developmental regulation of transmembrane signaling via the T cell antigen receptor/CD3 complex in human T lymphocytes. J Immunol 1992, 148(5): 1315-21.
140. Weiss, A. T cell antigen receptor signal trans- duction: A tale of tails and cytoplasmic protein-tyrosine kinases. Cell 1993, 73: 209-12.
141. Krammer, G.M., Kurrasch, R., Scillian, J.J. Capping of the surface OKT3 binding molecule prevents the T-cell proliferative response to antigens: Evidence that this molecule conveys the activation signal. Cell Immunol 1984, 87: 284-94.
142. Rinnooy, K.E.A., Wright, S.D., Welte, K., Wang, C.Y. Fc receptors on monocytes cause OKT3-treated lymphocytes to internalize T3 and to secrete IL-2. Cell Immunol 1986, 98: 181.
143. Landegren, U., Andersson, J., Wigzell, H. Mechanism of T lymphocyte activation by OKT3 antibodies: A general model for T cell induction. Eur J Immunol 1984, 14: 325-8.
144. Landegren, U., Ramstedt, U., Axberg, I., Ullberg, M., Jondal, M., Wigzell, H. Selective inhibition of human T cell cytotoxicity at levels of target recognition or initiation of lysis by monoclonal OKT3 and Leu-2a antibodies. Eur J Immunol 1984, 14(4): 325-8.
145. Henell, K.R., Bakke, A., Kenny, T.A., Kimball, J.A., Barry, J.M., Norman, D.J. Degree of modulation of cell-surface CD3 by anti-lymphocyte therapies. Transplant Proc 1991, 23(1): 1070-1.
146. Bonnefoy-Berard, N., Revillard, J.-P. Mechanisms of immunosuppression induced by antithymocyte globulins and OKT3. J Heart Lung Transplant 1996, 15(5): 435-42.
147. Abramowicz, D., Schandene, L., Goldman, M. et al. Release of tumor necrosis factor, interleukin-2 and gamma-interferon in serum after injection of OKT3 monoclonal antibody in kidney transplant recipients. Transplantation 1989, 47: 606-8.
148. Chatenoud, L., Legendre, C., Ferran, C., Bach, J.-F., Kreis, H. Corticosteroid inhibition of the OKT3-induced cytokine-related syndrome - Dosage and kinetics prerequisites. Transplantation 1991, 51: 334-8.
149. Goldman, M., Abramowicz, D., De Pauw, L. et al. OKT3-induced cytokine release: Attenuation by high-dose methylprednisolone. Lancet 1989, 2: 802-3.
150. Costanzo-Nordin, M.R. Cardiopulmonary effects of OKT3: Determinants of hypotension, pulmonary edema and cardiac dysfunction. Transplant Proc 1993, 25(2): 21-4.
151. Bemelman, F.J., Parlevliet, K.J., Schellekens, P.T., Surachno, S., van Royen, E.A., ten Berge, R.J. Sequestration of labelled granulocytes in the lungs following administration of OKT3 is dose-dependent. Trans Immunol 1994, 2(1): 47-51.
152. Norman, D.J., Kimball, J.A., Bennett, W.M. et al. A prospective, double-blind, randomized study of high versus low-dose OKT3 induction immunosuppression in cadaveric renal transplantation. Transplant Int 1994, 7(5): 356-61.
153. Batiuk, T., Bennett, W.M., Meyer, M., Norman, D.J. Cytokine nephropathy during antilymphocyte therapy. Transplant Proc 1993, 25(2): 27-30.
154. Chan, G.L., Weinstein, S.S., Wright, C.E. et al. Encephalopathy associated with OKT3 administration: Possible interaction with indomethacin. Transplantation 1991, 52(1): 148-50.
155. Shihab, F., Barry, J.M., Norman, D.J. Encephalopathy following the use of OKT3 in renal allograft transplantation. Transplant Proc 1993, 25(2): 31-4.
156. Thistlethwaite, J.R. Jr., Stuart, J.X., Mayes, J.T. et al. Complications and monitoring of OKT3 therapy. Am J Kidney Dis 1988, 11: 112-9.
157. Norman, D.J. The clinical role of OKT3. Immunol Allergy Clin N Am 1989, 9(1): 95-107.
158. Parlevliet, K.J., Schellekens, P.T.A. Monoclonal antibodies in renal transplantation: A review. Transplant Int 1992, 5: 234-46.
159. Cosimi, A.B., Colvin, R.B., Burton, R.C. et al. Use of monoclonal antibodies to T cell subsets for immunologic monitoring and treatment in recipients of renal allografts. New Engl J Med 1981, 305(6): 308-14.
160. Opelz, G. Efficacy of rejection prophylaxis with OKT3 in renal transplantation. Transplantation 1995, 60(11): 1220-4.
161. Benedetti, E., Freels, S.A., Coady, N.T., Vasquez, E.M., Pollak, R. The impact of quadruple immunosuppression with OKT3 on kidney transplantation in black recipients. Am J Surg 1996, 172:56-60.
162. Odum, J., Woodroffe, A.J., Bannister, K.M., Clarkson, A.R. Use of OKT3 and cyclosporin A to treat idiopathic focal segmental glomerulosclerosis. Clin Nephrol 1993, 39(4): 230.
163. Atgam package insert. Upjohn 1993.
164. Raefsky, E.L., Gascon, P., Gratwohl, A., Speck, B., Young, N.S. Biological and immunological characterization of ATG and ALG. Blood 1986, 68(3): 712-9.
165. Shenton, B.K., White, M.D., Bell, A.-E. et al. The paradox of ATG monitoring in renal transplantation. Transplant Proc 1994, 26: 3177-80.
166. Cole, E.H., Cattran, D.C., Farewell, V.T. et al. A comparison of rabbit antithymocyte serum and OKT3 as prophylaxis against renal allograft rejection. Transplantation 1994, 57: 60-7.
167. Hanto, D.W., Jendrisak, M.D., So, S.K.S. et al. Induction immunosuppression with antilymphocyte globulin or OKT3 in cadaver kidney transplantation. Transplantation 1994, 57: 377-84.
168. MacDonald, P., Mundy, J., Keogh, A., Chang, V.P., Spratt, P. A prospective randomized study of prophylatic OKT3 versus equine antithymocyte globulin after heart transplantation - Increased morbidity with OKT3. Transplantation 1993, 55: 110-6.
169. Pascual, M., Rubin, R.H., Cosimi, A.B. Minimizing the toxicity of antilymphocyte antibody therapy. Transplant Proc 1996, 28(4): 2113-4.
170. Malinow, L., Walker, J., Klassen, D. et al. Antilymphocyte induction immunosuppression in the post-Minnesota antilymphocyte globulin era: Incidence of renal dysfunction and delayed graft function. A single center experience. Clin Trans 1996, 10: 237-42.