Fat metabolism during exercise: A review. Part I: Fatty acid mobilization and muscle metabolism

International Journal of Sports Medicine

Volumn 19, Issue 4, 1998, Pages 231-244

  Jeukendrup, A E ^a   Saris, W H M ^a   Wagenmakers, A J M ^a  

^a MAASTRICHT UNIVERSITY   (Netherlands)

Author keywords

Carnitine; Exercise; FABP; Fat metabolism; Fatty acids; Intramuscular triacylglycerols; Lipolysis; VLDL

Indexed keywords

ACETYL COENZYME A; ACYL COENZYME A; CARNITINE; CARNITINE PALMITOYLTRANSFERASE; CARRIER PROTEIN; FATTY ACID; TRIACYLGLYCEROL; TRIACYLGLYCEROL LIPASE;

ADIPOSE TISSUE; BLOOD; EXERCISE TEST; FATTY ACID METABOLISM; FATTY ACID OXIDATION; FATTY ACID TRANSPORT; LIPID METABOLISM; LIPOLYSIS; MITOCHONDRIAL MEMBRANE; MOBILIZATION; MUSCLE METABOLISM; REVIEW;

CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM; ENERGY METABOLISM; EXERCISE; FATTY ACIDS; HUMANS; LIPOLYSIS; MUSCLE CONTRACTION; MUSCLE, SKELETAL; OXIDATION-REDUCTION;

EID: 0031746035     PISSN: 01724622     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1055/s-2007-971911     Document Type: Review

References (146)

