Invertebrates in testing of environmental chemicals: Are they alternatives?

Environmental Health Perspectives

Volumn 106, Issue SUPPL. 2, 1998, Pages 593-611

  Lagadic, Laurent ^a   Caquet, Thierry ^b  

^a CEMAGREF   (France)

^b UNIVERSITÉ PARIS SACLAY   (France)

Author keywords

Alternative methods; Bioassay; Carcinogenicity; Developmental toxicity; Ecotoxicology; Genotoxicity; Impact assessment; Invertebrate; Risk assessment; Toxicology

Indexed keywords

ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMICAL;

ANIMAL EXPERIMENT; ANIMAL MODEL; BIOASSAY; CARCINOGENICITY; CONFERENCE PAPER; DIAGNOSTIC VALUE; ECOTOXICOLOGY; ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT; GENOTOXICITY; INVERTEBRATE; METHODOLOGY; NONHUMAN; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RISK ASSESSMENT; TOXICITY TESTING;

ANIMALIA; INVERTEBRATA; VERTEBRATA;

EID: 0031804663     PISSN: 00916765     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1289/ehp.98106593     Document Type: Conference Paper

References (353)

1. Russell WMS, Burch RL. The Principle of Humane Experimental Technique. London:Methuen, 1959.
2. Rowan AN, Goldberg AM. Perspectives on alternatives to current animal testing techniques in preclinical toxicology. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol 25:225-247 (1985).
3. Gad SC. Alternatives to in vivo studies in toxicology. In: General and Applied Toxicology. Abridged Ed (Ballantyne B, Marrs T, Turner P, eds). London:MacMillan, 1995;169-196.
4. National Research Council. Committee on the Use of Laboratory Animals in Biomedical and Behavioral Research. Commission on Life Sciences. Use of Laboratory Animals in Biomedical and Behavioral Research. Washington:National Academy Press, 1988.
5. Clay R. Global agreement on alternative testing. Environ Health Perspect 104:612-614 (1996).
6. Cooper JF. Principles and applications of the Limulus test for pyrogen in parenteral drugs. Bull Parent Drug Assoc 3:122-130 (1975).
7. Zbinden G. Alternatives to animal experimentation: developing in-vitro methods and changing legislation. Trends Pharmacol Sci 11:104-107 (1990).
8. National Academy of Sciences. Risk Assessment in the Federal Government: Managing the Process. Washington:National Academy Press, 1983.
9. Fan A, Howd R, Davis B. Risk assessment of environmental chemicals. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol 35:341-368 (1995).
10. Vanhaecke P, Persoone G. The ARC test: a standardized short-term routine toxicity test with Anemia nauplii. Methodology and evaluation. In: Ecotoxicological Testing for the Marine Environment. Vol 2 (Persoone G, Jaspers E, Claus C, eds). Bredene, Belgium:State University of Ghent and Institute for Marine Scientific Research, 1984;143-157.
11. Snell TW, Persoone G. Acute toxicity bioassays using rotifers. I: A test for brackish and marine environments with Brachionus plicatilis. Aquat Toxicol 14:65-80 (1989).
12. Snell TW, Persoone G. Acute toxicity bioassays using rotifers. II: A freshwater test with Brachionus rubens. Aquat Toxicol 14:81-92 (1989).
13. Centeno MD, Brendonck L, Persoone G. Cyst-based toxicity tests. III: Development and standardisation of an acute toxicity test with the freshwater anostracan crustacean Streptocephalus proboscideus. In: Progress in Standardization of Aquatic Toxicity Tests (Soares AMVM, Calow P, eds). Boca Raton, FL:Lewis Publishers, 1993;37-55.
14. Persoone G, Jansen CR. Freshwater invertebrate toxicity tests. In: Handbook of Ecotoxicology. Vol 1 (Calow P, ed). Oxford:Backwell Scientific, 1993;51-65.
15. Adema DMM. Daphnia magna as a test animal in acute and chronic toxicity tests. Hydrobiologia 59:125-134 (1978).
16. Baudo R. Ecotoxicological testing with Daphnia. In: Daphnia (Peters RH, De Bernardi R, eds). Mem 1st Ital Idrobiol 45:461-482 (1987).
17. Baird DJ, Barber I, Bradley M, Calow P, Scares AMVM. The Daphnia bio assay: a critique. Hydrobiologia 188/189:403-406 (1989).
18. Devonshire AL, Field LM. Gene amplification and insecticide resistance. Annu Rev Entomol 36:1-23 (1991).
19. Raymond M, Callaghan A, Fort P, Pasteur N. Worldwide migration of amplified insecticide resistance genes in mosquitoes. Nature 350:151-153 (1991).
20. Morton RA. Evolution of Drosophila insecticide resistance. Genome 36:1-7 (1993).
21. Chevillon C, Pasteur N, Marquine M, Heyse N, Raymond M. Population structure and dynamics of selected genes in the mosquito Culex pipiens. Evolution 49:997-1007 (1995).
22. Pasteur N, Marquine M, Rousset F, Failloux AB, Chevillon C, Raymond M. The role of passive migration in the dispersal of resistance genes in Culex pipiens quinquefasciatus within French Polynesia. Genet Res 66:139-146 (1995).
23. Steinberg CEW, Geyer HJ, Kettrup AAF. Evaluation of xenobiotic effects by ecological techniques. Chemosphere 28:357-374 (1994).
24. Luoma SN, Ho KT. Appropriate uses of marine and estuarine sediment bioassays. In: Handbook of Ecotoxicology. Vol 1 (Calow P, ed). Oxford:Blackwell Scientific, 1993;193-226.
25. Reynoldson TB, Day KE. Freshwater sediments. In: Handbook of Ecotoxicology. Vol 1 (Calow P, ed). Oxford:Blackwell Scientific, 1993;83-100.
26. Burton GA Jr, MacPherson C. Sediment toxicity testing issues and methods. In: Handbook of Ecotoxicology (Hoffman DJ, Rattner BA, Burton GA Jr, Cairns J Jr, eds). Boca Raton, FL:Lewis, 1995;70-103.
27. Ingersoll CG. Sediment tests. In: Fundamentals of Aquatic Toxicology. 2nd ed. Washington:Taylor & Francis, 1995;231-255.
28. Ingersoll CG, Ankely GT, Benoit DA, Brunson EL, Burton GA, Dwyer FJ, Hoke RA, Landrum PF, Norberg-King TJ, Winger PV. Toxicity and bioaccumulation of sediment-associated contaminants using freshwater invertebrates: a review of methods and applications. Environ Toxicol Chem 14:1885-1894 (1995).
29. Schlekat CE, Scott KJ, Swartz RC, Albrecht B, Antrim L, Doe K, Douglas S, Ferretti JA, Hansen DJ, Moore DW et al. Interlaboratory comparison of a 10-day sediment toxicity test method using Ampelisca abdita, Eohaustorius estuarius and Leptocheirus plumulosus. Environ Toxicol Chem 14:2163-2174 (1995).
30. Steingraeber MT, Wiener JG. Bioassessment of contaminant transport and distribution in aquatic ecosystems by chemical analysis of burrowing mayflies (Hexagenia). Regul Rivers Res Manage 11:201-209 (1995).
31. Burton GA Jr, Norberg-King TJ, Ingersoll CG, Benoit DA, Ankley GT, Winger PV, Kubitz J, Lazorchak JM, Smith ME, Greer E et al. Interlaboratory study of precision: Hyalella azteca and Chironomus tentans freshwater sediment toxicity assays. Environ Toxicol Chem 15:1335-1343 (1996).
32. OECD. Guideline for Testing of Chemicals 207, Earthworm, Acute Toxicity Tests. Paris:Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, 1984.
33. ASTM. Standard Guide for Conducting Static Acute Toxicity Tests Starting with Embryos of Four Species of Saltwater Bivalve Molluscs. Method E724-89. Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Water and Environmental Technology. Vol 11.04. Philadelphia:American Society for Testing and Materials, 1992.
34. ASTM. Standard Guide for Conducting Sediment Toxicity Tests with Freshwater Invertebrates. Method E1383-90. Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Water and Environmental Technology. Vol 11.04. Philadelphia:American Society for Testing and Materials, 1992.
35. ISO. Soil Quality - Effects of Pollutants on Earthworms (Eisenia fetida) - Part 1: Determination of Acute Toxicity Using Artificial Soil Substrate. ISO 11268-1. Geneva:International Standardization Organization, 1993.
36. ISO. Soil Quality - Effects of Pollutants on Earthworms (Eisenia fetida) - Part 2: Determination of Effects on Reproduction. ISO/DIS 11268-2. Geneva:International Standardization Organization, 1993.
37. Hill IR, Matthiessen P, Heimbach F. Guidance Document on Sediment Toxicity Tests and Bioassays for Freshwater and Marine Environments. Brussels:SETAC Europe, 1993.
38. U.S. EPA. Methods for Measuring the Toxicity and Bioaccumulation of Sediment-associated Contaminants with Freshwater Invertebrates. EPA/600/R-94/024. Washington:U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, 1994.
39. U.S. EPA. Whole Sediment Acute Toxicity Invertebrates, Freshwater. Ecological Effects Test Guidelines. OPPTS 850.1735 (Draft). Washington:U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1996.
