Learning citizenship from the past: textbook nationalism, global context, and social change

Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars

Volumn 30, Issue 2, 1998, Pages 3-15

  Hein, Laura ^a   Selden, Mark ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CITIZENSHIP; GEOPOLITICS; NATIONALISM; SOCIAL CHANGE; TEXTBOOK;

JAPAN;

EID: 0031782582     PISSN: 00074810     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/14672715.1998.10411038     Document Type: Article

References (93)

1. John Meyer, David Kamens, and Aaron Benavot, with Yun-Kyung Cha and Suk-Ying Wong, show convincingly the broad common ground and global standardization among primary school textbooks, curricula, and educational systems across nations that differ in wealth, political and economic systems, and culture. Standardization is surely greater at the high-school level. School Knowledge for the Masses: World Models and National Primary Curricular Categories in the Twentieth Century (London: The Falmer Press, 1992).
2. Michael Apple and Linda Christian-Smith, The Politics of the Textbook (London: Routledge, 1991), p. 4. We would add that textbooks may also clarify what is illegitimate and threatening to a state and people.
3. Stein Tonnesson and Hans Antlov, Asian Forms of the Nation (Surrey, England: Curzon Press, 1996), p. 2. We also follow Benedict Anderson's emphasis on the style in which a nation is imagined. Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (London: Verso, 1983).
4. Stein Tonnesson and Hans Antlov, Asian Forms of the Nation (Surrey, England: Curzon Press, 1996), p. 2. We also follow Benedict Anderson's emphasis on the style in which a nation is imagined. Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (London: Verso, 1983).
5. Takashi Fujitani, Splendid Monarchy: Power and Pageantry in Modern Japan (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996); Prasenjit Duara, "De-Constructing the Chinese Nation," in Chinese Nationalism, ed. Jonathan Unger (Armonk, N.Y: M. E. Sharpe, 1996), pp. 31-55; Pamela Crossley, "Manzhou yuanliu kao and the Formalization of the Manchu Heritage," Journal of Asian Studies 46, no. 4 (1987).
6. Takashi Fujitani, Splendid Monarchy: Power and Pageantry in Modern Japan (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996); Prasenjit Duara, "De-Constructing the Chinese Nation," in Chinese Nationalism, ed. Jonathan Unger (Armonk, N.Y: M. E. Sharpe, 1996), pp. 31-55; Pamela Crossley, "Manzhou yuanliu kao and the Formalization of the Manchu Heritage," Journal of Asian Studies 46, no. 4 (1987).
7. Takashi Fujitani, Splendid Monarchy: Power and Pageantry in Modern Japan (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996); Prasenjit Duara, "De-Constructing the Chinese Nation," in Chinese Nationalism, ed. Jonathan Unger (Armonk, N.Y: M. E. Sharpe, 1996), pp. 31-55; Pamela Crossley, "Manzhou yuanliu kao and the Formalization of the Manchu Heritage," Journal of Asian Studies 46, no. 4 (1987).
8. Ministry of Education review, censorship, and certification processes are described in detail by Lawrence Beer, Freedom of Expression in Japan: A Study in Comparative Law, Politics and Society (New York: Harper and Row, 1984), pp. 260-62. See also Yue-him Tam, "To Bury the Unhappy Past: The Problem of Textbook Revision in Japan," East Asian Library Journal 7, no. 1 (1994): 7-42; Horio Teruhisa, Educational Thought and Ideology in Modern Japan: State Authority and Intellectual Freedom, ed. and trans. Steven Platzer (Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press, 1988); Ienaga Saburo, The Pacific War (New York: Pantheon, 1978).
9. Ministry of Education review, censorship, and certification processes are described in detail by Lawrence Beer, Freedom of Expression in Japan: A Study in Comparative Law, Politics and Society (New York: Harper and Row, 1984), pp. 260-62. See also Yue-him Tam, "To Bury the Unhappy Past: The Problem of Textbook Revision in Japan," East Asian Library Journal 7, no. 1 (1994): 7-42; Horio Teruhisa, Educational Thought and Ideology in Modern Japan: State Authority and Intellectual Freedom, ed. and trans. Steven Platzer (Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press, 1988); Ienaga Saburo, The Pacific War (New York: Pantheon, 1978).
10. Ministry of Education review, censorship, and certification processes are described in detail by Lawrence Beer, Freedom of Expression in Japan: A Study in Comparative Law, Politics and Society (New York: Harper and Row, 1984), pp. 260-62. See also Yue-him Tam, "To Bury the Unhappy Past: The Problem of Textbook Revision in Japan," East Asian Library Journal 7, no. 1 (1994): 7-42; Horio Teruhisa, Educational Thought and Ideology in Modern Japan: State Authority and Intellectual Freedom, ed. and trans. Steven Platzer (Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press, 1988); Ienaga Saburo, The Pacific War (New York: Pantheon, 1978).
11. Ministry of Education review, censorship, and certification processes are described in detail by Lawrence Beer, Freedom of Expression in Japan: A Study in Comparative Law, Politics and Society (New York: Harper and Row, 1984), pp. 260-62. See also Yue-him Tam, "To Bury the Unhappy Past: The Problem of Textbook Revision in Japan," East Asian Library Journal 7, no. 1 (1994): 7-42; Horio Teruhisa, Educational Thought and Ideology in Modern Japan: State Authority and Intellectual Freedom, ed. and trans. Steven Platzer (Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press, 1988); Ienaga Saburo, The Pacific War (New York: Pantheon, 1978).
12. Toshio Nishi, Unconditional Democracy and Politics in Occupied Japan, 1945-1952 (Stanford, Calif.: Hoover Institution Press, 1982); Yoko Thakur, "Textbook Reform in Allied Occupied Japan, 1945-1952" (Ph.D. diss., University of Maryland College Park, 1990).
13. Toshio Nishi, Unconditional Democracy and Politics in Occupied Japan, 1945-1952 (Stanford, Calif.: Hoover Institution Press, 1982); Yoko Thakur, "Textbook Reform in Allied Occupied Japan, 1945-1952" (Ph.D. diss., University of Maryland College Park, 1990).
14. The International Society for Educational Information, an arm of the Foreign Ministry, also collects foreign textbooks about Japan.
