Conflicts in the north Caucasus

Central Asian Survey

Volumn 17, Issue 3, 1998, Pages 409-441

  Cornell, Svante E ^a  

^a UPPSALA UNIVERSITY   (Sweden)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

POLITICS; WAR;

CAUCASUS; RUSSIAN FEDERATION;

EID: 0031738841     PISSN: 02634937     EISSN: None     Source Type: Trade Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/02634939808401045     Document Type: Article

References (157)

1. Great Soviet Encyclopaedia, 1976, 'Ingush'.
2. See Julian Birch, 'Ossetia: a Caucasian Bosnia in microcosm', Central Asian Survey, Vol 14, No 1, 1995, pp 43-74.
3. The city was called Vladikavkaz (roughly translated as 'Conquer the Caucasus') until 1931, when it was named Ordzhonikidze after one of the great Caucasian Bolsheviks, Georgiy Konstantinovich Ordzhonikidze. Perhaps as Ordzhonikidze came into conflict with Stalin in the mid-1930s and died of a 'heart attack', the city was renamed Dzhaudzhikau in 1945, only to receive the name back in 1954. In 1990 it was once again renamed Vladikavkaz.
4. See Alexandr Nekrich, The Punished Peoples: the Deportation and the Fate of the Soviet Minorities at the end of the Second World War, New York: Norton and Co., 1978, p 91; quoted in Human Rights Watch/Helsinki, The Ingush-Ossetian Conflict in the Prigorodnyi Region, New York: Human Rights Watch, 1996.
5. See Alexandr Nekrich, The Punished Peoples: the Deportation and the Fate of the Soviet Minorities at the end of the Second World War, New York: Norton and Co., 1978, p 91; quoted in Human Rights Watch/Helsinki, The Ingush-Ossetian Conflict in the Prigorodnyi Region, New York: Human Rights Watch, 1996.
6. See Birch, op cit (note 2), p 53.
7. See Human Rights Watch/Helsinki, op cit (note 4), p 12.
8. Ibid.
9. Natsiyonal'niy Sostav Naselenya SSSR Po Dannym Vsyesoyuzniy Perepisi Naselenya 1989, Moscow 1991.
10. See Swetlana Tscherwonnaja, 'Der Ossetisch-Inguschische Konflikt im Nordkaukasus I', in Osteuropa, August (8) 1995, p 741.
11. Human Rights Watch/Helsinki, 'Punished Peoples' of the Soviet Union - the Continuing Legacy of Stalin's Deportations, New York: Human Rights Watch, 1991, pp 48-49. The 'visitor' from Moscow, Mikhail S. Solomontsev, was also the prime minister of the RSFSR.
12. Formerly the North Ossetian Autonomous Socialist Soviet Republic, recently changed to the Republic of North Ossetia-Alania.
13. See Vadim Ogoyev, 'The Ossetians' "Loyalty" to Socialism as a Crisis of National Self-Awareness', Nezavisimaya Gazeta, 8 July 1992, in condensed form in Current Digest of the Post-Soviet Press, Vol 44, No 27, 5 August 1992, p 26.
14. See Vadim Ogoyev, 'The Ossetians' "Loyalty" to Socialism as a Crisis of National Self-Awareness', Nezavisimaya Gazeta, 8 July 1992, in condensed form in Current Digest of the Post-Soviet Press, Vol 44, No 27, 5 August 1992, p 26.
15. See Fiona Hill, 'Russia's Tinderbox': Conflict in the North Caucasus and its Implications for the Future of the Russian Federation, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University, JFK School of Government Strengthening Democratic Institutions Project, p 49.
16. See Birch, op cit (note 2), p 55.
17. Felix Corley, 'The Inguish-Ossetian Conflict', in Jane's Intelligence Review, September 1994, p 401.
18. See Tscherwonnaja, op cit (note 9), p 744.
19. Human Rights Watch/Helsinki, op cit (note 4), p 29.
20. Ibid, p 30.
21. Izvestiya, 20 October 1992.
22. See Swetlana Tscherwonnaja, op cit (note 9), p 745, quoting Izvestiya, 21 October 1992.
23. See Swetlana Tscherwonnaja, op cit (note 9), p 745, quoting Izvestiya, 21 October 1992.