1. Abernethy PJ, Thayer R, Tayler AW. Acute and chronic responses of skeletal muscle to endurance and sprint exercise. Sports Med 1990; 10: 365-89
2. Abumrad NA, El-Maghrabi MR, Amri E-Z, Lopez E, Grimaldi PA. Cloning of a fat adipocyte membrane protein implicated in binding or transport of long-chain fatty acids that is induced during preadipocyte differentiation. J Biol Chem 1993; 268: 17665-8
3. Abumrad NA, Stearns SB, Tepperman HM, Tepperman J. Studies on serum lipids, insulin and glucogen and on muscle triglyceride in rats adapted to high-fat and high-carbohydrate diet. J Lipid Res 1978; 19: 423-32
4. Armstrong DT, Steele R, Altszuler N, Dunn A, Bishop JS, De Bodo RC. Regulation of plasma free fatty acid turnover. Am J Physiol 1961; 201: 9-15
5. Arner P, Kriegholm E, Engfeldt P, Bolinder J. Adrenergic regulation of lipolysis in situ at rest and during exercise. J Clin Invest 1990; 85: 893-8
6. Bach AC, Babayan VK. Medium-chain triglycerides: an update. Am J Clin Nutr 1982; 36: 950-62
7. Bassingthwaighte JB, Noodleman L, van der Vusse C, Glatz JFC. Modeling of palmitate transport in the heart. Mol Cell Biochem 1989; 88: 51-8
8. Bergstrom J, Hermansen L, Hultman E, Saltin B. Diet, muscle glycogen and physical performance. Acta Physiol Scand 1967; 71: 140-50
9. Bergstrom J, Hultman E. Muscle glycogen synthesis after exercise: an enhancing factor localized in muscle cells in man. Nature 1966; 210: 309-10
10. Bjorkman O. Fuel utilization during exercise. Biochemical aspects of physical exercise. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1986: 245-60
11. Björntorp P. Adipose tissue adaptation to exercise. Exercise, fitness and health. Champaign, Illinois: Human Kinetics books. 1990: 315-23
12. 1H-MR-spectroscopy. Magn Res Med 1997; 37: 484-93
13. Braun JEA, Severson DL Regulation of the synthesis, processing and translocation of lipoprotein lipase. Bioch J 1992; 287: 337-47
14. Brouns F, Saris WHM, Beckers E, Adlercreutz H, van der Vusse GJ, Keizer HA, Kuipers H, Menheere P, Wagenmakers AJM, ten Hoor F. Metabolic changes induced by sustained exhaustive cycling and diet manipulation. Int J Sports Med 1989; 10: S49-S62
15. Bülow J. Subcutaneous adipose tissue blood flow and triacylglycerol-mobilization during prolonged exercise in dogs. Pfluglers Arch 1982; 392: 230-4
16. Bülow J. Adipose tissue blood flow during exercise. Dan Med Bull 1983; 30: 85-100
17. Bülow J. Regulation of lipid mobilization in exercise. Can J Sport Sci 1987; 12: 117S-119S
18. Bülow J, Madsen J. Adipose tissue blood flow during prolonged heavy exercise. Pfluglers Arch 1976; 363: 231-4
19. Bülow J, Madsen J. Adipose tissue blood flow during prolonged heavy exercise II. Pfluglers Arch 1978; 378: 41-5
20. Bülow J, Madsen J, Astrup A, Christensen NJ. Vasoconstrictor effect of high FFA/albumin ratios in adipose tissue in vivo. Acta Physiol Scand 1985; 125: 661-7
21. Bülow J, Simonsen L, Madsen J. Effect of exercise and glucose ingestion on adipose tissue metabolism. Integration of Medical and Sport Sciences. Basel: Karger, 1992: 329-35
22. Calles-Escandon J, Sweet L, Ljungqvist O, Hirshman MF. The membrane associated 40 kD fatty acid binding protein (Berk's protein), a putative fatty acid transporter, is present in skeletal muscle. Life Sci 1996; 58: 19-28
23. Carlson LA, Pernow B. Studies on blood lipids during exercise. II. The arterial plasma-free fatty acid concentration during and after exercise and its regulation. J Lab Clin Med 1961; 58: 673-81
24. Christensen EH, Hansen O. Arbeitsfähigkeit und Ernährung. Scand Arch Physiol 1939; 81: 160-71
25. Cleroux J, van Nguyen P, Taylor AW, Leenen FHH. Effects of β1 vs. β1 + β2-blockade on exercise endurance and muscle metabolism in humans. J Appl Physiol 1989; 66: 548-54