15. Major conflicts in the United States concern such issues as multiculturalism and evolution theory. For a powerful critique of U.S. history textbooks, see James Loewen, Lies My Teacher Told Me: Everything Your American History Textbook Got Wrong (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1995). For a historical account of earlier controversies, see Frances FitzGerald, America Revised: History Schoolbooks in the Twentieth Century (Boston: Little Brown, 1979).
16. Major conflicts in the United States concern such issues as multiculturalism and evolution theory. For a powerful critique of U.S. history textbooks, see James Loewen, Lies My Teacher Told Me: Everything Your American History Textbook Got Wrong (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1995). For a historical account of earlier controversies, see Frances FitzGerald, America Revised: History Schoolbooks in the Twentieth Century (Boston: Little Brown, 1979).
17. Laura Hein and Mark Selden, eds., Living With the Bomb: American and Japanese Cultural Conflicts in the Nuclear Age (Armonk, N.Y: M. E. Sharpe, 1996); Edward Linenthal and Thomas Engelhardt, eds., History Wars: The Enola Gay Controversy and Other Battles for the American Past (New York: Metropolitan Books, 1996); James E. Young, The Texture of Memory: Holocaust Memorials and Meaning (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993); G. Kurt Piehler, Remembering War the American Way (Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1995); Diane Barthel, Historic Preservation: Collective Memory and Historical Identity (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1996).
18. Laura Hein and Mark Selden, eds., Living With the Bomb: American and Japanese Cultural Conflicts in the Nuclear Age (Armonk, N.Y: M. E. Sharpe, 1996); Edward Linenthal and Thomas Engelhardt, eds., History Wars: The Enola Gay Controversy and Other Battles for the American Past (New York: Metropolitan Books, 1996); James E. Young, The Texture of Memory: Holocaust Memorials and Meaning (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993); G. Kurt Piehler, Remembering War the American Way (Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1995); Diane Barthel, Historic Preservation: Collective Memory and Historical Identity (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1996).
19. Laura Hein and Mark Selden, eds., Living With the Bomb: American and Japanese Cultural Conflicts in the Nuclear Age (Armonk, N.Y: M. E. Sharpe, 1996); Edward Linenthal and Thomas Engelhardt, eds., History Wars: The Enola Gay Controversy and Other Battles for the American Past (New York: Metropolitan Books, 1996); James E. Young, The Texture of Memory: Holocaust Memorials and Meaning (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993); G. Kurt Piehler, Remembering War the American Way (Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1995); Diane Barthel, Historic Preservation: Collective Memory and Historical Identity (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1996).
20. Laura Hein and Mark Selden, eds., Living With the Bomb: American and Japanese Cultural Conflicts in the Nuclear Age (Armonk, N.Y: M. E. Sharpe, 1996); Edward Linenthal and Thomas Engelhardt, eds., History Wars: The Enola Gay Controversy and Other Battles for the American Past (New York: Metropolitan Books, 1996); James E. Young, The Texture of Memory: Holocaust Memorials and Meaning (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993); G. Kurt Piehler, Remembering War the American Way (Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1995); Diane Barthel, Historic Preservation: Collective Memory and Historical Identity (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1996).
21. Laura Hein and Mark Selden, eds., Living With the Bomb: American and Japanese Cultural Conflicts in the Nuclear Age (Armonk, N.Y: M. E. Sharpe, 1996); Edward Linenthal and Thomas Engelhardt, eds., History Wars: The Enola Gay Controversy and Other Battles for the American Past (New York: Metropolitan Books, 1996); James E. Young, The Texture of Memory: Holocaust Memorials and Meaning (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993); G. Kurt Piehler, Remembering War the American Way (Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1995); Diane Barthel, Historic Preservation: Collective Memory and Historical Identity (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1996).
22. In 1997, a textbook debate that began in Taiwan quickly moved across the Taiwan Strait. It centered on the treatment of Japanese colonialism in a social studies textbook used in all junior high schools. See Julian Baum, "Schools of Thought: Long Overdue Textbook Recast Runs Into Controversy," Far Eastern Economic Review, 14 August 1997. Critics of the text, including Yang Yizhou, writing in People's Daily, 27 October 1997, attacked the text for negating Taiwan's close historical relationship to China and the Chinese people as well as for whitewashing the record of Japanese colonialism. The richly illlustrated social studies text, Renshi Taiwan (Understand Taiwan), which is being test-taught in 1997-98, is an introduction to historical and contemporary Taiwan that is attentive to aboriginal life and the mix of peoples that comprise the Taiwan population. It also addresses a range of social problems such as income inequality and gender, and, for the first time in a school text, grasps the biggest nettle, by introducing the 28 February 1947 Guomindang massacre of Taiwanese.
23. In 1997, a textbook debate that began in Taiwan quickly moved across the Taiwan Strait. It centered on the treatment of Japanese colonialism in a social studies textbook used in all junior high schools. See Julian Baum, "Schools of Thought: Long Overdue Textbook Recast Runs Into Controversy," Far Eastern Economic Review, 14 August 1997. Critics of the text, including Yang Yizhou, writing in People's Daily, 27 October 1997, attacked the text for negating Taiwan's close historical relationship to China and the Chinese people as well as for whitewashing the record of Japanese colonialism. The richly illlustrated social studies text, Renshi Taiwan (Understand Taiwan), which is being test-taught in 1997-98, is an introduction to historical and contemporary Taiwan that is attentive to aboriginal life and the mix of peoples that comprise the Taiwan population. It also addresses a range of social problems such as income inequality and gender, and, for the first time in a school text, grasps the biggest nettle, by introducing the 28 February 1947 Guomindang massacre of Taiwanese.
24. In 1997, a textbook debate that began in Taiwan quickly moved across the Taiwan Strait. It centered on the treatment of Japanese colonialism in a social studies textbook used in all junior high schools. See Julian Baum, "Schools of Thought: Long Overdue Textbook Recast Runs Into Controversy," Far Eastern Economic Review, 14 August 1997. Critics of the text, including Yang Yizhou, writing in People's Daily, 27 October 1997, attacked the text for negating Taiwan's close historical relationship to China and the Chinese people as well as for whitewashing the record of Japanese colonialism. The richly illlustrated social studies text, Renshi Taiwan (Understand Taiwan), which is being test-taught in 1997-98, is an introduction to historical and contemporary Taiwan that is attentive to aboriginal life and the mix of peoples that comprise the Taiwan population. It also addresses a range of social problems such as income inequality and gender, and, for the first time in a school text, grasps the biggest nettle, by introducing the 28 February 1947 Guomindang massacre of Taiwanese.