40. U.S. EPA. Whole Sediment Acute Toxicity Invertebrates, Marine. Ecological Effects Test Guidelines. OPPTS 850.1740 (Draft). Washington:U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1996.
41. U.S. EPA. Chironomid Sediment Toxicity Test. Ecological Effects Test Guidelines. OPPTS 850.1790 (Draft). Washington:U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1996.
42. Calleja MC, Persoone G, Geladi P. Human acute toxicity prediction of the first 50 MEIC chemicals by a battery of ecotoxicological tests and physicochemical properties. Food Chem Toxicol 32:173-187 (1994).
43. Neuhauser E, Durkin P, Malecki M, Antara M. Comparative toxicity of ten organic chemicals to four earthworm species. Comp Biochem Physiol 83C:197-200 (1985).
44. Neuhauser E, Loehr C, Malecki M, Milligan D, Durkin P. The toxicity of selected organic chemicals to the earthworm Eisenia fetida. J Environ Qual 14:383-388 (1985).
45. Roberts R, Dorough H. Hazards of chemicals to earthworms. Environ Toxicol Chem 4:307-323 (1985).
46. Neuhauser E, Loehr C, Malecki M. Contact and artificial soil tests using earthworms to evaluate the impact of wastes in soil. In: Hazardous and Industrial Solid Waste Testing: Fourth Symposium (Petros J, Lacy W, Conway RC, eds). ASTM STP 886. Philadelphia:American Society for Testing and Materials, 1986;192-202.
47. Abrahamson S, Lewis EB. The detection of mutations in Drosophila melanogaster. In: Chemical Mutagens. Principles and Methods of their Detection. Vol 2 (Hollaender A, ed). New York:Plenum Press, 1971;461-488.
48. Bournias-Vardiabasis N. Drosophila melanogaster embryo cultures: an in vitro teratogen assay. Altern Lab Anim 18:291-300 (1990).
49. Bournias-Vardiabasis N, Teplitz RL, Chernoff GF, Seecof RL. Detection of teratogens in the Drosophila embryonic cell culture test: assay of 100 chemicals. Teratology 28:109-122 (1983).
50. Schuler RL, Radike MA, Hardin BD, Niemeier RW. Pattern of response of intact Drosophila to known teratogens. J Am Coll Toxicol 4:291-303 (1985).
51. Johnson EM, Gorman RM, Gabel BEG, George ME. The Hydra attenuata system for detection of teratogenic hazards. Teratog Carcinog Mutagen 2:263-276 (1982).
52. Johnson EM, Gabel BEG. An artificial 'embryo' for detection of abnormal developmental biology. Fundam Appl Toxicol 3:243-249 (1983).
53. Johnson EM, Newman LM, Gable BEG, Boerner TF, Dansky LA. An analysis of Hydra Assay's applicability and reliability as a developmental toxicity prescreen. J Am Coll Toxicol 7:111-125 (1988).
54. Zhane RW, Newman LM, Johnson EM. Comparison of in vitro developmental toxicity hazard-potential detection assays in hydra: regeneration versus reaggregation [Abstract]. J Am Coll Toxicol 9:649 (1990).
55. Fu L-J, Staples RE, Stahl RG Jr. Assessing acute toxicities of pre- and post-treatment industrial wastewaters with Hydra attenuata: a comparative study of acute toxicity with the fat-head minnow, Pimephales promelas. Environ Toxicol Chem 13:563-569 (1994).
56. Christian MS. Is there any place for nonmammalian in-vitro tests? Reprod Toxicol 7(Suppl 1):99-102 (1993).
57. Best JB, Morita M, Ragin J, Best J Jr. Acute toxicity responses of the freshwater planarian, Dugesia dorotocephala, to methylmercury. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol 27:49-54 (1981).
58. Best JB, Morita M. Planarians as a model system for in vitro teratogenesis studies. Teratog Carcinog Mutagen 2:277-291 (1982).
59. Newman LM, Johnson EM, Giacobbe RL, Fu LJ. Developmental toxicity evaluation of several cosmetic ingredients in the hydra assay [Abstract]. Teratology 41:582 (1990).
60. Newman LM, Johnson EM, Giacobbe RL, Fu LJ. The in vitro activation of cyclophosphamide in the hydra developmental toxicology assay. Fundam Appl Toxicol 15:488-499 (1990).
61. Newman LM, Johnson EM, Paulson R, Ly T, Giacobbe RL. In vitro developmental toxicity screening of a complex mixture with the hydra assay: smokeless tobacco [Abstract]. Teratology 41:582 (1990).
62. Durston A, Van de Wiel F, Mummery C, De Loat S. Dictyostelium discoideum as a test system for screening for teratogens [Abstract]. Teratology 32:21 (1985).
63. Kotzin BL, Baker RF. Selective inhibition of genetic transcription in sea urchin embryos. J Cell Biol 55:74-81 (1972).
64. Walton BT. Use of the cricket embryo (Acheta domesticus) as an invertebrate teratology model. Fundam Appl Toxicol 3:233-236 (1983).
65. Kerster HW, Schaeffer DJ. Brine shrimp (Anemia salina) nauplia as a teratogen test system. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 7:342-349 (1983).
66. Sleet RB, Brendel K. Homogenous populations of Anemia nauplii and their potential use for in vitro testing in developmental toxicology. Teratog Carcinog Mutagen 5:41-54 (1985).
67. Graf U, Würgler FE, Katz AJ, Frei H, Juon H, Hall CB, Kale PG. Somatic mutation and recombination test in Drosophila melanogaster. Environ Mutagen 6:153-188 (1984).
68. Batiste-Alentorn M, Xamena N, Creus A, Marcos R. Genotoxic evaluation of ten carcinogens in the Drosophilia melanogaster wing spot test. Experientia 51:73-76 (1995).
69. Lee WR, Abrahamson S, Valencia R, von Halle ES, Würgler FE, Zimmering S. The sex-linked recessive lethal test for mutagenesis in Drosophila melanogaster. a report of the United States Environmental Protection Agency Gene-Tox program. Mutat Res 123:183-279 (1983).
70. Valencia R, Mason JM, Woodruff RC, Zimmering S. Chemical mutagenesis testing in Drosophila. 3: Results of 48 coded compounds tested for the National Toxicology Program. Environ Mutagen 7:325-348 (1985).
71. Vogel EW. Evaluation of potential mammalian genotoxins using Drosophila: the need for a change in test strategy. Mutagenesis 2:161-171 (1987).
72. Knaap AGAC, Kramers PGN, Voogd CE, Berkamp WGM, Groot MG, Langenbroek PG, Mout HCA, van der Steel JJ, Verharen HW. Mutagenic activity of acrylamide in eukaryotic systems but not in bacteria. Mutagenesis 3:263-268 (1988).
73. Negishi T, Shiotani T, Funjikawa K, Hayatsu H. The genotoxicities of n-nitrosamines in Drosophila melanogaster in vivo: the correlation of mutagenicity in the wing spot test with the DNA damages detected by the DNA-repair test. Mutat Res 252:119-128 (1991).
74. Tripathy NK, Würgler FE, Frei H. Genetic toxicity of 6 carcinogens and 6 noncarcinogens in the Drosophila wing spot-test. Mutat Res 242:169-180 (1990).
75. Tripathy NK, Patnaik KK, Nabi MDJ. Acrylamide is genotoxic to me somatic and germ-cells of Drosophila melanogaster. Mutat Res 259:21-27 (1991).
76. Vogel EW, Nivard MJM, Zijlstra JA. Variation of spontaneous and induced mitotic recombination in different Drosophila populations. A pilot study on the effects of polyaromatic hydrocarbons in 6 newly constructed tester strains. Mutat Res 250:291-298 (1991).
77. Aquirrezabalaga I, Santamaria I, Comendador MA. The w/w+ SMART is a useful tool for the evaluation of pesticides. Mutagenesis 9:341-346 (1994).
78. Frölich A, Würgler FE. Drosophila wing-spot test improved detectability of genotoxicity of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Mutat Res 234:71-80 (1990).
79. Michailova P, Belcheva R. Different effect of lead on external morphology and polytene chromosomes of Glyptotendipes barbipes (Staeger) (Diptera: Chironomidae). Folia Biol (Cracow) 38:83-88 (1990).
80. Aziz JB, Akrawi NM, Nassori GA. The effect of chronic toxicity of copper on the activity of Balbiani rings and nucleolar organizing region in the salivary gland chromosomes of Cmronomus ninevah larvae. Environ Pollut 69:125-130 (1991).
81. Bentivegna CS, Cooper KR. Reduced chromosomal puffing in Chironomus tentans as a biomarker for potentially genotoxic substances. Environ Toxicol Chem 12:1001-1011 (1993).
82. Hudson LA, Ciborowski JJH. Teratogenic and genotoxic responses of larval Chironomus salinarius group (Diptera: Chironomidae) to contaminated sediment. Environ Toxicol Chem 15:1375-1381 (1996).
83. Burgeot T, His E, Galgani F. The micronucleus assay in Crassostrea gigas for the detection of seawater genotoxicity. Mutat Res 342:125-40 (1995).
84. Singh NP, McCoy MT, Tice RR, Schneider EL. A simple technique for quantitation of low levels of DNA damage in individual cells. Exp Cell Res 175:184-191 (1988).