24. Human Rights Watch/Helsinki, op cit (note 4), p. 33; Birch, op cit (note 2), p 57.
25. Human Rights Watch/Helsinki, op cit (note 4), p. 33; Birch, op cit (note 2), p 57.
26. See Alexei Zverev, 'Ethnic conflict in the Caucasus 1988-94', in Bruno Coppetiers, Contested Borders in the Caucasus, Brussels: VUB Press, 1996.
27. See Foreign Broadcast Information Service, Central Eurasia series (hereafter FBIS-SOV), 29 October 1992.
28. Human Rights Watch/Helsinki, The Ingush-Ossetian Conflict, p 34.
29. Zverev, op cit (note 19).
30. Human Rights Watch/Helsinki, op cit (note 4), p 35.
31. Human Rights Watch/Helsinki, op cit (note 4), p 60. The Ingush give totally different figures, according to which the death toll is counted in tens of thousands. However, all impartial sources seem to show that the official figures are at least a good estimation of the reality.
32. See Tscherwonnaja, op cit (note 9), p 750.
33. See OMRI Daily Digest, 17 February 1995.
34. Mohiaddin Mesbahi, 'Russian foreign policy and security in Central Asia and the Caucasus', Central Asian Survey, No 2, 1993, p 192.
35. For the full text of the document, see Nezavisimaya Gazeta, 23 March 1994; for discussion of the issue, see Human Rights Watch/Helsinki, op cit (note 4), pp 68-69.
36. For the full text of the document, see Nezavisimaya Gazeta, 23 March 1994; for discussion of the issue, see Human Rights Watch/Helsinki, op cit (note 4), pp 68-69.
37. Rossiyskaya Gazeta, 6 November 1992.
38. Birch, op cit (note 2), p 60.
39. Human Rights Watch/Helsinki, op cit (note 4), pp 64-65.
40. Ibid; pp 60-61; Birch, op cit (note 2), p 62.
41. Ibid; pp 60-61; Birch, op cit (note 2), p 62.
42. See Hill, op cit (note 13), p 50.
43. Swetlana Tscherwonnaja, 'Der Ossetisch-Inguschische Konflikt im Nordkaukasus II', in Osteuropa, September 1995, p 831.
44. Human Rights Watch/Helsinki, op cit (note 4), pp 79-81.
45. See FBIS-SOV, 21 August 1995, quoting Ekho Moskvy.
46. OMRI Daily Digest, 14 August 1995.
47. OMRI Daily Digest, 12 October 1995.
48. FBIS-SOV, 28 April 1995, quoting Interfax.
49. OMRI Daily Digest, 25 October 1995.
50. The Washington Post, 25 February 1996; OMRI Daily Digest, 26 February 1995.
51. The Washington Post, 25 February 1996; OMRI Daily Digest, 26 February 1995.
52. 'Grenade attack on Ingush refugees', The Jamestown Monitor, 17 July 1997.
53. See 'Aushev calls on Kremlin to declare presidential rule in conflict area', The Jamestown Monitor, 16 July 1997.
54. See 'Ossetian-Ingush crisis puts Kremlin in difficult position', The Jamestown Monitor, 28 July 1997; 'Moscow appears to favor Ossetian side in Ingush conflict', The Jamestown Monitor, 29 July 1997; and Liz Fuller, 'Moscow's ostrich policy in the North Caucasus', RFE/RL Report, 11 August 1997. As for the proposed action programme, see 'Diplomatic victory for Vladikavkaz', The Jamestown Monitor, 17 October 1997.
55. See 'Ossetian-Ingush crisis puts Kremlin in difficult position', The Jamestown Monitor, 28 July 1997; 'Moscow appears to favor Ossetian side in Ingush conflict', The Jamestown Monitor, 29 July 1997; and Liz Fuller, 'Moscow's ostrich policy in the North Caucasus', RFE/RL Report, 11 August 1997. As for the proposed action programme, see 'Diplomatic victory for Vladikavkaz', The Jamestown Monitor, 17 October 1997.
56. See 'Ossetian-Ingush crisis puts Kremlin in difficult position', The Jamestown Monitor, 28 July 1997; 'Moscow appears to favor Ossetian side in Ingush conflict', The Jamestown Monitor, 29 July 1997; and Liz Fuller, 'Moscow's ostrich policy in the North Caucasus', RFE/RL Report, 11 August 1997. As for the proposed action programme, see 'Diplomatic victory for Vladikavkaz', The Jamestown Monitor, 17 October 1997.