26. Coppack SW, Jensen MD, Miles JN. In vivo regulation of lipolysis in humans. J Lipid Res 1994; 35: 177-93
27. Coyle EF, Jeukendrup AE, Wagenmakers AJM, Saris WHM. Fatty acid oxidation is directly regulated by carbohydrate metabolism during exercise. Am J Physiol 1997; 273: in press
28. Dagenais GR, Tancredi RG, Zierler KL. Free fatty acid oxidation by forearm muscle in rest, and evidence for an intramuscular lipid pool in the human forearm. J Glin Invest 1976; 58: 421-31
29. de Groot MJM, de Jong Y, Coumans WA, van der Vusse GJ. The hydrolysis of glycerol-3-phosphate into glycerol in cardiac tissue: possible consequences for the validity of glycerol release as a measure of lipolysis. Pfluglers Arch 1994; 427: 96-101
30. Dohm GL, Beeker RT, Israel RG, Tapscott EB. Metabolic responses after fasting. J Appl Physiol 1986; 61: 1363-8
31. Dohm GL, Tapscott EB, Barakat HA, Kasperek GJ. Influence of fasting on glycogen depletion in rats during exercise. J Appl Physiol 1983; 55: 830-3
32. Edwards HT, Margaria R, Dill DB. Metabolic rate, blood sugar and the utilization of carbohydrate. Am J Physiol 1934; 108: 203-9
33. Elia M, Khan K, Calder G, Kurpad A. Glycerol exchange across the human forearm assessed by a combination of tracer and arteriovenous exchange techniques. Clin Sci 1993; 84: 99-104
34. Emmison N, Agius L. Fatty acid uptake and metabolism to ketone bodies and tricylglycerol in rat and human hepatocyte cultures is dependent on chain length and degree of saturation. FEBS 1988; 236: 83-8
35. Essen B. Intramuscular substrate utilization during prolonged exercise. Ann N Y Acad Sci, New York Academy of Sciences. 1977: 30-44
36. Essen-Gustavsson B, Tesch PA. Glycogen and triglyceride utilization in relation to muscle metabolic characteristics in men performing heavy-resistance exercise. Eur J Appl Physiol 1990; 61: 5-10
37. Fain JN, Garciá-Sáinz JA. Adrenergic stimulation of adipocyte metabolism. J Lipid Res 1983; 24: 945-66
38. Felig P, Wahren J. Fuel homeostasis in exercise. New Eng J Med 1975; 20: 1078-1975
39. Fröberg SO. Effect of acute exercise on tissue lipids in rats. Metabolism 1971; 20: 714-20
40. Fröberg SO, Hultman E, Nilsson LH. Effect of noradrenaline on triglyceride and glycogen concentrations in liver and muscle from man. Metabolism 1975; 24: 119-26
41. Galster AD, Clutter WE, Cryer PE, Collins JA. Epinephrine plasma thresholds for lipolystic effects in man. J Clin Invest 1981; 67: 1729-38
42. Gartner SL, Vahouny GV. Effects of epinephrine and 3′,5′-AMP on perfursed rat hearts. Am J Physiol 1972; 222: 1121-4
43. George JC, Jyoti D. Histological features of the breast and leg muscles of bird and bat and their physiological and evolutionary significance. 1955: 31-6
44. Glatz JFC, van der Vusse GJ. Lipid terminology: "free fatty acid is ambiguous". TIBS 1988; 13: 167-77
45. Glatz JFC, van der Vusse GJ. Cellular fatty acid binding proteins: their function and physiological significance. Progress in Lipid Research, 1996: in press
46. Glatz JFC, van der Vusse GJ, Veerkamp JH. Fatty acid binding proteins and their physiological significance. NIPS 1988; 3: 41-3
47. Gollnick PD. Metabolism of substrates: energy substrate metabolism during exercise and as modified by training. Fed Proc 1985; 44: 353-7
48. Gollnick PD, Ianuzzo CD, Williams C, Hill TR. Effect of prolonged, severe exercise on the ultrastructure of human skeletal muscle. Int Z Angew Physiol 1969; 27: 257-65
49. Gollnick PD, Pernow B, Essen B, Jansson E, Saltin B. Availability of glycogen and plasma FFA for substrate utilization in leg muscle of man during exercise. Clin Physiol 1981; 1: 27-42
50. Gollnick PD, Saltin B. Fuel for muscular exercise. Exercise, nutrition and energy metabolism. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1988: 71-88