85. Verschaeve L, Gilles J. Single cell gel electrophoresis assay in the earthworm for the detection of genotoxic compounds in soils. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol 54:112-119 (1995).
86. Mitchelmore CL, Birmelin C, Goldfarb PS, Livingstone DR, Chipman JK. The detection of DNA strand breaks in digestive gland cells of Mytilus edulis using the 'comet assay.' Abstracts of the Fourth European Conference on Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, SECOTOX 96, 25 -28 August 1996, Metz, France. Metz, France:Centre des Sciences de l'Environnement, 1996;181.
87. Narahashi T, Anderson NC. Mechanism of excitation block by the insecticide allethrin applied externally and internally to squid giant axon. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 10:529-547 (1967).
88. Narahashi T. Mode of action of pyrethroids. Bull World Health Org 44:337-345 (1971).
89. Wang CM, Narahashi T, Scuka M. Mechanism of negative temperature coefficient of nerve blocking action of allethrin. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 182:442-453 (1972).
90. Lund AE, Narahashi T. Kinetics of sodium channel modification by the insecticide tetramethrin in squid axon membranes. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 219:464-473 (1981).
91. De Weille JR, Vijverberg HPM, Narahashi T. Sodium depletion in the periaxonal space of the squid axon treated with pyrethroids. Brain Res 386:169-174 (1986).
92. De Weille JR, Vijverberg HPM, Narahashi T. Interactions of pyrethroids and octylguanidine with sodium channels of squid giant axons. Brain Res 445:1-11 (1988).
93. Murayama K, Abbott NJ, Narahashi T, Shapiro BI. Effects of allethrin and Condylactis toxin on kinetics of sodium conductance of crayfish axon membranes. Comp Gen Pharmacol 3:391-400 (1972).
94. Lund AE, Narahashi T. Modification of sodium channel kinetics by the insecticide tetramethrin in crayfish giant axons. Neurotoxicology 2:213-229 (1981).
95. Chalmers AE, Osborne MP. The crayfish stretch receptor organ: a useful model system for investigating the effects of neuroactive substances. I: The effect of DDT and pyrethroids. Pestic Biochem Physiol 26:128-138 (1986).
96. Chalmers AE, Osborne MP. The crayfish stretch receptor organ: a useful model system for investigating the effects of neuroactive substances. II: A pharmacological investigation of pyrethroid mode of action. Pestic Biochem Physiol 26:139-149 (1986).
97. Omatsu M, Murayama K, Kitasato H, Nishimura K, Fujita T. Effect of substituted benzyl chrysanthemates on sodium and potassium currents in the crayfish giant axon. Pestic Biochem Physiol 30:125-135 (1988).
98. Nishimura K, Omatsu M, Murayama K, Kitasato H, Fujita T. Neurophysiological effects of the pyrethroid insecticides bioresmethrin and kadethrin on crayfish giant axons. Comp Biochem Physiol 93C:149-154 (1989).
99. Kiss T. Properties of Na channels of identified snail (Helix pomatia L.) neurones modified by deltamethrin. Pestic Biochem Physiol 32:247-252 (1988).
100. Kiss T. Effect of deltamethrin on transient outward currents in identified snail neurons. Comp Biochem Physiol 91C:337-341 (1988).
101. Narahashi T. Effect of the insecticide allethrin on membrane potentials of cockroach giant axons. J Cell Comp Physiol 59:61-65 (1962).
102. Narahashi T. Nature of the negative after-potential increased by the insecticide allethrin in cockroach giant axons. J Cell Comp Physiol 59:67-76 (1962).
103. Burt PE, Goodchild RE. The site of action of pyrethrin I in the nervous system of the cockroach Periplaneta americana. Entomol Exp Appl 14:179-189 (1971).
104. Laufer S, Roche M, Pelhate M, Elliott M, Janes NF, Sattelle DB. Pyrethroid insecticides: action of deltamethrin and related compounds on insect axonal sodium channels. J Insect Physiol 30:341-349 (1984).
105. Laufer J, Pelhate M, Sattelle DB. Actions of pyrethroid insecticides on insect axonal sodium channels. Neuropharmacology and pesticide action. Pestic Sci 16:651-661 (1985).
106. + channels of insect and mammalian neuronal cells. Pestic Biochem Physiol 24:306-316 (1985).
107. Hue B, Mony L. Actions of deltamethrin and tralomethrin on cholinergic synaptic transmission in the central nervous system of the cockroach (Periplaneta americana). Comp Biochem Physiol 86C:349-352 (1987).
108. Leake LD, Dean JA, Ford MG. Pyrethroids and cellular activity in invertebrate neurones. In: Neuropharmacology and Pesticide Action (Ford MG, Lunt GG, Reay RC, Usherwood PNR, eds). Berlin:Springer, Ellis Horwood Books in Health Science, 1986;244-266.
109. Pinnock RD, Sattelle DB. Dissociation and maintenance in vitro of neurones from adult cockroach (Periplaneta americana) and housefly (Musca domestica). J Neurosci Meth 20:195-202 (1987).
110. Beadle DJ. Insect neuronal cultures as models in insecticide studies. Outlook Agric 17:65-70 (1988).
111. Leake LD. Use of an identified neurone in pesticide research. Comp Biochem Physiol 93A:63-68 (1989).
112. Boncinelli E, Somma R, Acampora D, Pannese M, D'Esposito M, Faiella A, Simeone A. Organization of human homeobox genes. Hum Reprod 3:880-886 (1988).
113. McGinnis N, Kuziora MA, McGinnis W. Human Hox4.2 and Drosophila Deformed encode similar regulatory specificities in Drosophila embryos and larvae. Cell 63:969-976 (1990).
114. Blumberg B, Wrights CVE, De Robertis EM, Cho KWY. Organizer-specific homeobox genes in Xenopus laevis embryos. Science 253:194-196 (1991).
115. McGinnis W, Krumlauf R. Homeobox genes and axial patterning. Cell 68:283-302 (1992).
116. Scott M. Vertebrate homeobox gene nomenclature. Cell 71:551-553 (1992).
117. Francis BM. Toxic Substances in the Environment. New York:John Wiley & Sons, 1993.
118. Mix MC. Cancerous diseases in aquatic animals and their association with environmental pollutants: a critical literature review. Mar Environ Res 20:1-141 (1986).
119. Mix MC. Shellfish diseases in relation to toxic chemicals. Aquat Toxicol 11:29-42 (1988).
120. Fung VA, Barrett JC, Huff J. The carcinogenesis bioassay in perspective: application in identifying human cancer hazards. Environ Health Perspect 103:680-683 (1995).
121. Bertram JS, Kolonel LN, Meyskens FL Jr. Rationale and strategies for chemoprevention of cancer in humans. Cancer Res 47:3012-3031 (1987).
122. Boyd JA, Barrett JC. Genetic and cellular basis of multistep carcinogenesis. Pharmacol Therap 46:469-486 (1990).
123. Barrett JC, Wiseman RW. Molecular carcinogenesis in human and rodents. Prog Clin Biol Res 376:1-30 (1992).
124. Lijinsky W. Species differences in carcinogenesis. In Vivo 7:65-72 (1993).
125. Shaw IC, Jones HB. Mechanisms of non-genotoxic carcinogenesis. Trends Pharmacol Sci 15:89-93 (1994).
126. Welling W, Paterson GD. Toxicodynamics of insecticides. In: Comprehensive Insect Physiology, Biochemistry and Pharmacology (Kerkut GA, Gilbert LI, eds). Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1985;603-645.
127. Ford MG. The dynamic basis of selective toxicity. In: Molecular Basis of Drug and Pesticide Action (Lunt GG, ed). Amsterdam:Elsevier Science, BV (Biomedical Division), 1988:509-527.
128. Brealey CJ. Pharmacokinetics of insecticides in insects. In: Molecular Basis of Drug and Pesticide Action (Lunt GG, ed). Amsterdam:Elsevier Science, BV (Biomedical Division), 1988;529-541.
129. Gillette JR. Problems in extrapolations from animals to man. In: Xenobiotic Metabolism and Disposition (Kato R, Estabrook RW, Cayen MN, eds). London:Taylor & Francis, 1989;209-216.
130. Blancato JN. Pharmacokinetics, chemical interactions, and toxicological risk assessment in perspective. Environ Health Perspect 102(Suppl 9):133-137 (1994).
131. Holden JS. Absorption and metabolism of permethrin and cypermetirin in the cockroach and the cotton leafworm larvae. Pestic Sci 10:295-307 (1979).
132. Chang CK, Jordan TW. Penetration and metabolism of topically applied permethrin and cypermethrin in pyrethroid-tolerant Wiseana cervinata larvae. Pestic Biochem Physiol 17:196-204 (1982).
133. 14C-trans-cypermethrin in a resistant and a susceptible strain of Heliothis virescens. Proceedings of the Brighton Crop Protection Conference Pests and Diseases. Brighton, England, 21-24 November 1988. Surrey, U.K.:British Crop Protection Council, 1988;427-432.
134. Little EJ, McCaffery AR, Walker CH, Parker T. Evidence for an enhanced metabolism of cypermethrin by a monooxygenase in a pyrethroid-resistant strain of the tobacco budworm (Heliothis virescens F.). Pestic Biochem Physiol 34:58-68 (1989).
