Rationality, representation, and the risk mediating characteristics of a Karakoram mountain farming system

Human Ecology

Volumn 26, Issue 2, 1998, Pages 287-321

  MacDonald, Kenneth Iain ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO   (Canada)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

FARMERS' BEHAVIOUR; FARMING SYSTEM; MOUNTAIN AREA; RATIONALITY;

KARAKORAM; PAKISTAN;

EID: 0031753926     PISSN: 03007839     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1023/A:1018723024702     Document Type: Article

References (110)

1. Afridi, B. G. (1988). Baltistan in History. Emjay Books International, Peshawar.
2. Ahmad, N. (1991). Soil Management on Hillsides in the Humid Tropics. In Moldenhauer, W. C., Hudson, N. W., Sheng, T. C. and Lee, S.W. (eds.), Development of Conservation Farming on Hillslopes. Soil and Water Conservation Society, Ankeny, Iowa, pp. 101-111.
3. Altieri, M. A. (1983). Vegetational designs for insect-habitat management. Environmental Management 7( 1): 3-7.
4. Altieri, M. A. (1987). Agroecology: The Scientific Basis of Alternative Agriculture. Westview Press, Boulder.
5. Altieri, M. A. (1991). Traditional Farming in Latin America. The Ecologist 21(2): 93-96.
6. Altieri, M. A., Martin, P. B., and Lewis, W. J. (1983). A quest for ecologically based pest management systems. Environmental Management 7(1): 91-100.
7. Ambrayseys, N., Lensen, G., and Molyfar, A. (1975). The Pattan Earthquake of 28 December, 1974. (Restricted Technical Report RP/1975-76/2.222.3) , UNESCO, Paris.
8. Asboe, W. (1947). Farmers and farming in Ladakh (Tibetan Kashmir). Human Relations Area Files, AJ4, pp. 186-192.
9. Barrett, R. L., and Barrett, K. R. (1928). The Himalayan Letters of Gypsy Davy and Lady Ba: Written on pilgrimage to the high quiet places among the simple people of an old folk tale. Heffer, Cambridge.
10. Bennett, J. W. (1986). Research on farmer behaviour and social organization. In Dahlberg, K. A. (ed.), New Directions For Agricultural Research: Neglected Dimensions and Emerging Alternatives. Rowman and Allanheld, New Jersey, pp. 367-402.
11. Bentley, J. W. (1990). Wouldn't you like to have all of your land in one place? Land fragmentation in northwest Portugal. Human Ecology 18(1): 51-79.
12. Bishop, P. (1989). The Myth of Shangri-la: Tibet, Travel Writing and the Western Creation of Sacred Landscape. The Athlone Press, London.
13. Bjøness, I. M. (1986). Mountain hazard perception and risk avoidance strategies among the Sherpas of the Khumbu Himal, Nepal. Mountain Research and Development 6(4): 277-292.
14. Boehm, C. (1984). Mountain refuge area adaptations. In Beaver, P. D., and Purrington, B. L. (eds.), Cultural Adaptations to Mountain Environments. University of Georgia Press, Athens, pp. 24-37.
15. Breckenridge, C., and van der Veer, P. (1993). Orientalism and the Postcolonial Predicament. University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia.
16. Brokensha, D. W., Warren, D. M., and Werner, C. (1980). Indigenous Knowledge Systems and Development. University Press of America Inc., Lanham.
17. Brower, B. (1990). Range conservation and sherpa livestock management in Khumbu, Nepal. Mountain Research and Development 10(1): 34-42.
18. Brush, S. B. (1977). Mountain, Field and family: The Economy and Human Ecology of an Andean Valley. University of Pennsylvania Press, Pennsylvania.
19. Butz, D. (1993). Developing Sustainable Communities: Community Development and Modernity in Shimshal, Pakistan. Unpublished PhD dissertation, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada.
20. Butz, D. (1996). Orientalist Representations of Resource Use in Shimshal, Pakistan and Their Extra-Discursive Effects. Paper presented at a Conference on Dynamics of Change in the HinduKush / Karakoram / Himalaya, National Library, Islamabad, Pakistan, Sept. 26-29, 1995.