57. See 'Ossetian-Ingush crisis puts Kremlin in difficult position', The Jamestown Monitor, 28 July 1997; 'Moscow appears to favor Ossetian side in Ingush conflict', The Jamestown Monitor, 29 July 1997; and Liz Fuller, 'Moscow's ostrich policy in the North Caucasus', RFE/RL Report, 11 August 1997. As for the proposed action programme, see 'Diplomatic victory for Vladikavkaz', The Jamestown Monitor, 17 October 1997.
58. 'Ingush refugee camp attacked', The Jamestown Monitor, 31 July 1997.
59. OMRI Daily Digest, 2 February 1995.
60. For a discussion of the similarity of the political orientation of the Ingush and the Ossetians, see Tscherwonnaja, op cit (note 37), pp 825-829.
61. For an overview of the Confederation, see Dodge Billingsley, 'Confederates of the Caucasus', Jane's Intelligence Review, February 1997.
62. Helen Krag and Lars Funch, The North Caucasus: Minorities at a Crossroads, Minority Rights Publications, 1994, p 30.
63. See Alexandre Bennigsen and S. Enders Wimbush, Muslims of the Soviet Empire: A Guide, London: Hurst & Co., 1985, pp 190-200. See also Rieks Smeets, 'Circassia', Central Asian Survey, Vol 14, No 1, 1995, pp 107-125.
64. See Alexandre Bennigsen and S. Enders Wimbush, Muslims of the Soviet Empire: A Guide, London: Hurst & Co., 1985, pp 190-200. See also Rieks Smeets, 'Circassia', Central Asian Survey, Vol 14, No 1, 1995, pp 107-125.
65. Bennigsen and Wimbush, op cit (note 53), pp 201-204.
66. For an overview of the cooptation of Caucasian elites, see Chantal Lemercier-Quelquejay, 'Cooptation of the Elites of Kabarda and Dagestan in the Sixteenth Century', in Marie Bennigsen Broxup (ed.) The North Caucasus Barrier, London: Hurst & Company, 1992.
67. Bennigsen and Wimbush, op cit (note 53), p 200.
68. Ibid, p 203.
69. Ibid, p 202.
70. See Sergei Arutiunov, 'Ethnicity and conflict in the Caucasus', paper presented at a 1997 symposium of the Slavic Research Centre, Hokkaido University, p 8.
71. Marina Pustilnik, 'Caucasian stresses', Transition, 15 March 1995, pp 16-18.
72. See Arutionov, op cit (note 58), p 8.
73. See Tomila Lankina, 'The Cossacks: a guarantor of peace or a land-mine in Russia's federalism?', Nationalities Papers, No 4, 1996.
74. Pustilnik, op cit (note 49), p 18.
75. See Suzanne Goldenberg, Pride of Small Nations: The Caucasus and Post-Soviet Disorder, London: Zed, 1994, p 206.
76. For details on the Cossack revival, see Roman Laba, 'The Cossack movement and the Russian state, 1990-96', Low Intensity Conflict and Law Enforcement, Vol 5, No 3, Winter 1996, pp 377-408.
77. See Hill, op cit (note 13), pp 67-73 for the Cossacks' territorial demands and their implications.
78. Ibid, p 205.
79. See Hill, op cit (note 13), p 63.
80. See Arutiunov, op cit (note 58), p 10.
81. President of Karachayevo-Cherkessiya postpones elections', OMRI Russian Regional Report, 8 May 1997.
82. First protest meeting in Karachaevo-Cherkessia's history', The Jamestown Monitor, 28 January 1998.
83. Population of Karachaevo-Cherkessia demand to elect their president', The Jamestown Monitor, 26 February 1998.
84. See 'Former Russian commander may run for presidency in Karachaevo-Cherkessia', in The Jamestown Monitor, 2 May 1997.
85. See Krag and Funch, op cit (note 52), p 32.
86. See Natalia Gorodetskaya, in Segodnya, 23 November 1996, in Current Digest of the Post-Soviet Press (hereafter Current Digest), No 47, 1996, p 16.