135. Noppun V, Saito T, Miyata T. Cuticular penetration of S-fenvalerate in fenvalerate-resistant and susceptible strains of the diamondback moth, Plutella xylostella (L.). Pestic Biochem Physiol 33:83-87 (1989).
136. 14C)cyfluthrin in susceptible and pyrethroid-resistant larvae. Pestic Biochem Physiol 45:105-115 (1993).
137. Casida JE, Gammon DK, Glickman AH, Lawrence LL. Mechanisms of selective action of pyrethroid insecticides. Annu Rev Entomol 23:413-438 (1983).
138. Sattelle DB, Yamamoto D. Molecular targets of pyrethroid insecticides. Adv Insect Physiol 20:147-213 (1988).
139. Bradbury SP, Coats JR. Comparative toxicology of the pyrethroid insecticides. Rev Environ Toxicol 108:133-177 (1989).
140. Soderlund DM, Bloomquist JR. Neurotoxic actions of pyrethroid insecticides. Annu Rev Entomol 34:77-96 (1989).
141. Lundholm E. Thinning of eggshells in birds by DDE: mode of action on the eggshell gland. Comp Biochem Physiol 8801-22 (1987).
142. Machado J, Coimbra J, Castilho F, Sa C. Effects of diflubenzuron shell formation of the freshwater clam Anodonta cygnea. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 19:35-39 (1990).
143. Jakoby WB. Detoxication enzymes. In: Enzymatic Basis of Detoxication (Jakoby WB ed). London:Academic Press, 1980;1-6.
144. Walker CH. Species variation in some hepatic microsomal enzymes that metabolize xenobiotics. Prog Drug Metab 5:113-164 (1980).
145. Nelson DR, Koymans L, Kamataki T, Stegeman JJ, Feyereisen R, Waxman DJ, Waterman MR, Gotoh O, Coon MJ, Estabrook RW et al. P450 superfamily: update on new sequences, gene mapping, accession numbers and nomenclature. Pharmacogenetics 6:1-42 (1996).
146. Livingstone DR. Organic xenobiotic metabolism in marine invertebrates. In: Advances in Comparative and Environmental Physiology (Gilles R, ed). Berlin:Springer-Verlag, 1991;45-185.
147. Mullin CJ, Scott JG, eds. Molecular Basis of Insecticide Resistance: Diversity Among Insects. American Chemical Society Symposium Ser 505. Washington:American Chemical Society, 1992.
148. Feyereisen R, Koener JF, Farnsworth DE, Nebert DW. Isolation and sequence of a cDNA encoding a cytochrome P450 from an insecticide-resistant strain of the house fly, Musca domestica. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 86:1465-1469 (1989).
149. Berenbaum MR, Cohen MB, Schuler MA. Cytochrome P450 monooxygenase genes in oligophagous lepidoptera. In: Molecular Basis of Insecticide Resistance: Diversity Among Insects (Mullin CJ, Scott JG, eds). American Chemical Society Symposium Ser 505. Washington:American Chemical Society, 1992;114-124.
150. Cariño F, Koener JF, Plapp FW Jr, Feyereisen R. Expression of the cytochrome P450 gene CYP6A1 in the house fly, Musca domestica. In: Molecular Basis of Insecticide Resistance: Diversity Among Insects (Mullin CJ, Scott JG, eds). American Chemical Society Symposium Ser 505. Washington:American Chemical Society, 1992;31-40.
151. Cariño F, Koener JF, Plapp FW Jr, Feyereisen R. Constitutive overexpression of the cytochrome P450 gene CYP6A1 in a house fly strain with metabolic resistance to insecticides. Insect Biochem Mol Biol 24:411-418 (1994).
152. Waters LC, Zelhof AC, Shaw BJ, Ch'ang LY. Possible involvement of the long terminal repeat of transposable element 17.6 in regulating expression of an insecticide resistance-associated P450 gene in Drosophila. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 89:4855-4859 (1992).
153. Cohen MB, Feyereisen R. A cluster of cytochrome P450 genes of the CYP6 family in the housefly. DNA Cell Biol 14:73-82 (1995).
154. Hung CF, Harrison TL, Berenbaum MR, Schuler MA. CYP6B3, a second furanocoumarin-inducible cytochrome P450 expressed in Papilio polyxenes. Insect Biochem Mol Biol 25:149-160 (1995).
155. Maitra S, Dombrowski SM, Waters LC, Ganguly R. Isolation and characterization of new family genes and their expression in insecticide resistant and susceptible strains of Drosophila melanogaster. Abstracts of the 3rd Symposium on Cytochrome P450 Biodiversity, 8-12 October 1995, Woods Hole, MA. 1995;II-4.
156. Tomita T, Scott JG. cDNA and deduced protein sequence of CYP6D1: the putative gene for a cytochrome P450 responsible for pyrethroid resistance in house fly. Insect Biochem Mol Biol 25:275-283 (1995).
157. Xiao-Ping W, Hobbs AA. Isolation and sequence analysis of a cDNA clone for a pyrethroid inducible cytochrome P450 from Helicoverpa armigera. Insect Biochem Mol Biol 25:1001-1009 (1995).
158. lpr in House flies. Arch Insect Biochem Physiol 31:313-323 (1996).
159. Hodgson E, Rose RL, Thompson DM, Goh KS, Zhao G, Roe RM. Expression of cytochrome P450 in insects. Abstracts of the 9th International Conference on Cytochrome P450: Biochemistry, Biophysics and Molecular Biology, 23-27 July 1995, Zurich. 1995;259.
160. Dunkov B, Rodrigaiz-Arnaiz R, Pittendrigh B, ffrenchConstant RH, Feyereisen R. Cytochrome P450 gene clusters in Drosophila melanogaster. Mol Gen Genet 251:290-297 (1996).
161. Bradfield JY, Lee YH, Keeley LL. Cytochrome P450 family 4 in a cockroach: molecular cloning and regulation by hypertrehalosemic hormone. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 88:4558-4562 (1991).
162. Amichot M, Brun A, Cuany A, Helvig C, Salaün JP, Durst F, Bergé JB. Expression study of CYP genes in Drosophila strains resistant or sensitive to insecticides. In: Cytochrome P-450 (Lechner MC, ed). Paris:John Libbey Eurotext, 1994;689-692.
163. Amichot M, Brun A, Cuany A, De Sousa G, Le Mouël T, Bride JM, Babault M, Salaün JP, Rahmani R, Bergé JB. Variations of microsomal activities in insecticide susceptible or resistant Drosophila strains using drugs and various xenobiotics as inducers and several diagnostic substrates. Comp Biochem Physiol (in press).
164. Brun A, Cuany A, Le Moël T, Bergé JB, Amichot M. Inducibility of the Drosophiia melanogaster cytochrome P450 gene, CYP6A2, by phenobarbital in insecticide susceptible and resistant strains. Insect Biochem Molec Biol 26:697-703 (1996).
165. Depledge MH. The rational basis for detection of the early effects of marine pollutants using physiological indicators. Ambio 18:301-302 (1989).
166. Van Straalen NM. Biodiversity of ecotoxicological responses in animals. Neth J Zool 44:112-129 (1994).
167. Barton DR. Some problems affecting the assessment of Great Lakes water quality using benthic invertebrates. J Great Lakes Res 15:611-622 (1989).
168. Metcalfe JL. Biological water quality assessement of running waters based on macroinvertebrate communities: history and present status in Europe. Environ Pollut 60:101-139 (1989).
169. Hopkin SP. In situ biological monitoring of pollution in terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. In: Handbook of Eco toxicology. Vol 1 (Calow P, ed). Oxford:Blackwell Scientific, 1993;397-427.
170. Phillips DJH, Rainbow PS. Biomonitoring of Trace Aquatic Contaminants. Barking, U.K.:Elsevier Science, 1993.
171. Wilson JG. The role of bioindicators in estuarine management. Estuaries 17:94-101 (1994).
172. Resh VH, Norris RH, Barbour MT. Design and implementation of rapid assessment approaches for water resource monitoring using benthic macroinvertebrates. Aust J Ecol 20:108-121 (1995).
173. Verdonschot PFM. Typology of macrofaunal assemblages: a tool for the management of running waters in The Netherlands. Hydrobiologia 297:99-122 (1995).
174. Resh VH, Myers MJ, Hannaford MJ. Macroinvertebrates as biotic indicators of environmental quality. In: Methods in Stream Ecology (Hauer FR, Lamberti GA, eds). San Diego, CA:Academic Press, 1996;647-667.
175. Buck WB. Animals as monitors of environmental quality. Vet Hum Tox 21:277-284 (1979).
176. Lower WR, Kendall RJ. Sentinel species and sentinel bioassay. In: Biomarkers of Environmental Contamination (McCarthy JF, Shugart LR, eds). Boca Raton, FL:Lewis, 1990;309-331.
177. Sheffield SR, Kendall RJ. Unpublished data.
178. Sheehy MRJ, Greenwood JG, Fielder DR. More accurate chronological age determination of crustaceans from field situations using the physiological age marker, lipofuscin. Mar Biol 122:237-245 (1994).
179. Wahle RA, Tully O, O'Donovan V. Lipofuscin as an indicator of age in crustaceans: analysis of the pigment in the American lobster Homarus americanus. Mar Ecol Progr Ser 138:117-123 (1996).