21. Chambers, R. (1981). Introduction. In Chambers, R., Longhurst, R. and Pacey, A. (eds.), Seasonal Dimensions to Rural Poverty. Frances Pinter Ltd., London, pp. 1-8.
22. Chambers, R. (1983). Rural Development: Putting the Last First. Longman, New York.
23. Clark, J. (1956). Hunza: Lost Kingdom of the Himalayas. Indus Publications, Karachi.
24. Clastres, P. (1987). Society Against the State: Essays in Political Anthropology. Zone Books, New York. (Translated from the French by Robert Hurley).
25. Cohen, A. P. (1993). Segmentary knowledge: A Whalsay sketch. In Hobart, M. (ed.) An Anthropological Critique of Development: The Growth of Ignorance. Routledge, London, pp. 31-41.
26. Crowley, A. (1969). In Symonds, J., and Grant, K. (eds.), The Confessions of Aleister Crowley: An Autohagiography (Parts 1 and 2). Jonathan Cape, London (published in 1929).
27. Crush, J. (ed.) (1995). Power of Development. Routledge, London.
28. Davis, I. (1982). Safe houses in the Karakoram. Geographical Magazine 30(9): 30-39.
29. Davis, I. (1984). Analysis of recovery and reconstruction following the 1974 Pattan earthquake. In Miller, K. J. (ed.), The International Karakoram Project. Cambridge University Press, London, pp. 323-343.
30. de Boef, W., Amanor, K., Wellard, K., and Bebbington, A. (1993). Cultivating Knowledge: Genetic Diversity, Farmer Experimentation and Crop Research. Intermediate Technology Publications, London.
31. Dev, J. S. (1983). Natural Calamities in Jammu and Kashmir. Ariana Publishing House, New Delhi.
32. Drew, F (1877). The Northern Barrier of India: A Popular Account. Light and Life Publishers, Jammu.
33. Ferguson, J. (1990) The Anti-Politics Machine: "Development," Depoliticization and Bureaucratic Power in Lesotho. University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis.
34. Forman, S. H. (1988). The future value of the "verticality" concept: Implications and possible Applications in the Andes. In Allan, N. J. R., Knapp, G. W. and Stadel, C. (eds.), Human Impacts on Mountains. Rowman & Littlefield, Totowa, New Jersey, pp. 133-153.
35. Friedl, J. (1974). Changing economic emphasis in an alpine village. Anthropological Quarterly 47: 145-57.
36. Gallant, T W. (1989). Crisis and response: Risk-buffering behaviour in Hellenistic Greek communities. Journal of Interdisciplinary History 19(3), 393-413.
37. Goland, C. (1993). Field scattering as agricultural risk management: A case study from Cuyo Cuyo Department of Puno, Peru. Mountain Research and Development 13(4): 317-338.
38. Guillet, D. W. (1981). Land tenure, ecological zone and agricultural regime in the Central Andes. American Ethnologist 8(1): 139-156.
39. Haigh, M. H. (1982). Soil Erosion and Soil Conservation in India: An Annotated Bibliography. (Oxford Polytechnic Discussion Papers in Geography Number 17). Dept. Of Geography, Oxford Polytechnic, Oxford.
40. Haigh, M. J. (1984). Ravine erosion and reclamation in India. Geoforum 15(4): 543-561.
41. Hashmatullah Khan, A. M. (1939). Mukhtasar Tarikh-i-Jammu. Lucknow.
42. Heber, A. R., & Heber, K. M. (1926). In Himalayan Tibet: A Record of Twelve Years Spent in the Topsy-Turvy Land of Lesser-Tibet, with a Description of Its Cheery Folk, Their Ways and Religion of the Rigours of the Climate and Beauties of the Country, Its Fauna and Flora. London.
43. Hecht, S. B. (1987). The evolution of agroecological thought. In Altieri, M. A. (ed.), Agroecology: The Scientific Basis of Alternative Agriculture. Westview Press, Boulder, pp. 1-20.