25. Mark Selden, "China, Japan and the Regional Political Economy of East Asia, 1945-1995," in Network Power: Japan and Asia, ed. Peter Katzenstein and Takashi Shiraishi (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1997), pp. 306-40.
26. Radhika Coomaraswamy, "Violence against Women: Its Causes and Consequences. A Preliminary Report Submitted by the UN Special Rapporteur in accordance with the Commission on Human Rights Resolution 1994/45," The Thatched Patio 7, no. 6 (1994), International Centre for Ethnic Studies, Colombo, Sri Lanka; Tanaka Hiroshi, Zainichi Gaikokujin (Foreigners in Japan) (Tokyo: Iwanami, 1995).
27. Radhika Coomaraswamy, "Violence against Women: Its Causes and Consequences. A Preliminary Report Submitted by the UN Special Rapporteur in accordance with the Commission on Human Rights Resolution 1994/45," The Thatched Patio 7, no. 6 (1994), International Centre for Ethnic Studies, Colombo, Sri Lanka; Tanaka Hiroshi, Zainichi Gaikokujin (Foreigners in Japan) (Tokyo: Iwanami, 1995).
28. For the $58 billion figure, see Alan Cowell, "Germany the Unloved Just Wants to Be Normal," New York Times, 23 November 1997; Claudia Koonz, "Between Memory and Oblivion: Concentration Camps in German Memory," in Commemorations: The Politics of National Identity, ed. John R. Gillis (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994), pp. 258- 280; Ian Buruma, The Wages of Guilt: Memories of War in Germany and Japan (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1994); R. J. R. Bosworth, Explaining Auschwitz and Hiroshima: History Writing and the Second World War (London: Routledge, 1993).
29. For the $58 billion figure, see Alan Cowell, "Germany the Unloved Just Wants to Be Normal," New York Times, 23 November 1997; Claudia Koonz, "Between Memory and Oblivion: Concentration Camps in German Memory," in Commemorations: The Politics of National Identity, ed. John R. Gillis (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994), pp. 258-280; Ian Buruma, The Wages of Guilt: Memories of War in Germany and Japan (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1994); R. J. R. Bosworth, Explaining Auschwitz and Hiroshima: History Writing and the Second World War (London: Routledge, 1993).
30. For the $58 billion figure, see Alan Cowell, "Germany the Unloved Just Wants to Be Normal," New York Times, 23 November 1997; Claudia Koonz, "Between Memory and Oblivion: Concentration Camps in German Memory," in Commemorations: The Politics of National Identity, ed. John R. Gillis (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994), pp. 258- 280; Ian Buruma, The Wages of Guilt: Memories of War in Germany and Japan (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1994); R. J. R. Bosworth, Explaining Auschwitz and Hiroshima: History Writing and the Second World War (London: Routledge, 1993).
31. For the $58 billion figure, see Alan Cowell, "Germany the Unloved Just Wants to Be Normal," New York Times, 23 November 1997; Claudia Koonz, "Between Memory and Oblivion: Concentration Camps in German Memory," in Commemorations: The Politics of National Identity, ed. John R. Gillis (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994), pp. 258- 280; Ian Buruma, The Wages of Guilt: Memories of War in Germany and Japan (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1994); R. J. R. Bosworth, Explaining Auschwitz and Hiroshima: History Writing and the Second World War (London: Routledge, 1993).
32. Daniel Singer, "France on Trial," The Nation, 19 November 1997, p. 5; Alan Cowell, "Swiss Bank Reports Finding $11 Million More in Unclaimed Accounts from Wartime," New York Times, 24 July 1997; "Red Cross Admits Failing to Condemn Holocaust," New York Times, 8 October 1997.
33. Daniel Singer, "France on Trial," The Nation, 19 November 1997, p. 5; Alan Cowell, "Swiss Bank Reports Finding $11 Million More in Unclaimed Accounts from Wartime," New York Times, 24 July 1997; "Red Cross Admits Failing to Condemn Holocaust," New York Times, 8 October 1997.
34. Daniel Singer, "France on Trial," The Nation, 19 November 1997, p. 5; Alan Cowell, "Swiss Bank Reports Finding $11 Million More in Unclaimed Accounts from Wartime," New York Times, 24 July 1997; "Red Cross Admits Failing to Condemn Holocaust," New York Times, 8 October 1997.
35. Gary Okihiro, Whispered Silences: Japanese-Americans and World War II (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1996). Japanese from all points on the political spectrum have argued that the U.S. wartime saturation bombing, atomic bombing, and other wartime attacks on Japan were comparable to Nazi barbarism, with, as yet, only small impact on the U.S. or international discussion. One of the most active figures in the current Japanese textbook debate has made this argument, using it to justify a rejection of Japanese reconsideration of their own wartime conduct. Nishio Kanji, "Acknowledge U.S. War Crimes," Sankei Shinbun, 9 August 1997, translated in Japan Times, 26 August 1997.
36. Gary Okihiro, Whispered Silences: Japanese-Americans and World War II (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1996). Japanese from all points on the political spectrum have argued that the U.S. wartime saturation bombing, atomic bombing, and other wartime attacks on Japan were comparable to Nazi barbarism, with, as yet, only small impact on the U.S. or international discussion. One of the most active figures in the current Japanese textbook debate has made this argument, using it to justify a rejection of Japanese reconsideration of their own wartime conduct. Nishio Kanji, "Acknowledge U.S. War Crimes," Sankei Shinbun, 9 August 1997, translated in Japan Times, 26 August 1997.
37. Gary Okihiro, Whispered Silences: Japanese-Americans and World War II (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1996). Japanese from all points on the political spectrum have argued that the U.S. wartime saturation bombing, atomic bombing, and other wartime attacks on Japan were comparable to Nazi barbarism, with, as yet, only small impact on the U.S. or international discussion. One of the most active figures in the current Japanese textbook debate has made this argument, using it to justify a rejection of Japanese reconsideration of their own wartime conduct. Nishio Kanji, "Acknowledge U.S. War Crimes," Sankei Shinbun, 9 August 1997, translated in Japan Times, 26 August 1997.