180. McCuaig JM, Green RH. Unionid growth curves derived from annual rings: a baseline model for Long Point Bay, Lake Erie. Can J Fish Aquat Sci 40:436-442 (1983).
181. Ma W. Heavy metal accumulation in the mole, Talpa europea, and earthworms as an indicator of metal bioavailability in terrestrial environments. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol 39:933-938 (1987).
182. Finley KA. Observations of bluegills fed selenium-contaminated Hexagenia nymphs collected from Belews Lake, North Carolina. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol 35:816-825 (1985).
183. Jensen S, Johnels AG, Olsson M, Otterlind G. DDT and PCB in herring and cod from the Baltic, the Kattegat and the Skagerrak. Ambio Spec Rep 1:71-85 (1972).
184. Bignert A, Göthberg A, Jensen S, Litzen K, Odsjö T, Olsson M, Reutergårdh L. The need for adequate biological sampling in ecotoxicological investigations: a retrospective study of twenty years pollution monitoring. Sci Total Environ 128:121-139 (1993).
185. Goldberg ED, Bowen VT, Farrington JW, Harvey G, Martin JH, Parker PL, Risebrough RW, Robertson W, Schneider E, Gamble E. The Mussel watch. Environ Conserv 5:101-125 (1978).
186. Goldberg ED, Koide M, Hodeg V, Flegal AR, Marytin J. U.S. Mussel watch: 1977-1978 results on trace metals and radionucleides. Estuar Coastal Shelf Sci 16:69-93 (1983).
187. Bayne BL. Measuring the biological effects of pollution: the Mussel Watch approach. Water Sci Tech 21:1089-1100 (1989).
188. Cossa D. Cadmium in Mytilus spp.: worldwide survey and relationship between seawater and mussel content. Mar Environ Res 26:265-284 (1988).
189. Cossa D. A review of the use of Mytilus spp. as quantitative indicators of cadmium and mercury contamination in coastal waters. Oceanol Acta 12:417-432 (1989).
190. Sericano JL, Wade TL, Jackson TJ, Brooks JM, Tripp BW, Farrington JW, Mee LD, Readmann JW, Villeneuve J-P, Goldberg ED. Trace organic contamination in the Americas: an overview of the U.S. National Status and Trends and the international 'Mussel Watch' programmes. Mar Pollut Bull 31:214-225 (1995).
191. Huet M, Paulet YM, Glémarec M. Triburyltin (TBT) pollution in the coastal waters of West Britanny as indicated by imposex in Nucella lapillus. Mar Environ Res 41:157-167 (1996).
192. Bryan GW, Gibbs PE, Hummerstone LG, Burt GR. The decline of the gastropod Nucella lapillus around South-West England: evidence for the effect of tributyltin from antifouling paints. J Mar Biol Assoc UK 66:611-640 (1986).
193. Langston WJ, Bryan GW, Burt GR, Gibbs PE. Assessing the impact of tin and TBT in estuaries and coastal regions. Funct Ecol 4:433-443 (1990).
194. Spence SK, Bryan GW, Gibbs PE, Masters D, Morris L, Hawkins SJ. Effects of TBT contamination on Nucella populations. Funct Ecol 4:425-432 (1990).
195. Foale S. An evaluation of the potential of gastropod imposex as a bioindicator of tributyltin pollution in Port Phillip Bay, Victoria. Mar Pollut Bull 26:546-552 (1993).
196. Hawkins SJ, Proud SV, Spence SK, Southward AJ. From the individual to the community and beyond: water quality, stress indicators and key species in coastal systems. In: Water Quality and Stress Indicators in Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems: Linking Levels of Organisation (Individuals, Populations, Communities) (Sutcliffe DW, ed). Ambleside, U.K.:Freshwater Biological Association, 1994;35-62.
197. Bauer B, Fioroni P, Ide I, Liebe S, Oehlmann J, Stroben E, Watermann B. TBT effects on the female genital system of Littorina littorea: a possible indicator of tributyltin pollution. Hydrobiologia 309:15-27 (1995).
198. Huet M, Fioroni P, Oehlmann J, Stroben E. Comparison of imposex response in three Prosobranch species. Hydrobiologia 309:29-35 (1995).
199. Stroben E, Schulte-Oehlmann U, Fioroni P, Oehlmann J. A comparative method for easy assessment of coastal TBT pollution by the degree of imposex in Prosobranch species. Haliotis 24:1-12 (1995).
200. Oehlmann J, Stroben E, Schulte-Oehlmann U, Bauer B, Fioroni P, Markert B. Tributyltin biomonitoring using Prosobranchs as sentinel organisms. Fresenius J Anal Chem 354:540-545 (1996).
201. Kurelec B, Garg A, Krča S, Gupta RC. DNA adducts in marine mussels Mytilus galloprovincialis living in polluted and unpolluted environments. In: Biomarkers of Environmental Contamination (McCarthy JF, Shugart LR, eds). Boca Raton, FL: Lewis, 1990;217-227.
202. Brattsten LB. Potential of plant allelochemicals in the development of insecticide resistance. In: Novel Aspects of Insect-Plant Interactions (Barbosa P, Letourneau DK, eds). New York:John Wiley & Sons, 1988:313-348.
203. Thorp JH, Cothran ML. Regulation of freshwater community structure at multiple intensities of dragonfly predation. Ecology 65:1546-1555 (1984).
204. Johansson F. Intraguild predation and cannibalism in odonate larvae: effects of foraging behaviour and Zooplankton availability. Oikos 66:80-87 (1993).
205. Cairns J Jr, McCormick PV, Niederlehner BR. A proposed framework for developing indicators of ecosystem health. Hydrobiologia 263:1-44 (1993).
206. Sheehan PJ. Effects on individuals and populations. In: Effects of Pollutants at the Ecosystem Level (Sneehan PJ, Miller DR, Butler GC, Bourdeau PH, eds). New York:John Wiley & Sons, 1984;23-50.
207. Cantelmo CA, Lazell RJ, Mantel LH. The effects of benzene on molting and limb regeneration in juvenile Callinectes sapidus Rathbun. Mar Biol Lett 2:333-343 (1981).
208. Drobne D, Strus J. Moult frequency of the isopod Porcellio scaber, as a measure of zinc-contaminated food. Environ Toxicol Chem 15:126-130 (1996).
209. Warwick WF. Morphological deformities in Chironomidae (Diptera) larvae as biological indicators of toxic stress. In: Toxic Contaminants and Ecosystem Health: A Great Lakes Focus (Evans MS, ed). New York:John Wiley & Sons, 1988;281-320.
210. Dickman M, Brindle I, Benson M. Evidence of teratogens in sediments of the Niagara River watershed as reflected by chironomid (Diptera: Chironomidae) deformities. J Great Lakes Res 115:467-480 (1992).
211. Hamilton AC, Saether OA. The occurrence of characteristic deformities in the chironomid larvae of several Canadian lakes. Can Entomol 103:363-368 (1971).
212. Hare L, Carter JCH. The distribution of Chironomus (s.s.? culicini salinarius group) larvae (Diptera: Chironomidae) in Parry Sound, Georgian Bay, with particular reference to structural deformities. Can J Zool 65:2129-2134 (1976).
213. Warwick WF, Fitchko J, McKee PM, Hart DR, Burt AJ. The incidence of deformities in the Chironomus spp. from Port Harbour, Lake Ontario. J Great Lakes Res 13:88-92 (1987).
214. Warwick WF, Tisdale NA. Morphological deformities in Chironomus, and Proctadius larvae (Diptera: Chironomidae) from two differentially stressed sites in Tobin Lake, Saskatchewan. Can J Fish Aquat Sci 45:123-144 (1988).
215. Warwick WF. Morphological deformities in Chironomids (Diptera) larvae from the Lac St. Louis and Laprairie basins of the St. Lawrence River. J Great Lakes Res 16:185-208 (1990).
216. Dermott RM. Deformities in larval Prodadius spp. and dominant Chironomini from the St. Clair River. Hydrobiologia 219:171-185 (1991).
217. Diggins TP, Stewart KM. Deformities of aquatic larval midges (Chironomidae: Diptera) in the sediments of the Buffalo River, New York. J Great Lakes Res 19:648-659 (1993).
218. Bird GA. Use of chironomid deformities to assess environmental degradation in the Tamska Rive, Quebec. Environ Monit Assess 30:163-175 (1994).
219. Bird GA, Rosentreter MJ, Schwartz WJ. Deformities in the menta of chironomid larvae from the Experimental Lakes Area, Ontario. Can J Fish Aquat Sci 52:2290-2295 (1995).
220. Wiederlohm T. Use of benthos in lake monitoring. J Water Pollut Control Fed 52:537-547.
221. Beyer WN, Storm G. Ecotoxicological damage from zinc smelting at Palmerton, Pennsylvania. In: Handbook of Ecotoxicology (Huffman DJ, Rattner BA, Burton GA Jr, Cairns J Jr, eds). Boot Raton, FL:Lewis, 1995;596-608.
222. Eisler R. Electroplating wastes in marine environments: a case history at Quonset Point, Rhode Island. In: Handbook of Ecotoxicology (Huffman DJ, Rattner BA, Burton GA Jr, Cairns J Jr, eds). Boca Raton, FL:Lewis, 1995;539-548.