44. Hewitt, K. (May, 1976). Earthquake hazard in the mountains. Natural History, 30-37.
45. Hewitt, K. (1982). Natural dams and outburst floods of the Karakoram Himalaya. In Glen, J. W. (ed.), Hyrological Aspects of Alpine and High Mountain Areas. Proceedings of the Exeter Symposium. International Association of Hydrological Science, Exeter.
46. Hewitt, K. (1984). Ecotonal settlement and natural hazards in mountain regions: The case of earthquake risks. Mountain Research and Development 4(1): 31-37.
47. Hewitt, K. (1992). Mountain Hazards. GeoJournal 27(1): 47-60.
48. Hewitt, K. (1993). Torrential rains in central Karakoram 9-10 September 1992. Geomorphological impacts and implications for climatic change. Mountain Research and Development. 13(4): 371-375.
49. Hobart, M. (ed.) (1993). An Anthropological Critique of Development: The Growth of Ignorance. Routledge, London.
50. Hughes, R., and Nash, D. (1986). The Gupis debris flow and natural dam, July 1980. Disasters 10(1): 8-14.
51. Hurley, J. (1961). The people of Baltistan. Natural History, Oct.-Nov.
52. Hussain, T (1987). Approaches and Techniques For Assessing Mountain Environments. Paper presented at the International Workshop on Mountain Agriculture and Crop Genetic Resources, February 16-19, 1987, Kathmandu, Nepal, Aga Khan Rural Support Programme, Gilgit.
53. International Movement for Ecological Agriculture (1990). From global crisis towards ecological agriculture: Declaration of the movement for ecological agriculture. The Ecologist 21(2): 107-112.
54. Ives, J. D. (1987). Repeat photography of debris flows and agricultural terraces in the Middle Mountains, Nepal. Mountain Research and Development 7(1): 82-86.
55. Ives, J., and Messerli, B. (1981). Mountain hazards mapping in Nepal: Introduction to an applied mountain research project. Mountain Research and Development 1(4): 223-230.
56. Ives, J., and Messerli, B. (1989). The Himalayan Dilemma: Reconciling Development and Conservation. Routledge, London.
57. Johnson, K., Olson, E. A., and Manadhan, S. (1982). Environmental knowledge and response to natural hazards in mountainous Nepal. Mountain Research and Development 2(2): 175-188.
58. Jones, D. K. C., Brunsden, D., and Goudie, A. S. (1983). A preliminary geomorphological assessment of part of the Karakoram Highway. Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology 16: 331-355.
59. Karan, P. P. (1987). Environment and development in Bhutan. Geografiska Annaler 69B(1): 15-26.
60. Khan, M. H. and Khan, S. S. (1992). Rural Change in the Third World: Pakistan and the Aga Khan Rural Support Programme. Greenwood Press, New York.
61. Knight, E. F. (1895). Where Three Empires Meet: A Narrative of Recent Travel in Kashmir, Western Tibet, Gilgit and the Adjoining Countries. Longmans, Green & Co., London.
62. Kreutzmann, H. (1993). Development trends in the high mountain regions of the Indian Subcontinent: A review. Applied Geography and Development 42: 39-59.
63. Leaf, M. J. (1983). The green revolution and cultural change in a Punjab village 1965-1978. Economic Development and Cultural Change 31(2): 227-270.
64. Liebmann, M. (1987). Polyculture Cropping Systems. In Altieri, M. A. (ed.), Agroecology: The Scientific Basis of Alternative Agriculture. Westview Press, Boulder, pp. 115-125.
65. MacDonald, K. I. (1989). The impact of large landslides on human settlements at Hopar, Karakoram Himalaya, northern Pakistan. Annals of Glaciology 13: 185-189.
66. MacDonald, K. I. (1994). Landscapes of Diversity: Interpreting traditon as "Progress" in Rural Development. Paper presented to the Annual Meeting of the Association of American Geographers, San Francisco, California, April 1994.
67. MacDonald, K. I. (1995). The Mediation of Risk: Ecology, Society and Authority in a Karakoram Mountain Community. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation. Univeristy of Waterloo, Waterloo, Canada.