51. Goresky CA, Daly DS, Mishkin S, Arias IM. Uptake of labelled palmitate by the intact liver: role of intracellular binding sites. Am J Physiol 1978; 3: E542-E553
52. Gorski J. Muscle triglyceride metabolism during exercise. Can J Physiol Pharmacol 1990; 70: 123-31
53. Green HJ, Houston ME, Thomson JA, Sutton JR, Gollnick PD. Metabolic consequences of supramaximal arm work performed during prolonged submaximal leg work. J Appl Physiol 1979; 46: 249-55
54. Groot PHE, Hülsmann WC. The activation and oxidation of octanoate and palmitate by rat skeletal muscle mitochondria. Biochim Biophys Acta 1973; 316: 124-35
55. Guezennec CY. Role of lipids on endurance capacity in man. Int J Sports Med 1992; 13: S114-S118
56. Hagenfeldt L, Wahren J. Human forearm muscle metabolism during exercise II. Scand J Clin Lab Invest 1968; 21: 263-76
57. Hagenfeldt L, Wahren J. Metabolism of free fatty acids and ketone bodies in skeletal muscle. Muscle metabolism during exercise, II. New York: Plenum, 1971: 153-63
58. Hales CN, Luzio JP, Siddle K. Hormonal control of adipose-tissue lipolysis. Bioch Soc Symp 1978; 43: 97-135
59. Hargreaves M, Kiens B, Richter EA. Effect of increased plasma free fatty acid concentrations on muscle metabolism in exercis-ing men. J Appl Physiol 1991; 70: 194-201
60. Harmon CM, Abumrad NA. Binding of sulfosuccinimidyl fatty acids to adipocyte membrane proteins: isolation and amino-terminal sequence of an 88-kD protein implicated in transport of long-chain fatty acids. J Membr Biol 1993; 133: 43-7
61. Havel RJ, Pernow B, Jones NL. Uptake and release of free fatty acids and other metabolites in the legs of exercising men. J Appl Physiol 1967; 23: 90-9
62. Hodgetts V, Coppack SW, Frayn KN, Hockaday TDR. Factors controlling fat mobilization from human subcutaneous adipose tissue during exercise. J Appl Physiol 1991; 71: 445-51
63. Holloszy JO. Utilization of fatty acids during exercise. Exerc Sport Sci Rev. Illinois: Hum Kin Publ, 1988: 319-27
64. Holloszy JO, Coyle EF. Adaptations of skeletal muscle to endurance exercise and their metabolic consequences. J Appl Physiol 1984; 56: 831-8
65. Hopp JF, Palmer WK. Effect of electrical stimulation on intracellular triacylglycerol in isolated skeletal muscle. J Appl Physiol 1990; 68: 348-54
66. Hoppeler H. Exercise-induced ultrastructural changes in skeletal muscle. Int J Sports Med 1986; 7: 187-204
67. Hornstra G. Dietary fats, prostanoids and arterial thrombosis. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff publishers, 1982
68. Horowitz JF, Mora-Rodriguez R, Byerley LO, Coyle EF. Lipolytic suppression following carbohydrate ingestion limits fat oxidation during exercise. APStracts 1997; 4: 0145 E
69. Hultman E. Physiological role of muscle glycogen in man, with special reference to exercise. Circ Res 1967; 10: 1-99-1-114
70. Hurley BF, Nemeth PM, Martin WH III, Hagberg JM, Dalsky GP, Holloszy JO. Muscle triglyceride utilization during exercise: effect of training. J Appl Physiol 1986; 60: 562-7
71. Issekutz B, Bortz WM, Miller HI, Paul P. Turnover rate of plasma FFA in humans and in dogs. Metabolism 1967; 16: 1001-9
72. Issekutz B, Miller HI, Paul P, Rodahl K. Source of fat in exercising dogs. Am J Physiol 1964; 207: 583-9
73. Issekutz B, Shaw WA, Issekutz TB. Effect of lactate on FFA and glycerol turnover in resting and exercising dogs. J Appl Physiol 1975; 39: 349-53
74. Jansson E. Diet and muscle metabolism in man. Acta Physiol Scand 1980; 487; 1-24
75. Jansson E, Kaijser L. Substrate utilization and enzymes in skeletal muscle of extremely endurance-trained men. J Appl Physiol 1987; 62: 999-1005
76. Jones PJH, Pencharz PB, Clandinin MT. Whole body oxidation of dietary fatty acids: implications for energy utilization. Am J Clin Nutr 1985; 42: 769-77