223. Pitt RE. Effects of urban runoff on aquatic biota. In: Handbook of Ecotoxicology (Huffman DJ, Rattner BA, Burton GA Jr, Cairns J Jr, eds). Boca Raton, FL:Lewis, 1995;609-630.
224. Ferraro SP, Cole FA, DeBen WA, Swartz RC. Power-cost efficiency of eight macrobenthic sampling schemes in Puget Sound, Washington, USA. Can J Fish Aq Sci 46:2157-2165 (1989).
225. Lobel PB, Bajdik CD, Belkhode SP, Jackson SE, Longerich HP. Improved protocol for collecting Mussel Watch specimens taking into account sex, size, condition, shell shape, and chronological age. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 21:409-414 (1991).
226. Hinton DE, Baumann PC, Gardner GR, Hawkins WE, Hendricks JD, Murchelano RA, Okihiro MS. Histopathologic biomarkers. In: Biomarkers. Biochemical, Physiological, and Histological Markers of Anthropogenic Stress (Huggett RJ, Kimerle RA, Mehrle PM Jr, Bergman HL, eds). Boca Raton, FL:Lewis, 1992;155-209.
227. Mayer FL, Versteeg DJ, McKee MJ, Folmar LC, Graney RL, McCume DC, Rattner BA. Physiological and nonspecific biomarkers. In: Biomarkers. Biochemical, Physiological, and Histological Markers of Anthropogenic Stress (Huggett RJ, Kimerle RA, Mehrle PM Jr, Bergman HL, eds). Boca Raton, FL:Lewis, 1992;5-85.
228. Stegeman JJ, Brouwer M, Di Giulio RT, Förlin L, Fowler BA, Sanders BM, Van Veld PA. Molecular responses to environmental contamination: enzyme and protein systems as indicators of chemical exposure and effect. In: Biomarkers. Biochemical, Physiological, and Histological Markers of Anthropogenic Stress (Huggett RJ, Kimerle RA, Mehrle PM Jr, Bergman HL, eds). Boca Raton, FL:Lewis, 1992;235-335.
229. Depledge MH. New approaches in ecotoxicology: can inter-individual physiological variability be used as a tool to investigate pollution effect? Ambio 19:251-252 (1990).
230. Warwick RM, Clarke KR. Increased variability as a symptom of stress in marine communities. J Exp Mar Biol Ecol 172:215-226 (1993).
231. Forbes VE, Depledge MH. Environmental stress and the distribution of traits within populations. In: ECOtoxicology: Ecological Dimensions (Baird DJ, Maltby L, Greig-Smith PW, Douben PET, eds). Londom:Chapman & Hall, 1996;71-86.
232. Pasteur N, Georghiou GP. Improved filter paper test for detecting and quantifying increased esterase activity in organophosphate-resistant mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae). J Econ Entomol 82:347-353 (1989).
233. Dary O, Georghiou GP, Parsons E, Pasteur N. Microplate adaptation of Gomori's assay for quantitative determination of general esterase activity in single insects. J Econ Entomol 83:2187-2192 (1990).
234. Dary O, Georghiou GP, Parsons E, Pasteur N. Dot-blot test for identification of insecticide-resistant acetylcholinesterase in single insects. J Econ Entomol 84:28-33 (1991).
235. Coles JA, Parley SR, Pipe RK. Alteration of the immune response of the common marine mussel Mytilus edulis resulting from exposure to cadmium. Dis Aquat Org 22:59-65 (1995).
236. De Sousa G, Cuany A, Amichot M, Rahmani G, Bergé JB. A fluorometric method for measuring ECOD activity on individual abdomen of Drosophila melanogaster. application to the study on resistance of insects to insecticides. Anal Biochem 229:86-91 (1995).
237. Pipe RK, Coles JA, Thomas ME, Fossato VU, Pulsford AL. Evidence for environmentally derived immunomodulation in mussels from the Venice Lagoon. Aquat Toxicol 32:59-73 (1995).
238. Lobel PB, Belkhode SP, Jackson SE, Longerich HP. Recent taxonomic discoveries concerning the mussel Mytilus: implications for biomonitoring. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 19:508-512 (1990).
239. Cummins KW. Trophic relations of aquatic insects. Annu Rev Entomol 18:183-206 (1973).
240. Cummins KW. Structure and function of stream ecosystems. Bioscience 24:631-641 (1974).
241. Faith DP, Benthic macroinvertebrates in biological surveillance: Monte Carlo significance tests on functional group's response to environmental gradients. Environ Monit Assess 14:247-264 (1990).
242. Palmer CG, Maart B, Palmer AR, O'Keeffe JH. An assessment of macroinvertebrate functional feeding groups as water quality indicators in the Buffalo River, eastern Cape Province, South Africa. Hydrobiologia 318:153-164 (1996).
243. Herman PMJ, Help C. On the use of meiofauna in ecological monitoring: who needs taxonomy? Mar Pollut Bull 19:665-668 (1988).
244. Warwick RM. The level of taxonomic discrimination required to detect pollution effects on marine benthic communities. Mar Pollut Bull 19:259-268 (1988).
245. Warwick RM. Environmental impact studies on marine communities: pragmatical considerations. Aust J Ecol 18:63-80 (1993).
246. Saether OA. Chironomid communities as water quality indicators. Holarct Ecol 12:65-74 (1979).
247. Hill IR, Runnalls JK, Kennedy JH, Ekoniak P. Lambdacyhalothrin: a mesocosm study of its effects on aquatic organisms. In: Aquatic Mesocosms Studies in Ecological Risk Assessment (Graney RL, Kennedy JH, Rodgers JH Jr, eds). Boca Raton, FL:Lewis, 1994;403-467.
248. Johnson PC, Kennedy JH, Gregg Morris R, Hambleton FE. Fate and effects of cyfluthrin (pyrethroid insecticide) in pond mesocosms and concrete microcosms. In: Aquatic Mesocosms Studies in Ecological Risk Assessment (Graney RL, Kennedy JH, Rodgers JH Jr, eds). Boca Raton, FL:Lewis, 1994;337-371.
249. Kennedy JH, Johnson ZB, Johnson PC. Sampling and analysis strategy for biological effects in freshwater field tests. In: Freshwater Field Tests for Hazard Assessment of Chemicals (Hill IR, Heimbach F, Leeuwangh P, Matthiessen P, eds). Boca Raton, FL:Lewis, 1994;159-181.
250. Ferraro SP, Cole FA. Taxonomic level and sample size sufficient for assessing pollution impacts on the Southern California Bight macrobenthos. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 67:251-262 (1990).
251. Ferraro SP, Cole FA. Taxonomic level sufficient for assessing a moderate impact on macrobenthic communities in Puget Sound, Washington, USA. Can J Fish Aquat Sci 49:1184-1188 (1992).
252. Morrisey DJ. Environmental impact assessment - A review of its aims and recent developments. Mar Pollut Bull 26:540-545 (1993).
253. Depledge MH, Amaral-Mendes JJ, Daniel B, Halbrook RS, Kloepper-Sams P, Moore MN, Peakall DB. The conceptual basis of the biomarker approach. In: Bio markers. Research and Application in the Assessment of Environmental Health (Peakall DB, Shugart LR, eds). NATO Advanced Science Institutes Ser. Vol H 68. Berlin:Springer Verlag, 1993;15-29.
254. Roush RT, Daly JC. The role of population genetics in resistance research and management. In: Pesticide Resistance in Arthropods (Roush RT, Tabashnik BE, eds). London:Chapman and Hall, 1990;97-152.
255. Roush RT, McKenzie JA. Ecological genetics of insecticide and acaricide resistance. Ann Rev Entomol 32:361-380 (1987).
256. Devonshire A, Moores GD. A carboxylesterase with a broad substrate specificity causes organophosphorus, carbamate and pyrethroid resistance in peach-potato aphids (Myzus persicae). Pestic Biochem Physiol 18:235-246 (1982).
257. Field LM, Devonshire AL, Forde BG. Molecular evidence that insecticide resistance in peach-potato aphids (Myzus persicae Sulz.) results from amplification of an esterase gene. Biochem J 251:309-312 (1988).
258. Devonshire A, Field LM. Gene amplification and insecticide resistance. Ann Rev Entomol 36:1-23 (1991).
259. Mouchès C, Pasteur N, Bergé JB, Hyrien O, Raymond M, Robert de Saint Vincent R, De Silvestri M, Georghiou GP. Amplification of an esterase gene is responsible for insecticide resistance in a California Culex mosquito. Science 233:778-780 (1986).
260. Fournier D, Bride JM, Mouchès C, Raymond M, Magnin M, Berge JB, Pasteur N, Georghiou GP. Biochemical characterization of the esterases A1 and B1 associated with organophosphate resistance in the Culex pipiens complex. Pestic Biochem Physiol 27:211-217 (1987).
261. Mouchès C, Magnin M, Bergé JB, De Silvestri M, Beyssat V, Pasteur N, Georghiou GP. Overproduction of detoxifying esterases in organophosphate-resistant Culex mosquitoes and their presence in other insects. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 84:2113-2116 (1987).
262. Raymond M, Callaghan A, Fort P, Pasteur N. Worldwide migration of amplified insecticide resistance genes in mosquitoes. Nature 350:151-153 (1991).