38. Peter Katzenstein, ed., Tamed Power: Germany in Europe (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1997), p. xiii.
39. An exemplar of the new pan-European approach to a common history is Frédéric Delouche, ed., Illustrated History of Europe: A Unique Portrait of Europe's Common History, trans. Richard Moyne (New York: Henry Holt, 1992). Not all western European nations have responded to the prospect of regional integration with equal enthusiasm. In particular, Britain's 1988 Education Reform Act instituted a "national curriculum" to stave off any loss of British identity and sovereignty. British historical textbook trends and conflicts are briefly surveyed in Stephan Shakespeare, "Old Britain, New History," The Spectator, 11 October 1997, pp. 11-12. In other parts of Europe, moreover, including within and outside the Union, nationalism is currently a fighting matter. These include the former Yugoslavia and the former Soviet Union, as well as areas claimed by Basque separatists and Irish nationalists.
40. An exemplar of the new pan-European approach to a common history is Frédéric Delouche, ed., Illustrated History of Europe: A Unique Portrait of Europe's Common History, trans. Richard Moyne (New York: Henry Holt, 1992). Not all western European nations have responded to the prospect of regional integration with equal enthusiasm. In particular, Britain's 1988 Education Reform Act instituted a "national curriculum" to stave off any loss of British identity and sovereignty. British historical textbook trends and conflicts are briefly surveyed in Stephan Shakespeare, "Old Britain, New History," The Spectator, 11 October 1997, pp. 11-12. In other parts of Europe, moreover, including within and outside the Union, nationalism is currently a fighting matter. These include the former Yugoslavia and the former Soviet Union, as well as areas claimed by Basque separatists and Irish nationalists.
41. Peter Katzenstein, "Introduction: Asian Regionalism in Comparative Perspective," in Katzenstein and Shiraishi, eds., Network Power, p. 12. This World Bank calculation is based on multiplying China's GDP by three on the basis of purchasing power parity indexes.
42. Fujioka Nobukatsu in "Koko ga okashii: Rekishi kyokasho ronso" (This is strange: The history textbook debate), debates with Yoshida Yutaka, This Is Yomiuri, March 1997, pp. 34-73.
43. Fujioka Nobukatsu in "Koko ga okashii: Rekishi kyokasho ronso" (This is strange: The history textbook debate), debates with Yoshida Yutaka, This Is Yomiuri, March 1997, pp. 34-73.
44. As the reference to the death of the emperor suggests, the roots of change in ideology and consciousness lie partly in domestic factors. On the breaking of earlier taboos on public discussion of war responsibility, see Norma Field, "The Devastating Absence of Surprise," Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars 27, no. 3 (1995): 18-19; Gavan McCormack, The Emptiness of Japanese Affluence (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1996), pp. 244-77; and Herbert Bix, "Japan's Delayed Surrender. A Reinterpretation," in Hiroshima in History and Memory, ed. Michael Hogan (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), pp. 80-115.
45. As the reference to the death of the emperor suggests, the roots of change in ideology and consciousness lie partly in domestic factors. On the breaking of earlier taboos on public discussion of war responsibility, see Norma Field, "The Devastating Absence of Surprise," Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars 27, no. 3 (1995): 18-19; Gavan McCormack, The Emptiness of Japanese Affluence (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1996), pp. 244-77; and Herbert Bix, "Japan's Delayed Surrender. A Reinterpretation," in Hiroshima in History and Memory, ed. Michael Hogan (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), pp. 80-115.
46. As the reference to the death of the emperor suggests, the roots of change in ideology and consciousness lie partly in domestic factors. On the breaking of earlier taboos on public discussion of war responsibility, see Norma Field, "The Devastating Absence of Surprise," Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars 27, no. 3 (1995): 18-19; Gavan McCormack, The Emptiness of Japanese Affluence (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1996), pp. 244-77; and Herbert Bix, "Japan's Delayed Surrender. A Reinterpretation," in Hiroshima in History and Memory, ed. Michael Hogan (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), pp. 80-115.
47. For more on the Asia debate and its relation to the U.S. alliance in Japanese thinking, see Laura Hein and Ellen Hammond, "Homing in on Asia: Renovating Identity in Contemporary Japan," Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars 27, no. 3 (1995): 3-17; Michael Yahuda, The International Politics of the Asia-Pacific, 1945-1995 (London: Routledge, 1996), pp. 229-54; Katzenstein and Shiraishi, eds., Network Power.
48. For more on the Asia debate and its relation to the U.S. alliance in Japanese thinking, see Laura Hein and Ellen Hammond, "Homing in on Asia: Renovating Identity in Contemporary Japan," Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars 27, no. 3 (1995): 3-17; Michael Yahuda, The International Politics of the Asia-Pacific, 1945-1995 (London: Routledge, 1996), pp. 229-54; Katzenstein and Shiraishi, eds., Network Power.
49. For more on the Asia debate and its relation to the U.S. alliance in Japanese thinking, see Laura Hein and Ellen Hammond, "Homing in on Asia: Renovating Identity in Contemporary Japan," Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars 27, no. 3 (1995): 3-17; Michael Yahuda, The International Politics of the Asia-Pacific, 1945-1995 (London: Routledge, 1996), pp. 229-54; Katzenstein and Shiraishi, eds., Network Power.
50. See Elliot Converse II et al., The Exclusion of Black Soldiers from the Medal of Honor in World War II: The Study Commissioned by the United States Army to Investigate Racial Bias in the Awarding of the Nation's Highest Military Decoration (Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland, 1997); Okihiro, Whispered Silences; Gordon Chang, ed. Morning Glory or Evening Shadow: Yamato Ichihashi and His Internment Writings, 1942-1945 (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1997). For belated attention to the contributions of women, see Judy Litoff and David Smith, eds., American Women in a World at War. Contemporary Accounts from World War II ( Wilmington, Del.: Scholarly Resources, 1997). For the debate on multiculturalism, see Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr., The Disuniting of America (New York: W.W. Norton, 1992); Henry Louis Gates, Loose Canons: Notes on the Culture Wars (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992); Joan Scott, "The Campaign against Political Correctness: What's Really at Stake?" and other contributions to Radical History Review 5, no. 4 (1992); FitzGerald, America Revised.