77. Kiens B, Essen-Gustavsson B, Christensen NJ, Saltin B. Skeletal muscle substrate utilization during submaximal exercise in man: effect of endurance training. J Physiol 1993; 469: 459-78
78. Kiens B, Essen-Gustavsson B, Gad P, Lithell H. Lipoprotein lipase activity and intramuscular triglyceride stores after long-term high-fat and high-carbohydrate diets in physically trained men. Clin Physiol 1987; 7: 1-9
79. Kiens B, Lithell H. Lipoprotein metabolism influenced by training induced changes in human skeletal muscle. J Clin Invest 1989; 83: 558-64
80. Krogh A, Lindhard J. The relative value of fat and carbohydrate as sources of muscular energy. Bioch J 1920; 14: 290-363
81. Ladu MJ. Regulation of lipoprotein lipase in muscle and adipose tissue during exercise. J Appl Physiol 1991; 71: 404-9
82. Leyton J, Drury PJ, Crawford MA. Differential oxidation of saturated and unsaturated fatty acids in vivo in the rat. Br J Nutr 1987; 57: 383-93
83. Madsen J, Bülow J, Nielsen NE. Inhibition of FFA mobilization by arterial free fatty acid concentration. Acta Physiol Scand 1986; 127: 161-6
84. Martin III WH, Dalsky GP, Hurley BF, Matthews DE, Bier DM, Hagberg JM, Rogers MA, King DS, Holloszy JO. Effect of endurance training on plasma free fatty acid turnover and oxidation during exercise. Am J Physiol 1993; 265: E708-E714
85. McGarry JD, Foster DW. Regulation of hepatic fatty acid oxidation and ketone body production. Ann Rev Biochem 1980; 49: 395-420
86. McGarry JD, Mills SE, Long CS, Foster DW. Observations on the affinity for carnitine, and malonyl-CoA sensitivity, of carnitine palmitoyl transferase I in animal and human tissues. Bioch J 1983; 214: 21-8
87. McGarry JD, Stark MJ, Foster DW. Hepatic Malonyl-CoA levels of fed, fasted and diabetic rats as measured using simple radioisotopic assay. J Biol Chem 1978; 253: 8291-3
88. McGilvery. The use of fuels for muscular work. Metabolic adaptation to prolonged physical exercise. Basel: Birkhauser Verlag, 1975: 12-30
89. 13C: A comparison of oxidation after oral or parenteral administration in humans. J Nutr 1991; 121: 31-6
90. Miller WC, Bryce R, Conlee RK. Adaptation to a highfat diet that increase exercise endurance in male rats. J Appl Physiol 1984; 56: 78-83
91. Murray R, Eddy DE, Paul GL, Seifert JG, Halaby GA. Physiological responses to glycerol ingestion during exercise. J Appl Physiol 1991; 71: 144-9
92. Newsholme EA, Leech AR. Biochemistry for the medical sciences. Chichester. John Wiley & Sons, 1990
93. Numa S. Fatty acid metabolism and its regulation. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1984
94. Oberholzer F, Claassen H, Moesch H, Howald H. Ultrastrukturelle, biochemische und energetische Analyse einer extremen Dauerleistung (100km Lauf). Schweiz Z Sportmed 1976; 24: 71-98
95. Olsson AG, Eklund B, Kaijser L, Carlson LA. Extraction of endogenous plasma triglycerides by the working human forearm muscle in the fasting state. Scand J Clin Lab Invest 1975; 35: 231-6
96. Oscai LB, Essig DA, Palmer WK. Lipase regulation of muscle triglyceride hydrolysis. J Appl Physiol 1990; 69: 1571-7
97. Paul P. Effects of long lasting physical exercise and training on lipid metabolism. Metabolic adaptation to prolonged physical exercise. Basel: Birkhauser Verlag, 1975: 156-93
98. Pearce FJ, Connett RJ. Effect of lactate and palmitate on substrate utilization of isolated rat soleus. Am J Physiol 1980; 238: C149-59
99. Potter BJ, Sorrentino D, Berk PD. Mechanisms of cellular uptake of free fatty acids. Ann Rev Nutr 1989; 9: 253-70
100. Reitman J, Baldwin KM, Holloszy JO. Intramuscular triglyceride utilisation by red, white and intermediate skeletal muscle and heart during exhaustive exercise. Proc soc Exp Biol Med 1973; 142: 628-31
101. Richieri GV, Anel A, Kleinfeld AM. Interactions of long-chain fatty acids and albumin: determination of free fatty acid levels using the fluorescent probe (ADIFAB). Biochemistry 1993; 32: 7574-81