263. Qiao CL, Raymond M. The same esterase B1 haplotype is amplified in insecticide resistant mosquitoes of the Culex pipiens complex from the Americas and China. Heredity 74:339-345 (1995).
264. Klerks PL, Weiss JS. Genetic adaptation to heavy metals in aquatic organisms: a review. Environ Pollut 45:173-205 (1987).
265. Posthuma L, Van Straalen NM. Heavy-metal adaptation in terrestrial invertebrates. A review of occurrence, genetics, physiology and ecological consequences. Comp Biochem Physiol 1060:11-38 (1993).
266. Postma JF, van Nugteren P, Buckert-de-Jong MB. Increased cadmium excretion in metal-adapted populations of the midge Chironomus riparius (Diptera). Environ Toxicol Chem 15:332-339 (1996).
267. Chessman BC. Rapid assessment of rivers using macroinvertebrates: a procedure based on habitat-specific sampling, family level identification and a biotic index. Aust J Ecol 20:122-129 (1995).
268. Lenat DR. A biotic index for the southeastern United States: derivation and list of tolerance values, with criteria for assigning water-quality ratings. J N Am Benthol Soc 12:279-290 (1993).
269. Rosenberg DM, Resh VH. Freshwater Biomonitoring and Benthic Macroinvertebrates. New York:Chapman & Hall, 1993.
270. Weeks BA, Anderson DP, DuFour AP, Fairbrother A, Goven AJ, Lahvis GP, Peters G. Immunological biomarkers to assess environmental stress. In: Biomarkers, Biochemical, Physiological, and Histological Markers of Anthropogenic Stress (Huggett RJ, Kimerle RA, Mehrle PM Jr, Bergman HL, eds). Boca Raton, FL:Lewis, 1992;211-335.
271. De Loof A. The impact of the discovery of vertebrate-type steroids and peptide hormone-like substances in insects. Entomol Exp Appl 45:105-113 (1987).
272. Jindra M. Gene regulation by steroid hormones: vertebrates and insects. Eur J Entomol 91:163-187 (1994).
273. Hahn ME, Poland A, Glover E, Stegeman JJ. The Ah receptor in marine animals: phylogenetic distribution and relationship to cytochrome P4501A inducibility. Mar Environ Res 34:87-92 (1992).
274. Hahn ME, Stegeman JJ. Phylogenetic distribution of the Ah receptor in non-mammalian species: implications for dioxin toxicity and Ah receptor evolution. Chemosphere 25:931-937 (1992).
275. Peakall DB. Animal Biomarkers as Pollution Indicators. London:Chapman and Hall, 1992.
276. Alzieu C, Heral M, Thibaud Y, Dardignac MJ, Feuillet M. Influence des peintures antisalissures à base d'organostanniques sur la calcification de la coquille de l'huître Crassostrea gigas, Rev Trav Inst Pêches Marit 45:101-116 (1982).
277. Alzieu C. TBT detrimental effects on oyster culture in France -evolution since antifouling paint regulations. In: Proceedings Oceans '86. Vol 4. Organotin Symposium. New York:IEEE Publishing Services, 1986;1130-1134.
278. Waldock M, Thain JE. The effects of tributyltin antifoulants on oyster culture in the UK [Abstract]. Aquat Toxicol 11:396 (1988).
279. Alzieu C, Sanjuan J, Michel P, Borel M, Dreno JP. Monitoring and assessment of butyltins in Atlantic coastal .waters. Mar Pollut Bull 20:22-26 (1989).
280. Chagot D, Alzieu C, Sanjuan J, Grizel H. Sublethal and histopathological effects of trace levels of tributyltin fluoride in adult oysters Crassostrea gigas. Aquat Living Resour 3:121-130 (1990).
281. Alzieu C. Environmental problems caused by TBT in France: assessment, regulations, prospects. Mar Environ Res 32:7-17 (1991).
282. Bélai I, Matolcsy G, Farnsworth DE, Feyereisen R. Inhibition of insect cytochrome P-450 by some metyrapone analogues and compounds containing a cyclopropylamine moiety and their evaluation as inhibitors of juvenile hormone biosynthesis. Pestic Sci 24:205-219 (1988).
283. Smith SL, Mitchell MJ. Effects of azadirachtin on insect cytochrome P-450 dependent ecdysone 20-monooxygenase activity. Biochem Biophys Res Comm 154:559-563 (1988).
284. Agosin M, Srivatsan J. Role of cytochrome P-450 in the formation of ecdysterone in larval house fly. Comp Biochem Physiol 99:271-274 (1991).
285. Darvas B, Rees HH, Hoggard N, El-Din MHT, Kuwano E, Bélai I, Timar T. Cytochrome P-450 inducers and inhibitors interfering with ecdysone 20-monooxygenases and their activities during postembryonic development of Neobellieria bullata Parker. Pestic Sci 36:135-142 (1992).
286. Grieneisen ML, Warren JT, Gilbert LI. Early steps in ecdysteroid biosynthesis: evidence for the involvement of cytochrome P-450 enzymes. Insect Biochem Molec Biol 23:12-23 (1993).
287. Grieneisen ML. Recent advances in our knowledge of ecdysteroid biosynthesis in insects and crustaceans. Insect Biochem Molec Biol 24:115-132 (1994).
288. Bélai I, Darvas B, Bauer K, Eldin MHT. Effects of anti-ecdysteroid azole analogues of metyrapone on the larval development of the fleshfly, Neobellieria bullata. Pestic Sci 44:225-232 (1995).
289. Warren JT, Rybczynski R, Gilbert LI. Stereospecific, mechanism-based, suicide inhibition of a cytochrome P-450 involved in ecdysteroid biosynthesis in the prothoracic glands of Manduca sexta. Insect Biochem Molec Biol 25:679-695 (1995).
290. Versteeg DJ, Graney RL, Giesy JP. Field utilization of clinical measures for the assessment of xenobiotic stress in aquatic organisms. In: Aquatic Toxicology and Hazard Assessment (Adams WJ, Chapman GA, Landis WG, eds). ASTM STP 971. Philadelphia-American Society for Testing and Materials, 1988;289-306.
291. Giesy JP, Graney RL. Recent developments in and intercomparisons of acute and chronic bioassays. Hydrobiologia 188/189:21-60 (1989).
292. Paine RT. Food web complexity and species diversity. Am Nat 100:65-76 (1966).
293. Adams SM, Crumby WD, Greeley MS Jr, Shugart LR, Saylor CF. Responses offish populations and communities to pulp mill effluents: a holistic assessment. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 24:347-360 (1992).
294. Suter GW II, Donker MH. Parameters for population effects of chemicals. Proceedings of the 2nd European Conference on Ecotoxicology, Amsterdam, May 11-15, 1992. Sci Total Environ (Suppl 1993 Pt 2):1793-1797 (1993).
295. Suter GW II. Endpoints of interest at different levels of biological organization. In: Ecological Toxicity Testing. Scale, Complexity, and Relevance (Cairns J Jr, Niederlehner BR, eds). Boca Raton, FL:Lewis, 1995;35-48.
296. Kareiva P, Stark J, Wennergren U. Using demographic theory, community ecology and spatial models to illuminate ecotoxicology. In: ECOtoxicology: Ecological Dimensions (Baird DJ, Maltby L, Greig-Smith PW, Douben PET, eds). London:Chapman & Hall, 1996;13-23.
297. Southwick CH. The population dynamics of confined house mice supplied with unlimited food. Ecology 36:212-225 (1955).
298. Constantz GD. Reproductive biology of Poeciliid fishes. In: Ecology and Evolution of Livebearing Fishes (Poeciliidae) (Meffe GK, Snelson FF Jr, eds). Englcwood Cliffs, NJ:Prentice Hall, 1989:33-50.
299. Maltby L, Calow P. The application of bioassays in the resolution of environmental problems; past, present and future. Hydrobiologia 188/189:65-76 (1989).
300. Calow P, Silby RM. A physiological basis of population processes: ecotoxicological implications. Funct Ecol 4:283-288 (1990).
301. Depledge MH, Fossi MC. The role of biomarkers in environmental assessment. 2: Invertebrates. Ecotoxicology 3:161-172 (1994).
302. Lagadic L, Caquet T, Ramade F. The role of biomarkers in environmental assessment. 5: Invertebrate populations and communities. Ecotoxicology 3:193-208 (1994).
303. Sommer C. Ecotoxicology and developmental stability as an in situ monitor of adaptation. Ambio 25:274-376 (1996).
304. Drysdale DT, Bortone SA. Laboratory induction of intersexuality in the mosquitofish, Gambusia affinis, using paper mill effluent. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol 432:611-617 (1989).
305. Bergeron JM, Crews D, McLachlan JA. PCBs as environmental estrogens: turtle sex determination as a biomarker of environmental contamination. Environ Health Perspect 102:780-781 (1994).
306. Bortone SA, Davis WP. Fish intersexuality as indicator of environmental stress. Bioscience 44:165-172 (1994).
307. Guillette LJ Jr, Gross TS, Masson GR, Matter JM, Percival HF, Woodward AR. Developmental abnormalities of the gonad and abnormal sex hormone concentrations in juvenile alligators from contaminated and control lakes in Florida. Environ Health Perspect 102:680-688 (1994).
308. McKinney JD, Waller CL. Polychlorinated biphenyls as hormonally active structural analogs. Environ Health Perspect 102:290-297 (1994).