51. See Elliot Converse II et al., The Exclusion of Black Soldiers from the Medal of Honor in World War II: The Study Commissioned by the United States Army to Investigate Racial Bias in the Awarding of the Nation's Highest Military Decoration (Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland, 1997); Okihiro, Whispered Silences; Gordon Chang, ed. Morning Glory or Evening Shadow: Yamato Ichihashi and His Internment Writings, 1942-1945 (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1997). For belated attention to the contributions of women, see Judy Litoff and David Smith, eds., American Women in a World at War. Contemporary Accounts from World War II ( Wilmington, Del.: Scholarly Resources, 1997). For the debate on multiculturalism, see Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr., The Disuniting of America (New York: W.W. Norton, 1992); Henry Louis Gates, Loose Canons: Notes on the Culture Wars (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992); Joan Scott, "The Campaign against Political Correctness: What's Really at Stake?" and other contributions to Radical History Review 5, no. 4 (1992); FitzGerald, America Revised.
52. See Elliot Converse II et al., The Exclusion of Black Soldiers from the Medal of Honor in World War II: The Study Commissioned by the United States Army to Investigate Racial Bias in the Awarding of the Nation's Highest Military Decoration (Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland, 1997); Okihiro, Whispered Silences; Gordon Chang, ed. Morning Glory or Evening Shadow: Yamato Ichihashi and His Internment Writings, 1942-1945 (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1997). For belated attention to the contributions of women, see Judy Litoff and David Smith, eds., American Women in a World at War. Contemporary Accounts from World War II ( Wilmington, Del.: Scholarly Resources, 1997). For the debate on multiculturalism, see Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr., The Disuniting of America (New York: W.W. Norton, 1992); Henry Louis Gates, Loose Canons: Notes on the Culture Wars (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992); Joan Scott, "The Campaign against Political Correctness: What's Really at Stake?" and other contributions to Radical History Review 5, no. 4 (1992); FitzGerald, America Revised.
53. See Elliot Converse II et al., The Exclusion of Black Soldiers from the Medal of Honor in World War II: The Study Commissioned by the United States Army to Investigate Racial Bias in the Awarding of the Nation's Highest Military Decoration (Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland, 1997); Okihiro, Whispered Silences; Gordon Chang, ed. Morning Glory or Evening Shadow: Yamato Ichihashi and His Internment Writings, 1942-1945 (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1997). For belated attention to the contributions of women, see Judy Litoff and David Smith, eds., American Women in a World at War. Contemporary Accounts from World War II ( Wilmington, Del.: Scholarly Resources, 1997). For the debate on multiculturalism, see Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr., The Disuniting of America (New York: W.W. Norton, 1992); Henry Louis Gates, Loose Canons: Notes on the Culture Wars (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992); Joan Scott, "The Campaign against Political Correctness: What's Really at Stake?" and other contributions to Radical History Review 5, no. 4 (1992); FitzGerald, America Revised.
54. See Elliot Converse II et al., The Exclusion of Black Soldiers from the Medal of Honor in World War II: The Study Commissioned by the United States Army to Investigate Racial Bias in the Awarding of the Nation's Highest Military Decoration (Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland, 1997); Okihiro, Whispered Silences; Gordon Chang, ed. Morning Glory or Evening Shadow: Yamato Ichihashi and His Internment Writings, 1942-1945 (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1997). For belated attention to the contributions of women, see Judy Litoff and David Smith, eds., American Women in a World at War. Contemporary Accounts from World War II ( Wilmington, Del.: Scholarly Resources, 1997). For the debate on multiculturalism, see Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr., The Disuniting of America (New York: W.W. Norton, 1992); Henry Louis Gates, Loose Canons: Notes on the Culture Wars (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992); Joan Scott, "The Campaign against Political Correctness: What's Really at Stake?" and other contributions to Radical History Review 5, no. 4 (1992); FitzGerald, America Revised.
55. See Elliot Converse II et al., The Exclusion of Black Soldiers from the Medal of Honor in World War II: The Study Commissioned by the United States Army to Investigate Racial Bias in the Awarding of the Nation's Highest Military Decoration (Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland, 1997); Okihiro, Whispered Silences; Gordon Chang, ed. Morning Glory or Evening Shadow: Yamato Ichihashi and His Internment Writings, 1942-1945 (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1997). For belated attention to the contributions of women, see Judy Litoff and David Smith, eds., American Women in a World at War. Contemporary Accounts from World War II ( Wilmington, Del.: Scholarly Resources, 1997). For the debate on multiculturalism, see Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr., The Disuniting of America (New York: W.W. Norton, 1992); Henry Louis Gates, Loose Canons: Notes on the Culture Wars (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992); Joan Scott, "The Campaign against Political Correctness: What's Really at Stake?" and other contributions to Radical History Review 5, no. 4 (1992); FitzGerald, America Revised.
56. See Elliot Converse II et al., The Exclusion of Black Soldiers from the Medal of Honor in World War II: The Study Commissioned by the United States Army to Investigate Racial Bias in the Awarding of the Nation's Highest Military Decoration (Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland, 1997); Okihiro, Whispered Silences; Gordon Chang, ed. Morning Glory or Evening Shadow: Yamato Ichihashi and His Internment Writings, 1942-1945 (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1997). For belated attention to the contributions of women, see Judy Litoff and David Smith, eds., American Women in a World at War. Contemporary Accounts from World War II ( Wilmington, Del.: Scholarly Resources, 1997). For the debate on multiculturalism, see Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr., The Disuniting of America (New York: W.W. Norton, 1992); Henry Louis Gates, Loose Canons: Notes on the Culture Wars (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992); Joan Scott, "The Campaign against Political Correctness: What's Really at Stake?" and other contributions to Radical History Review 5, no. 4 (1992); FitzGerald, America Revised.
57. See Elliot Converse II et al., The Exclusion of Black Soldiers from the Medal of Honor in World War II: The Study Commissioned by the United States Army to Investigate Racial Bias in the Awarding of the Nation's Highest Military Decoration (Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland, 1997); Okihiro, Whispered Silences; Gordon Chang, ed. Morning Glory or Evening Shadow: Yamato Ichihashi and His Internment Writings, 1942-1945 (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1997). For belated attention to the contributions of women, see Judy Litoff and David Smith, eds., American Women in a World at War. Contemporary Accounts from World War II ( Wilmington, Del.: Scholarly Resources, 1997). For the debate on multiculturalism, see Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr., The Disuniting of America (New York: W.W. Norton, 1992); Henry Louis Gates, Loose Canons: Notes on the Culture Wars (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992); Joan Scott, "The Campaign against Political Correctness: What's Really at Stake?" and other contributions to Radical History Review 5, no. 4 (1992); FitzGerald, America Revised.