87. See Natalia Gorodetskaya, in Segodnya, 23 November 1996, in Current Digest of the Post-Soviet Press (hereafter Current Digest), No 47, 1996, p 16.
88. Krag and Funch, op cit (note 52), p 32.
89. OMRI Daily Digest, 19 November 1996.
90. See Dimitry Kamyshev, in Kommersant, 20 November 1996, in 'The Chechen example could become contagious', Current Digest, No 47, 1996, p 15.
91. See Dimitry Kamyshev, in Kommersant, 20 November 1996, in 'The Chechen example could become contagious', Current Digest, No 47, 1996, p 15.
92. See OMRI Russian Regional Report, 4 December 1996.
93. OMRI Daily Digest, 26 November 1996.
94. OMRI Daily Digest, 9 January 1997.
95. For a useful background, see Anna Matveeva and Clem McCarthy, The Lezgins: A Situation Assessment, International Alert Report, May 1997.
96. See Julian Birch, 'Border disputes and disputed borders in the Soviet federal system', Nationalities Papers, No 1, 1987.
97. See Elizabeth Fuller, 'Caucasus: the Lezgin campaign for autonomy', in RFE/RL Research Report, 16 October 1992, pp 30-32.
98. Sec Shirin Akiner, Islamic Peoples of the Soviet Union, London: Kegan Paul, 1983.
99. See Vicken Cheterian, 'Les Mille et Une Guerres du Caucase', Le Monde Diplomatique, August 1994.
100. On Sadval, see Matveeva and McCarthy, op cit (note 81), pp 27-33.
101. Elizabeth Fuller, 'The Lezgin hostage-taking: background on Sadval' OMRI Analytical Brief No 226, 15 July 1996.
102. See Matveeva and McCarthy, op cit (note 81), pp 21-22.
103. Fuller, op cit (note 83, p 31.
104. On the Russian manipulation of ethnic tensions, see the chapter on Russia in Svante E. Cornell, Small Nations and Great Powers - A Study of Ethnopolitical Conflict in the Caucasus, London: Curzon Press, 1999 (forthcoming).
105. See Hill, op cit (note 13), pp 55-56.
106. See Cheterian, op cit (note 85).
107. See Matveeva and McCarthy, op cit. (note 81), p 30.
108. Fuller, op cit (note 87).
109. See Matveeva and McCarthy, op cit (note 81), p 29.
110. Ibid, p 52.
111. See 'Tension in Dagestan on eve of Lezgin Congress', The Jamestown Monitor, 2 December 1997.
112. See Marie Bennigsen Broxup, 'The Last Ghazawat: the 1920-21 uprising', in Broxup, op cit (note 55), pp 112-145.
113. Marie Bennigsen Broxup, 'Introduction: Russia and the North Caucasus', in Broxup, op cit (note 55), p 15.
114. For a short overview and an ethno-linguistic map of Dagestan and the Caucasus, see Mike Edwards, 'The fractured Caucasus', National Geographic, February 1996.
115. Natsiyonal'niy Sostav Naselenya SSSR Po Dannym Vsyesoyuzniy Perepisi Naselenya 1989, Moscow, 1991.
116. The Andi group is composed of the Andi and seven smaller peoples, the Akhvakh, Bagulal, Botlikh, Chamalal, Godoberi, Karata and Tindi. These peoples have been registered as Avars since 1926.
117. The Dido group is composed of the Archi, Bezheta, Ginukh, Hunzal, Kapuchi and Khwarshi. They have not been registered individually since 1926.
118. See Brian Murray, 'Peace in the Caucasus: multi-ethnic stability in Dagestan', Central Asian Survey, Vol 13, No 4, 1994, p 507-523.
119. See Marie Bennigsen Broxup, 'After the Putsch', in Broxup, op cit (note 55), p 237.
120. Cheterian, op cit (note 85).
121. See Ismail Özsoy, 'The socio-economic problems of Dagestan (1995)', Eurasian Studies (Ankara), Winter 1995/96.
122. See Michael S. Serril, 'Blown Away', Time, 29 January, 1996.
123. See Andrei Smirnov, 'A State Duma Member Tried to Stage a Coup In the Republic', in Segodnya, 22 May 1998.
124. See RFE/RL Newsline, 27 May 1998.
125. See Smirnov, 'A State Duma Member ...', op cit (110).
126. See the rather tendentious discussion in Julia Kalinina, 'Chechnya Ready to Sever Dagestan from Russia', in Moskovsky Komsomolets, 26 May 1998.