309. Crews D, Bergeron JM, McLachlan JA. The role of estrogen in turtle sex determination and the effects of PCBs. Environ Health Perspect 103:73-77 (1995).
310. Safe SH. Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs): environmental impact, biochemical and toxic responses, and implications for risk assessment. Crit Rev Toxicol 24:87-149 (1994).
311. Kavlock RJ, Daston GP, DeRosa C, Fenner-Crisp P, Earl Gray L, Kaattari S, Lucier G, Luster M, Mac MJ, Maczka C et al. Research needs for the risk assessment of health and environmental effects of endocrine disrupters: a report of the U.S. EPA-sponsored workshop. Environ Health Perspect 104 (Suppl 4):715-740 (1996).
312. LeBlanc GA. Are environmental sentinels signaling? Environ Health Perspect 103:888-890 (1995).
313. Baldwin WS, Milam DL, LeBlanc GA. Physiological and biochemical perturbation in Daphnia magna following exposure to the model environmental estrogen diethylstilbestrol. Environ Toxicol Chem 14:945-952 (1995).
314. Parks LG, LeBlanc GA. Reductions in steroid hormone biotransformation/elimination as a biomarker of pentachlorophenol chronic toxicity. Aquat Toxicol 34:291-303 (1996).
315. Langston WJ. Recent developments in TBT ecotoxicology. Toxicol Ecotox News 3:179-187 (1996).
316. Ruiz JM, Bachelet G, Caumette P, Donard OFX. Three decades of tributyltin in the coastal environment with emphasis on Arcachon Bay, France. Environ Pollut 93:195-203 (1996).
317. Smith BS. Sexuality in the American mud snail, Nassarius obsoletus Say. Proc Malac Soc Lond 39: 377-378 (1971).
318. Ellis DV, Pattisina A. Widespread neogastropod imposex: a biological indicator of global TBT contamination? Mar Pollut Bull 21:248-253 (1990).
319. Oehlmann J, Fioroni P, Stroben E, Markert B. Tributyltin (TBT) effects on Ocinebrina aciculata (Gastropoda: Muricidae): imposex development, sterilization, sex change and population decline. Sci Total Environ 188:205-223 (1996).
320. Gibbs PE, Pascoe PL, Bryan GW. Tributyltin-induced imposex in stenoglossan gastropods: pathological effects on the female reproductive system. Comp Biochem Physiol 100:231-235 (1991).
321. Bettin C, Oehlmann J, Streben E. TBT-lnduced imposex in marine neogastropods is mediated by an increasing androgen level. Helgoländer Meeresunters 50:299-317 (1996).
322. Oehlmann J, Schulte-Oehlmann U, Stroben E, Bauer B, Bettin C, Fioroni P, Markert B. Androgenic effects of organotin compounds in molluscs. In: Endocrinally Active Chemicals in the Environment, UBA-Texte 3/96. Berlin:Umweltbundesamt, 1996;111-118.
323. Evans SM, Hutton A, Kendall MA, Samosir AM. Recovery in populations of dogwhelks Nucella lapillus (L.) suffering from imposex. Mar Pollut Bull 22:331-333 (1991).
324. Maltby L Stress, shredders and streams: using Gammarus energetics to assess water quality. In: Water Quality and Stress Indicators in Marine and Freshwater Systems: Linking Levels of Organisation (Sutcliffe DW, ed). Ambleside, U.K.:Freshwater Biological Association, 1994;98-110.
325. Maltby L, Naylor C. Preliminary observations on the ecological relevance of the Gammarus 'scope for growth' assay: effect of zinc on reproduction. Funct Ecol 4:393-397 (1990).
326. Tattersfield, LJ. Direct and indirect effects of copper on the energy budget of a stream detritivore. Abstracts of the First SETAC World Congress, 28-31 March 1993, Lisbon. Lisbon:SETAC, 1993;88.
327. Maltby L. Pollution as a probe of life-history adaptation in Asellus aquaticus (Isopoda). Oikos 61:11-18 (1991).
328. Daveikis VF, Alikhan MA. Comparative body measurements, fecundity, oxygen uptake, and ammonia excretion in Cambarus robustus (Astactdae, Crustacea) from an acidic and a neutral site in northeastern Ontario, Canada. Can J Zool 74:1196-1203 (1996).
329. Graney RL, Kennedy JH, Rodgers JH Jr, eds. Aquatic Mesocosm Studies in Ecological Risk Assessment. Boca Raton, FL:Lewis, 1994.
330. Cairns J Jr, Niederlehner BR, eds. Ecological Toxicity Testing. Scale, Complexity, and Relevance. Boca Raton, FL:Lewis, 1995.
331. Shaw JL, Kennedy JH. The use of aquatic field mesocosm studies in risk assessment. Environ Toxicol Chem 15:605-607 (1996).
332. Hurlbert SH, Mulla MS, Wilson HR. Effects of an organophosphorus insecticide on the phytoplankton, zooplankton, and insect populations of fresh-water ponds. Ecol Monogr 42:269-299 (1972).
333. Arthur JW, Zischke JA, Allen KN, Hermanutz RO. Effects of diazinon on macroinvertebrates and insect emergence in outdoor experimental channels. Aquat Toxicol 4:283-301 (1983).
334. Cushman RM, Goyert JC. Effects of a synthetic crude oil on pond benthic insects. Environ Pollut Ser A 33:163-186 (1984).
335. Zischke JA, Arthur JW, Hermanutz RO, Hedtke SF, Helgen JC. Effects of pentachlorophenol on invertebrates and fish in outdoor experimental channels. Aquat Toxicol 7:37-58 (1985).
336. Clements WH, Cherry DS, Cairns J Jr. Impact of heavy metals on insect communities in streams: a comparison of observational and experimental results. Can J Fish Aquat Sci 45:2017-2025 (1988).
337. Clements WH, Farris JL, Cherry DS, Cairns J Jr. The influence of water quality on macroinvertebrate community responses to copper in outdoor experimental streams. Aquat Toxicol 14:249-262 (1989).
338. Caquet T. Recherches sur l'Utilisation de Mésocosmes pour l'Evaluation de l'Impact Ecotoxicologique Potentiel des Insecticides en Milieu Aquatique. Thèse Doctorat en Sciences. Universit́ de Paris-Sud, Orsay, France, 1990.
339. Hanazato T, Yasuno M. Influence of Chaoborus density on the effects of an insecticide on Zooplankton communities in ponds. Hydrobiologia 194:183-197 (1990).
340. Wayland M, Boag DA. Toxicity of carbofuran to selected macroinvertebrates in prairie ponds. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol 45:74-81 (1990).
341. Caquet T, Thybaud E, Le Bras S, Jonot O, Ramade F. Fate and biological effects of lindane and deltamethrin in freshwater mesocosms. Aquat Toxicol 23:261-278 (1992).
342. Maltby L, The use of the physiological energetics of Gammarus pulex to assess toxicity: a study using artificial streams. Environ Toxicol Chem 11:79-85 (1992).
343. Pusey BJ, Arthington AH, McLean J. The effects of a pulsed application of chlorpyrifos on macroinvertebrate communities in an outdoor artificial stream system. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 27:221-250 (1994).
344. Taylor EJ, Maund SJ, Bennett D, Pascoe D. Effects of 3,4-dichloroaniline on the growth of two freshwater macroinvertebrates in a stream mesocosm. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 29:80-85 (1994).
345. Verdonshot PFM, Ter Braak CJF. An experimental manipulation of oligochaete communities in mesocosms treated with chlorpyrifos or nutrient additions: multivariate analyses with Monte Carlo permutation tests, Hydrobiologia 278:251-266 (1994).
346. Baturo W, Lagadic L, Caquet T. Growth, fecundity, and glycogen utilization in Lymnaea palustris exposed to atrazine and hexachlorobenzene in freshwater mesocosms. Environ Toxicol Chem 14:503-511 (1995).
347. Baturo W, Lagadic L. Benzo[a]pyrene hydroxylase and glutathione S-transferase activities as biomarkers in Lymnaea palustris (Mollusca, Gastropoda) exposed to atrazine and hexachlorobenzene in freshwater mesocosms. Environ Toxicol Chem 15:771-781 (1996).
348. Belanger SE, Meiers EM, Bausch RG. Direct and indirect ecotoxicological effects of alkyl sulfate and alkyl ethoxysulfate on macroinvertebrates in stream mesocosms. Aquat Toxicol 33:65-87 (1995).
349. Davis M, Hodgkins GA, Stoner AW. A mesocosm system for ecological research with marine invertebrate larvae. Mar Ecol Progr Ser 130:97-104 (1996).
350. Ward S, Arthington AH, Pusey BJ. The effects of a chronic application of chlorpyrifos on the macroinvertebrate fauna in an outdoor artificial stream system: species responses. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 30:2-23 (1995).
351. Kimball KD, Levin SA. Limitations of laboratory bioassays: the need for ecosystem-level testing. Bioscience 35:165-171 (1985).
352. Salazar MH, Salazar SM. Integrated monitoring and assessment programmes should include field bioassays to estimate chemical exposure and biological effects. SETAC-Europe News 7:10-12 (1996).
353. [Online]. Available from http://sis.nlm.nih.govlaltanimals.htm