58. While the dominant heroic text limning the rise of the Chinese Communist movement in the course of the anti-Japanese resistance and civil war has remained intact, the contribution of individual leaders has been subject to large swings contingent on their subsequent rise and fall. See Jonathan Unger, ed., Using the Past to Serve the Present: Historiography and Politics in Contemporary China (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1993), especially David Holm, "The Strange Case of Liu Zhidan," pp. 104-23, and Susanne Weigelin-Schwiedrzik, "Party Historiography," pp. 151-53.
59. While the dominant heroic text limning the rise of the Chinese Communist movement in the course of the anti-Japanese resistance and civil war has remained intact, the contribution of individual leaders has been subject to large swings contingent on their subsequent rise and fall. See Jonathan Unger, ed., Using the Past to Serve the Present: Historiography and Politics in Contemporary China (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1993), especially David Holm, "The Strange Case of Liu Zhidan," pp. 104-23, and Susanne Weigelin-Schwiedrzik, "Party Historiography," pp. 151-53.
60. While the dominant heroic text limning the rise of the Chinese Communist movement in the course of the anti-Japanese resistance and civil war has remained intact, the contribution of individual leaders has been subject to large swings contingent on their subsequent rise and fall. See Jonathan Unger, ed., Using the Past to Serve the Present: Historiography and Politics in Contemporary China (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1993), especially David Holm, "The Strange Case of Liu Zhidan," pp. 104-23, and Susanne Weigelin-Schwiedrzik, "Party Historiography," pp. 151-53.
61. Fujioka Nobukatsu and Jiyushugi Shikan Kenkyukai, eds., Kyokasho ga oshienai rekishi, (The history that textbooks do not teach) (Tokyo: Sankei Shinbun Nyusu Sabisu, vols. 1 and 2, 1996; vol. 3, 1997). Fujioka Nobukatsu, Ojoku no kin-gendai shi: Ima, kokufuku no toki (Shameful modern history) (Tokyo: Tokuma Shoten, 1996). Also see Atarashii Rekishi Kyokasho o tsukuru kai, ed., Atarashii Nihon no rekishi ga hajimaru (A new Japanese history is beginning) (Tokyo: Gentosha, 1997).
62. Fujioka Nobukatsu and Jiyushugi Shikan Kenkyukai, eds., Kyokasho ga oshienai rekishi, (The history that textbooks do not teach) (Tokyo: Sankei Shinbun Nyusu Sabisu, vols. 1 and 2, 1996; vol. 3, 1997). Fujioka Nobukatsu, Ojoku no kin-gendai shi: Ima, kokufuku no toki (Shameful modern history) (Tokyo: Tokuma Shoten, 1996). Also see Atarashii Rekishi Kyokasho o tsukuru kai, ed., Atarashii Nihon no rekishi ga hajimaru (A new Japanese history is beginning) (Tokyo: Gentosha, 1997).
63. Fujioka Nobukatsu and Jiyushugi Shikan Kenkyukai, eds., Kyokasho ga oshienai rekishi, (The history that textbooks do not teach) (Tokyo: Sankei Shinbun Nyusu Sabisu, vols. 1 and 2, 1996; vol. 3, 1997). Fujioka Nobukatsu, Ojoku no kin-gendai shi: Ima, kokufuku no toki (Shameful modern history) (Tokyo: Tokuma Shoten, 1996). Also see Atarashii Rekishi Kyokasho o tsukuru kai, ed., Atarashii Nihon no rekishi ga hajimaru (A new Japanese history is beginning) (Tokyo: Gentosha, 1997).
64. Fujioka Nobukatsu and Jiyushugi Shikan Kenkyukai, eds., Kyokasho ga oshienai rekishi, (The history that textbooks do not teach) (Tokyo: Sankei Shinbun Nyusu Sabisu, vols. 1 and 2, 1996; vol. 3, 1997). Fujioka Nobukatsu, Ojoku no kin-gendai shi: Ima, kokufuku no toki (Shameful modern history) (Tokyo: Tokuma Shoten, 1996). Also see Atarashii Rekishi Kyokasho o tsukuru kai, ed., Atarashii Nihon no rekishi ga hajimaru (A new Japanese history is beginning) (Tokyo: Gentosha, 1997).
65. Fujioka Nobukatsu, Kyokasho ga oshienai rekishi, vol. 2, p. 11.
66. Fujioka Nobukatsu, "Nihonjin wa joshiki ni okure," in Atarashii rekishi kyokasho o tsukuru kai, p. 122.
67. Fujioka Nobukatsu, "Hi-nichi rekishi kyoiku o haisu" (Expelling anti-Japanese history education) in Fujioka, Ojoku no kin-gendai shi, pp. 81-84. Also Kyokasho ga oshienai rekishi, vol. 2, p. 11.
68. Fujioka Nobukatsu, "Hi-nichi rekishi kyoiku o haisu" (Expelling anti-Japanese history education) in Fujioka, Ojoku no kin-gendai shi, pp. 81-84. Also Kyokasho ga oshienai rekishi, vol. 2, p. 11.
69. See Nakamura in this issue. See also Yoshida Yutaka, "Heisoku suru nashionarizumu" (Blockaded nationalism), Sekai, April 1997, pp. 74-82.
70. Yoshimi Yoshiaki, Jugun Ianfu (Military comfort women) (Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten, 1995). We have benefited from Yuki Tanaka's work in progress on the comfort women and Japanese policy. See also the special issue of positions. east asia cultures critique 5, no.1 (1997): "The Comfort Women: Colonialism, War, and Sex"; Maria Rosa Henson, Comfort Woman: Slave of Destiny (Manila: Philippine Center for Investigative Journalism, 1996); Keith Howard, ed., True Stories of the Korean Comfort Women, trans. Young Joo Lee (London: Cassell, 1995); Watanabe Kazuko, "Militarism, Colonialism, and the Trafficking of Women: 'Comfort Women' Forced into Sexual Labor for Japanese Soldiers," Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars 26, no. 4 (1994): 3-16.