102. Richieri GV, Kleinfeld AM. Unbound free fatty acid levels in human serum. J Lipid Res 1995; 36: 229-40
103. Richter EA. Interaction of fuels in muscle metabolism during exercise. In: Y. Sato et al. (eds). Integration of Medical and Sports Sciences. Basel. Karger (1992): 349-55
104. Robinson J. Newsholme EA. Glycerol kinase activity in rat heart and adipose tissue. Bioch J 1967; 104: 2C-4C
105. Romijn JA, Coyle EF, Sidossis LS, Gastaldelli A, Horowitz JF, Endert E, Wolfe RR. Regulation of endogenous fat and carbohydrate metabolism in relation to exercise intensity. Am J Physiol 1993; 265: E380-E391
106. Saggerson ED, Carpenter CA. Carnitine palmitoyltransferase and carnitine octanoyltransferase activities in liver, kidney cortex, adipocyte, lactating mammary gland, skeletal muscle and heart. FEBS letter 1981; 129: 229-32
107. Sahlin K, Broberg S. Tricarboxylic acid cycle intermediates in human muscle during prolonged exercise. Am J Physiol 1990; 259: C834-C841
108. Saltin B, Astrand P-O. Free fatty acids and exercise. Am J Clin Nutr 1993; 57: 752S-758S
109. Saltin B, Gollnick PD. Skeletal muscle adaptability: significance for metabolism and performance. In: Handbook of physiology. Baltimore, Williams and Wilkins, 1983: 555-661
110. Schaffer JE, Lodish HF. Expression cloning and characterization of a novel adipocyte long chain fatty acid transport protein. Cell 1994; 79: 427-36
111. Shaw WAS, Issekutz TB, Issekutz B. Interrelationship of FFA and glycerol turnovers in resting and exercising dogs. J Appl Physiol 1975; 39: 30-60
112. Sorrentino D, Stump D, Potter BJ, Robinson RB, White R, Kiang C-L, Berk PD. Oleate uptake by cardiac myocytes is carrier mediated and involves a 40-kD plasma membrane fatty acid binding protein similar to that in liver, adipose tissue and gut. J Clin Invest 1988; 82: 928-35
113. Spector AA. Fatty acid binding to plasma albumin. J Lipid Res 1975; 16: 165-79
114. Spencer MK, Yan Z, Katz A. Carbohydrate supplementation attenuates IMP accumulation in human muscle during prolonged exercise. Am J Physiol 1991; 261: C71-C76
115. Spriet LL, Heigenhauser JF, Jones NL. Endogenous triacylglycerol utilization by rat skeletal muscle during tetanic stimulation. J Appl Physiol 1986; 60: 410-5
116. Stankiewicz-Choroszucha B, Gorski J. Effect of beta-adrenergic blockade on intramuscular triglyceride utilization during exercise. Experientia 1978; 34: 357-8
117. Stankiewicz-Choroszucha B, Gorski J. Effect of decreased availability of substrates on intramuscular triglyceride utilization during exercise. Eur J Appl Physiol 1978; 40: 27-35
118. Stremmel W, Strohmeyer G, Berk PD. Hepatocellular uptake of oleate is energy dependent, sodium linked, and inhibited by an antibody to a hepatocyte plasma membrane fatty acid binding protein. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1986; 83: 3584-8
119. Strohfeldt P, Heugel C. Characterisation of triglyceride lipase activities in rat skeletal muscle. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1984; 121: 87-94
120. Stumpf DA, Parker WD, Angelini C. Carnitine deficiency, organic acidemias, and Reye's syndrome. Neurology 1985; 35: 1041-5
121. Taskinen M-R, Nikkilä EA, Rehunen S, Gordin A. Effect of vigourous exercise on lipoprotein lipase activity of adipose tissue and skeletal muscle in physically active men. Artery 1980; 6: 471-83
122. Terjung RL, Budohoski L, Nazar K, Kobryn A, Kaciuba-Uscilko. Chylomicron triglyceride metabolism in resting and exercising dogs. J Appl Physiol 1982; 52: 815-20
123. Turcotte LP, Hespel PJ, Graham TE, Richter EA. Impaired plasma FFA oxidation imposed by extreme CHO deficiency in con-tracting rat skeletal muscle. J Appl Physiol 1994; 77: 517-25