68. MacDonald, K. I. (1996a). Indigenous labor arrangements and household security in northern Pakistan. Himalayan Research Bulletin 16(1&2): 28-35.
69. MacDonald, K. I. (1996b). All is not as it seems: Population change in the upper Braldu valley, Baltistan, 1900-1990. Mountain Research and Development 16(4): 351-366.
70. MacDonald, K. I. (forthcoming). Of "Coolies" and "Sahibs": "Exploration," adventure travel and the place colonization of pre-partition Baltistan. In Allan, N. J. R. (ed.) North Pakistan: Karakoram Conquered. St. Martin's Press, New York.
71. Mayse, M. A. (1983). Culture control in crop fields: A habitat management. Environmental Management 7(1): 15-22.
72. Messerli, B. et al. (eds.). (1988). African Mountains and Highlands, Proceedings of an International Workshop organized by the Commission of Mountain Geoecology of the International geographical Union (IGU) on behalf of the United Nations University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Published as Mountain Research and Development 8 (2 & 3). International Mountain Society/African Mountains Association, Boulder.
73. Metz, J. J. (1990). Conservation practices at an upper-elevation village of west Nepal. Mountain Research and Development 10(1): 7-15.
74. Mitchell, R. S., and Dean, J. K. (1978). Polygonaceae (Buckwheat Family) of New York State. (Bulletin Number 431, Contributions to a Flora of New York State I). The University of the State of New York, The State Education Department, Albany.
75. Moldenhauer, W. C., Hudson, N. W., Sheng, T C., and Lee, S. W. (eds.) (1991). Development of Conservation Farming on Hillslopes. Soil and Water Conservation Society, Ankeny, Iowa.
76. Morren, G. E. B., Jr., and Hyndmann, D. C. (1987). The taro monoculture of central New Guinea. Human Ecology 15(3): 301-315.
77. Nash, D., Brunsden, D., and Hughes, R. (1985). A Catastrophic Debris Flow Near Gupis, Northern Areas, Pakistan. International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, San Francisco.
78. Netting, R. McC. (1972). Of men and meadows: Strategies of alpine land use. Anthropological Quarterly 45(3): 132-144.
79. Netting, R. McC. (1981). Balancing on an Alp: ecological change and continuity in a Swiss mountain community. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
80. Netting, R. McC. (1994). Smallholders, Householders: Farm Families and the Ecology of Intensive, Sustainable Agriculture. Stanford University Press, Stanford, CA.
81. Norberg-Hodge , H., Page, J., and Goering, P. (1990). Agriculture: Global Trends and Ladakh 's Future, a Background Paper. Ladakh Ecological Development Group, London (mimeo).
82. Orlove, B. S., and Guillet, D. W. (1985). Theoretical and methodological considerations in the study of mountain peoples: Refections on the idea of subsistence type and the role of history in human ecology. Mountain Research and Development 5(1): 3-18.
83. Poffenberger, M., and Zurbuchen, M. S. (1980). The economies of village Bali: Three perspectives. Economic Development and Culture Change 91-133.
84. Rambo, A. T (1982). Human ecology research on agro-ecosystems in Southeast Asia. Singapore Journal of Tropical Geography 3(1).
85. Rasid, H., and Paul, B. K. (1987). Flood problems in Bangladesh: Is there an indigenous solution? Environmental Management 11(2): 155-173.
86. Redclift, M. (1984). Development and the Environmental Crisis: Red or Green Alternatives? Methuen, London.
87. Regan, C. (1983). Underdevelopment and hazards in historical perspective: an Irish case study. In Hewitt, K. (ed.), Interpretations of Calamity: From the Viewpoint of Human Ecology. Allen & Unwin, Boston, pp. 98-120.
88. Rhoades, R. E. (1986). Farming on high. In Tobias, M. (ed.), Mountain People. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, pp. 39-44.
89. Rhoades, R. E., and Thompson, S. I. (1975). Adaptive strategies in alpine environments: Beyond ecological particularism. American Ethnologist 2: 535-551.