71. Yoshimi Yoshiaki, Jugun Ianfu (Military comfort women) (Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten, 1995). We have benefited from Yuki Tanaka's work in progress on the comfort women and Japanese policy. See also the special issue of positions. east asia cultures critique 5, no.1 (1997): "The Comfort Women: Colonialism, War, and Sex"; Maria Rosa Henson, Comfort Woman: Slave of Destiny (Manila: Philippine Center for Investigative Journalism, 1996); Keith Howard, ed., True Stories of the Korean Comfort Women, trans. Young Joo Lee (London: Cassell, 1995); Watanabe Kazuko, "Militarism, Colonialism, and the Trafficking of Women: 'Comfort Women' Forced into Sexual Labor for Japanese Soldiers," Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars 26, no. 4 (1994): 3-16.
72. Yoshimi Yoshiaki, Jugun Ianfu (Military comfort women) (Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten, 1995). We have benefited from Yuki Tanaka's work in progress on the comfort women and Japanese policy. See also the special issue of positions. east asia cultures critique 5, no.1 (1997): "The Comfort Women: Colonialism, War, and Sex"; Maria Rosa Henson, Comfort Woman: Slave of Destiny (Manila: Philippine Center for Investigative Journalism, 1996); Keith Howard, ed., True Stories of the Korean Comfort Women, trans. Young Joo Lee (London: Cassell, 1995); Watanabe Kazuko, "Militarism, Colonialism, and the Trafficking of Women: 'Comfort Women' Forced into Sexual Labor for Japanese Soldiers," Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars 26, no. 4 (1994): 3-16.
73. Yoshimi Yoshiaki, Jugun Ianfu (Military comfort women) (Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten, 1995). We have benefited from Yuki Tanaka's work in progress on the comfort women and Japanese policy. See also the special issue of positions. east asia cultures critique 5, no.1 (1997): "The Comfort Women: Colonialism, War, and Sex"; Maria Rosa Henson, Comfort Woman: Slave of Destiny (Manila: Philippine Center for Investigative Journalism, 1996); Keith Howard, ed., True Stories of the Korean Comfort Women, trans. Young Joo Lee (London: Cassell, 1995); Watanabe Kazuko, "Militarism, Colonialism, and the Trafficking of Women: 'Comfort Women' Forced into Sexual Labor for Japanese Soldiers," Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars 26, no. 4 (1994): 3-16.
74. Yoshimi Yoshiaki, Jugun Ianfu (Military comfort women) (Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten, 1995). We have benefited from Yuki Tanaka's work in progress on the comfort women and Japanese policy. See also the special issue of positions. east asia cultures critique 5, no.1 (1997): "The Comfort Women: Colonialism, War, and Sex"; Maria Rosa Henson, Comfort Woman: Slave of Destiny (Manila: Philippine Center for Investigative Journalism, 1996); Keith Howard, ed., True Stories of the Korean Comfort Women, trans. Young Joo Lee (London: Cassell, 1995); Watanabe Kazuko, "Militarism, Colonialism, and the Trafficking of Women: 'Comfort Women' Forced into Sexual Labor for Japanese Soldiers," Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars 26, no. 4 (1994): 3-16.
75. Fujioka Nobukatsu, '"Jugun ianfu' o chugakusei ni oshieru na" (Don't teach middle school students about the military comfort women), in Atarashii Rekishi Kyokasho o tsukuru kai, ed., Atarashii Nihon no rekishi ga hajimaru, p. 78, quotes seven textbooks.
76. Dutch prosecutors presented evidence of the rape of Dutch civilians at the Tokyo Tribunal, but not of "enforced prostitution," reserving that for subsequent B- and C-Class tribunals. Personal communication, Yuki Tanaka, 29 January 1998. A Batavia tribunal convicted thirteen Japanese for the enslavement and rape of Dutch women and executed three. The tribunal ignored the far larger number of Sumatran and Javanese women who were often held at the same "comfort stations." Chin Sung Chung, "The Origins and Development of the Military Sexual Slavery Problem in Imperial Japan," positions. east asia cultures critique 5, no. 1 (1997): 232-33. See also Yuki Tanaka, "Comfort Women in the Dutch East Indies," manuscript, 1997. Similarly, Japan was held accountable at the trials for the several thousand Western POWs forced to work on the Burma-Thai railroad, but not for the vastly larger number of Southeast Asian forced laborers. Gavan McCormack and Hank Nelson, eds., The Burma-Thailand Railway: Memory and History (St. Leonard's, New South Wales: Allen and Unwin, 1993).
77. Dutch prosecutors presented evidence of the rape of Dutch civilians at the Tokyo Tribunal, but not of "enforced prostitution," reserving that for subsequent B- and C-Class tribunals. Personal communication, Yuki Tanaka, 29 January 1998. A Batavia tribunal convicted thirteen Japanese for the enslavement and rape of Dutch women and executed three. The tribunal ignored the far larger number of Sumatran and Javanese women who were often held at the same "comfort stations." Chin Sung Chung, "The Origins and Development of the Military Sexual Slavery Problem in Imperial Japan," positions. east asia cultures critique 5, no. 1 (1997): 232-33. See also Yuki Tanaka, "Comfort Women in the Dutch East Indies," manuscript, 1997. Similarly, Japan was held accountable at the trials for the several thousand Western POWs forced to work on the Burma-Thai railroad, but not for the vastly larger number of Southeast Asian forced laborers. Gavan McCormack and Hank Nelson, eds., The Burma-Thailand Railway: Memory and History (St. Leonard's, New South Wales: Allen and Unwin, 1993).
78. Dutch prosecutors presented evidence of the rape of Dutch civilians at the Tokyo Tribunal, but not of "enforced prostitution," reserving that for subsequent B- and C-Class tribunals. Personal communication, Yuki Tanaka, 29 January 1998. A Batavia tribunal convicted thirteen Japanese for the enslavement and rape of Dutch women and executed three. The tribunal ignored the far larger number of Sumatran and Javanese women who were often held at the same "comfort stations." Chin Sung Chung, "The Origins and Development of the Military Sexual Slavery Problem in Imperial Japan," positions. east asia cultures critique 5, no. 1 (1997): 232-33. See also Yuki Tanaka, "Comfort Women in the Dutch East Indies," manuscript, 1997. Similarly, Japan was held accountable at the trials for the several thousand Western POWs forced to work on the Burma-Thai railroad, but not for the vastly larger number of Southeast Asian forced laborers. Gavan McCormack and Hank Nelson, eds., The Burma-Thailand Railway: Memory and History (St. Leonard's, New South Wales: Allen and Unwin, 1993).