124. Turcotte LP, Kiens B, Richter EA. Saturation kinetics of palmitate uptake in perfused skeletal muscle. FEBS 1991; 279: 327-9
125. Van der Vusse GJ, Glatz JFC, Stam HCG, Reneman RS. Fatty acid homeostasis in the normoxic and ischemic heart. Physiol Rev 1992; 72: 881-940
126. Van der Vusse GJ, Reneman RS. Lipid metabolism in muscle. Handbook of Physiology, section 12: Exercise: Regulation and integration of multiple systems. New York: Oxford Press, 1996: 952-94
127. Van Hall G. Ammino acids, ammonia and exercise in man. Maastricht: Maastricht University, 1996
128. Van Hall G, van der Vusse GJ, Soderlund K, Wagenmakers AJ. Deamination of amino acids as a source for ammonia production in human skeletal muscle during prolonged exercise. J Physiol 1995; 489: 251-61
129. van Nieuwenhoven FA, van der Vusse GJ, Glatz JFC. Membrane-associated and cytoplasmic fatty acid-binding proteins, Lipids 1996; 31: S223-S227
130. Vork MM, Glatz JFC, Surtel DAM, Knubben H, Van der Vusse JM and G. A sandwich enzyme linked immunosorbent assay for the determination of rat heart fatty acid binding protein using the straptavidin-biotin system. Application to tissue and effluent samples from normoxic rat heart perfusion. Biochim Biophys Acta 1991; 1075: 199-205
131. Wagenmakers AJM, Beckers EJ, Brouns F, Kuipers H, Soeters PB, van der Vusse GJ, Saris WHM. Carbohydrate supplementation, glycogen depletion, and amino acid metabolism during exercise. Am J Physiol 1990: 260
132. Wagenmakers AJM, Coakley JH, Edwards HT. Metabolism of branched chain amino acids and ammonia during exercise: clues from McArdle's disease. Int J Sports Med 1990; 11: S101-S113
133. Wahrenberg H, Engfeldt P, Bolinder J, Arner P. Acute adaptation in adrenergic control of lipolysis during physical exercise in humans. Am J Physiol 1987; 253: E383-E390
134. Walker M, Cooper BG, Elliott C, Reed JW, Orskov H, Alberti KGMM. Role of non-esterified fatty acids during and after exercise. Clin Sci 1991; 81: 319-25
135. Wendung PS, Peters SJ, Heigenhauser GJF, Spriet LL. Variability of triacylglycerol content in human skeletal muscle biopsy samples. J Appl Physiol 1996; 81: 1150-1155
136. Williams RS, Caron MG, Daniel K. Skeletal muscle beta-adrenergic receptors: variations due to fiber type and training. Am J Physiol 1984; 246: E160-E167
137. Williamson JR. Metabolic effects of epinephrine in the isolated, perfused rat heart. J Biol Chem 1964; 239: 2721-9
138. Winder WW, Arogyasami J, Barton RJ, Elayan IM, Vehrs PR. Muscle malonyl-CoA decreases during exercise. J Appl Physiol 1989; 67: 2230-3
139. Winder WW, Arogyasami J, Elayan IM, Cartmill D. Time course of exercise-induced decline in malonyl-CoA in different muscle types. Am J Physiol 1990; 259: E266-271
140. Winder WW, Braiden RW, Cartmill DC, Hutber CA, Jones JP. Effect of adrenomedullation on decline in musle malonyl-CoA during exercise. J Appl Physiol 1993; 74: 2548-51
141. Wolfe RR. Radioactive and stable isotope tracers in biomedicine. New York: Wiley-Liss. 1992
142. Wolfe RR, Klein S, Carraro F, Weber J-M. Role of triglyceride-fatty acid cycle in controlling fat metabolism in humans during and after exercise. Am J Physiol 1990; 258: E382-E389
143. Wolfe RR, Peters EJ, Klein S, Holland OB, Rosenblatt J, Gary H. Effect of short-term fasting on lipolytic responsiveness in normal and obese human subjects. Am J Physiol 1987; 252: E189-E196
144. Young DR, Shapira J, Forrest R, Adachi RR, Lim R, Pelligra R. Model for evaluation of fatty acid metabolism during prolonged exercise. J Appl Physiol 1967; 23: 716-25
145. Zuntz N. Über die Rolle des Zuckers im thierischen Stoffwechsel. Arch Physiol 1896: 538-77
146. Zuntz N. Über die Bedeutung der verschiedenen Nährstoffe als Erzeuger der Muskelkraft. Pfluglers Arch 1901; 83: 557-71