127. See RFE/RL Caucasus Report, Vol 1 No 14, 2 June 1998.
128. Movladi Udugov: 'We have nothing to do with it', in Moskovsky Komsomolets, 22 May 1998.
129. For a recent overview of the most pressing problems of Dagestan, see Liz Fuller, 'Fault Lines in Dagestan', in RFE/RL Caucasus Report, Vol 1 No 14, 2 June 1998.
130. See Vladimir Bobrovnikov, 'The Islamic revival and the national question in post-Soviet Dagestan', Religion, State, and Society - The Keston Journal, Vol 24, Nos 2/3, September 1996, p 234.
131. See Fanny E. B. Bryan, 'Internationalism, nationalism and Islam', in Broxup, op cit (note 45).
132. See Bobrovnikov, op cit (note 109), p 233.
133. See Cheterian, op cit (note 85).
134. See Bobrovnikov, op cit (note 109), p 234.
135. See Tamara Sivertseva, 'Cultural transformation and change of identity in the Northern Caucasus', in Religion, State, and Society - The Keston Journal, Vol 24, Nos 2/3, September 1996, pp 239-240.
136. See, e.g., Anna Matveeva, Dagestan, Former Soviet South Briefing, Russia and Eurasia Programme, Royal Institute of International Affairs, London, May 1997.
137. On the conflict potential in Dagestan, see Robert Bruce Ware and Enver Kisriev, 'After Chechnya: New Dangers in Dagestan', Central Asian Survey, Vol 16, No 3, September 1997, pp 401-412.
138. Goldenberg, op cit (note 63), p 203.
139. See Hill, op cit (note 13), p 57.
140. Abdulatipov is an Avar and currently deputy prime minister of Russia; Khasbulatov is a Chechen and was at the time chairman of the Russian Supreme Soviet. The two were the highest-ranking North Caucasians in the Russian Federation, a fact which contributed to their success in resolving the issue. See Clem McCartney, Dagestan Field Report, London: International Alert, 1995.
141. Kamil Aliyev, 'The history of Kumyks and their current social problems', Eurasian Studies (Ankara), Summer 1995, pp 72-73.
142. Ibid, p 73.
143. See Cheterian, op cit (note 85).
144. Aliyev, op cit (note 119).
145. Ibid, p 77.
146. See discussion in Timothy D. Sisk, Power-Sharing and International Mediation in Ethnic Conflicts, Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace Press, 1996, pp 34-45.
147. For an account of the integrative approach, see Donald Horowitz, Ethnic Groups in Conflict, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985.
148. For the consociational approach, see mainly the writings of Arend Lijphart, for example 'Consociational democracy', in World Politics, January 1969, and Democracy in Plural Societies, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1977.
149. For the consociational approach, see mainly the writings of Arend Lijphart, for example 'Consociational democracy', in World Politics, January 1969, and Democracy in Plural Societies, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1977.
150. See Moshe Gammer and Clem McCartney, Dagestan Field Report, International Alert, 1995, especially section 3, 'Responses to problems and issues of governance'.
151. Bobrovnikov, op cit (note 109), p 237.
152. Murray, op cit (note 104), p 517.
153. Ibid, p 516.
154. For an overview of Soviet federalism recommended by Murray, see Philip G. Roeder, 'Soviet federalism and ethnic mobilization', World Politics, January 1991.
155. See table in Sisk, op cit (note 124), p 35 for a comparison of the two models.
156. Bobrovnikov, op cit (note 109), p 237.
157. See for example Léon Gouré, 'The Russian Federation: possible disintegration scenarios', Comparative Strategy, Vol 13, No 4, 1994, pp 401-417.