79. See Chin Sung Chung, "The Origins and Development," pp. 219-54; Watanabe, "Militarism, Colonialism, and the Trafficking of Women"; and Henson, Comfort Woman. Also George Hicks, The Comfort Women: Japan's Brutal Regime of Enforced Prostitution in the Second World War (New York: Norton, 1994), p. 225 on international law.
80. See Chin Sung Chung, "The Origins and Development," pp. 219-54; Watanabe, "Militarism, Colonialism, and the Trafficking of Women"; and Henson, Comfort Woman. Also George Hicks, The Comfort Women: Japan's Brutal Regime of Enforced Prostitution in the Second World War (New York: Norton, 1994), p. 225 on international law.
81. See Chin Sung Chung, "The Origins and Development," pp. 219-54; Watanabe, "Militarism, Colonialism, and the Trafficking of Women"; and Henson, Comfort Woman. Also George Hicks, The Comfort Women: Japan's Brutal Regime of Enforced Prostitution in the Second World War (New York: Norton, 1994), p. 225 on international law.
82. See Chin Sung Chung, "The Origins and Development," pp. 219-54; Watanabe, "Militarism, Colonialism, and the Trafficking of Women"; and Henson, Comfort Woman. Also George Hicks, The Comfort Women: Japan's Brutal Regime of Enforced Prostitution in the Second World War (New York: Norton, 1994), p. 225 on international law.
83. For a statement by Korean-Japanese tying their solidarity movement to textbook nationalism, see "Appeal by Concerned Koreans in Japan concerning the Activities of the Committee to Create A New History Textbook and the Liberal Historiography Study Group," Ampo: Japan-Asia Quarterly Review 27, no. 4 (1996): 26-27; Michael Weiner, ed., Japan's Minorities: The Illusion of Homogeneity (London: Routledge, 1996) for general discussion.
84. For a statement by Korean-Japanese tying their solidarity movement to textbook nationalism, see "Appeal by Concerned Koreans in Japan concerning the Activities of the Committee to Create A New History Textbook and the Liberal Historiography Study Group," Ampo: Japan- Asia Quarterly Review 27, no. 4 (1996): 26-27; Michael Weiner, ed., Japan's Minorities: The Illusion of Homogeneity (London: Routledge, 1996) for general discussion.
85. For discussion of attitudes among Japanese soldiers, see Kano Mikiyo, "The Problem with the 'Comfort Women Problem,"' Ampo: Japan-Asia Quarterly Review 24, no. 2 (1993): 40-43. For more extended discussion of Japanese destruction in China, see Mark Selden, China in Revolution: The Yenan Way Revisited (Armonk, N.Y: M. E. Sharpe, 1995).
86. For discussion of attitudes among Japanese soldiers, see Kano Mikiyo, "The Problem with the 'Comfort Women Problem,"' Ampo: Japan-Asia Quarterly Review 24, no. 2 (1993): 40-43. For more extended discussion of Japanese destruction in China, see Mark Selden, China in Revolution: The Yenan Way Revisited (Armonk, N.Y: M. E. Sharpe, 1995).
87. Hyun Sook Kim notes that a 1992 South Korean junior high school text discusses the comfort women much as do the Japanese ones, including them in a list of Japanese colonial practices such as forcing Koreans to worship at Japanese shrines, to adopt Japanese names, and engage in forced labor: "[E]ven women became the object of sacrifice for the war under the name chongsindae (teishintai in Japanese)." Kim argues that this bland approach reflects the interest of the Korean state in reinforcing patriarchy. "History and Memory: The 'Comfort Woman' Controversy," positions. east asia cultures critique 5, no. 1 (1997): 91. Some critics of the introduction of the comfort women theme in school texts also described 1997 Japanese legislation that permitted married women to use their maiden names in household registers as a comparable example of a break with tradition and morality.
88. Norma Field, "War and Apology: Japan, Asia, the Fiftieth, and After," positions. east asia cultures critique 5, no. 1 (1997): 37.
89. Hiroshi Tanaka, "Why Is Asia Demanding Postwar Compensation Now?" Hitotsubashi Journal of Social Studies 28 (1996): 1-14. These questions necessarily implicate the United States as well: in particular, they highlight the U.S. government's willingness to protect the perpetrators of such injustices as the human experiments of Unit 731 in exchange for access to their research results. Sheldon Harris, Factories of Death: Japanese Biological Warfare 1935-45, and the American Cover-up (London: Routledge, 1993). See also John Powell's review of the book in Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars 27, no. 2 (1995): 27-28.
90. Hiroshi Tanaka, "Why Is Asia Demanding Postwar Compensation Now?" Hitotsubashi Journal of Social Studies 28 (1996): 1-14. These questions necessarily implicate the United States as well: in particular, they highlight the U.S. government's willingness to protect the perpetrators of such injustices as the human experiments of Unit 731 in exchange for access to their research results. Sheldon Harris, Factories of Death: Japanese Biological Warfare 1935-45, and the American Cover-up (London: Routledge, 1993). See also John Powell's review of the book in Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars 27, no. 2 (1995): 27-28.
91. Hiroshi Tanaka, "Why Is Asia Demanding Postwar Compensation Now?" Hitotsubashi Journal of Social Studies 28 (1996): 1-14. These questions necessarily implicate the United States as well: in particular, they highlight the U.S. government's willingness to protect the perpetrators of such injustices as the human experiments of Unit 731 in exchange for access to their research results. Sheldon Harris, Factories of Death: Japanese Biological Warfare 1935-45, and the American Cover-up (London: Routledge, 1993). See also John Powell's review of the book in Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars 27, no. 2 (1995): 27-28.
92. The medals were awarded to Hugh C. Thompson Jr., Lawrence Colburn, and, posthumously, to Glenn Andreotta. See Los Angeles Times, 19 March 1998, Metro Part B, p. 8.
93. Ernest Gellner, Nations and Nationalism (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1993), p. 43.