90. Richards, P. (1985). Indigenous Agricultural Revolution: Ecology and Food Production in West Africa. Westview Press, Boulder.
91. Richards, P. (1986). Coping with Hunger: Hazard and Experiment in an African Rice-Farming System. Allen & Unwin, London.
92. Risch, S. J. (1983). Intercropping as cultural pest control: Prospects and limitations. Environmental Management 7(1): 9-14.
93. Sachs, W. (ed.) (1992). The Development Dictionary: A Guide to Knowledge as Power. Zed Books: London.
94. Stack, T. (1982). The Darrel valley earthquake: An overlooked disaster in northern Pakistan. Disasters 6(1): 169-176.
95. Stephens, I. (1966). Horned Moon: An Account of a Journey Through Pakistan, Kashmir and Afghanistan. Ernest Beenn Ltd., London.
96. Tabboni, S. (1988). A configurational approach to the study of traditional behavior. In Kriesber, L. S., and Misztal, B. (eds.), Social Movements as a Factor of Change in the Contemporary World (Research in Social Movements, Conflict and Change, Vol. 10). JAI Press, London, pp. 255-233.
97. Thomas, D. B., and Biamah, E. K. (1991). Origin, application, and design of the Fanya Juu Terrace. In Moldenhauer, W. C., Hudson, N. W., Sheng, T C. and Lee, S. W. (eds.), Development of Conservation Farming on Hillslopes. Soil and Water Conservation Society, Ankeny, Iowa, pp. 185-194).
98. Thrift, N. J. (1983). On the determination of social action in space and time. Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 1: 23-57.
99. Turner II, B. L., and Brush, S. B. (1987). Comparative Farming Systems. Guilford Press, New York.
100. Valdiya, K. S. (1985). Accelerated erosion and landslide-prone zones in the central Himalayan region. In Singh, J. H. (ed.), Environmental Regeneration in Himalaya: Concepts and Strategies. The Central Himalayan Environment Association, Nainital, India, pp. 12-38.
101. Vandermeer, J. (1989). The Ecology of Intercropping. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
102. Vigne, G. T. (1844). Travels in Kashmir, Ladak, Iskardo, the Countries Adjoining the Mountain-Course of the Indus, and the Himalaya, North of the Punjab. Henry Colburn, Publisher, London.
103. Vuichard, D., and Zimmermann, M. (1987). The 1985 catastrophic drainage of a moraine-dammed lake, Khumbu Himal, Nepal: Causes and consequences. Mountain Research and Development 7(2): 91-110.
104. Waddell, E. (1975). How the Enga cope with frost: Responses to climatic perturbations in the central highlands of New Guinea. Human Ecology 3(4): 249-273.
105. Waddell, E. (1983). Coping with frosts, governments and disaster experts: Some reflections based on a New Guinea experience and a perusal of the relevant literature. In Hewitt, K. (ed.), Interpretations of Calamity: From the Viewpoint of Human Ecology. George Allen & Unwin, Boston, pp. 33-42.
106. Watts, M. (1983). Silent Violence: Food, Famine and Peasantry in Northern Nigeria. University of California Press, Berkeley.
107. Whiteman, P. T. S. (1985). Mountain Oases. A Technical Report of Agricultural Studies in the Hunza, Ishkoman and Yasin Valleys of Gilgit District, Pakistan, United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome, (mimeo).
108. Whiteman, P. T. S. (1988). Mountain agronomy in Ethiopia, Nepal and Pakistan. In Allan, N. J. R., Knapp, G. W., and Stadel, C. (eds.), Human Impacts on Mountains. Rowman & Littlefield, Totowa, NJ, pp. 57-83.
109. Workman, F. B., & Workman, W. H. (1908). Ice-Bound Heights of the Mustagh: An Account of Two Seasons of Pioneer Exploration and High Climbing in the Baltistan Himalaya. Archibald Constable &Co., London.
110. Young, P. (1939). Himalayan Holiday: A Trans-Himalayan Diary. London: Herbert Jenkins.