Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis: Current concepts

Mayo Clinic Proceedings

Volumn 73, Issue 11, 1998, Pages 1085-1101

  Ryu, Jay H ^a   Colby, Thomas V ^a   Hartman, Thomas E ^a  

^a MAYO CLINIC ROCHESTER   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ACETYLCYSTEINE; AZATHIOPRINE; COLCHICINE; CORTICOSTEROID; CYCLOPHOSPHAMIDE; IMMUNOSUPPRESSIVE AGENT; PREDNISOLONE; PREDNISONE;

ARTICLE; CLINICAL TRIAL; COMPUTER ASSISTED TOMOGRAPHY; CORTICOSTEROID THERAPY; HUMAN; IMMUNOSUPPRESSIVE TREATMENT; INTERSTITIAL PNEUMONIA; INTRAVENOUS DRUG ADMINISTRATION; LUNG FIBROSIS; LUNG FUNCTION TEST; LUNG SCINTISCANNING; LUNG TRANSPLANTATION; ORAL DRUG ADMINISTRATION; PATHOGENESIS; PATHOLOGY; PROGNOSIS; THORAX RADIOGRAPHY;

EID: 0031730359     PISSN: 00256196     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.4065/73.11.1085     Document Type: Review

References (127)

1. Reynolds HY. Diagnostic and management strategies of diffuse interstitial lung disease. Chest 1998;113:192-202
2. Colby TV, Swensen SJ. Anatomic distribution of histopathologic patterns in diffuse lung disease: correlation with HRCT [published erratum appears in J Thorac Imaging 1996;11:163]. J Thorac Imaging 1996;ll:l-26
3. Schwarz Ml, King TE Jr, editors. Interstitial Lung Disease. 2nd ed. St. Louis: Mosby-Year Book; 1993
4. DeRemee RA. Diffuse interstitial pulmonary disease from the perspective of the clinician. Chest 1987;92:1068-1073
5. Crystal RG, Bitterman PB, Rennard SI, Hance AJ, Keogh BA. Interstitial lung diseases of unknown cause: disorders characterized by chronic inflammation of the lower respiratory tract. N Engl J Med 1984:310:154-166; 235-244
6. Coultas DB, Zumwalt RE, Black WC, Sobonya RE. The epidemiology of interstitial lung diseases. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1994:150:967-972
7. Scott J, Johnston l, Britton J. What causes cryptogenic fibrosing alveolitis? A case-control study of environmental exposure to dust. BMJ 1990:301:1015-1017
8. Meier-Sydow J, Weiss SM, Buhl R, Rust M, Raghu G. Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis: current clinical concepts and challenges in management. Semin Respir Crit Care Med 1994:15:77-96
9. King TE Jr. Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. In: Schwarz Ml, King TE Jr, editors. Interstitial Lung Disease. 2nded. St. Louis: Mosby-Year Book; 1993. pp 367-403
10. Katzenstein AL, Myers JL Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis: clinical relevance of pathologic classification. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1998:157:1301-1315
11. Ryu JH, Myers JL, Midthun DE, Douglas WW. Nonspecific interstitial pneumonia. Clin Pulm Med 1998;5:104-108
12. Bjoraker JA, Ryu JH, Edwin MK, Myers JL, Tazelaar HD, Schroeder DR, et al. Prognostic significance of histopathologic subsets in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1998:157:199-203
13. Katzenstein AL, Fiorelli RF. Nonspecific interstitial pneumonia/ fibrosis: histologie features and clinical significance. Am J Surg Pathol 1994:18:136-147
14. Katzenstein AL. Idiopathic interstitial pneumonia: classification and diagnosis. Monogr Pathol 1993:36:1-31
15. Myers JL, Veal CF Jr, Shin MS, Katzenstein AL. Respiratory bronchiolitis causing interstitial lung disease: a clinicopathologic study of six cases. Am Rev Respir Dis 1987:135:880-884
16. Epier GR, Colby TV, McLoud TC, Carrington CB, Gaensler EA. Bronchiolitis obliterans organizing pneumonia. N Engl J Med 1985:312:152-158
17. Katzenstein AL, Myers JL, Mazur MT. Acute interstitial pneumonia: a clinicopathologic, ultrastructural, and cell kinetic study. Am J Surg Pathol 1986:10:256-267
18. Cherniack RM, Crystal RG, Kalica AR. Current concepts in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis: a road map for the future. Am Rev Respir Dis 1991:143:680-683
19. Crystal RG, Fulmer JD, Roberts WC, Moss ML, Line BR, Reynolds HY. Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis: clinical, histologie, radiographie, physiologic, scintigraphic, cytologie, and biochemical aspects. Ann Intern Med 1976:85:769-788
20. Johnston ID, Prescott RJ, Chalmers JC, Rudd RM (Fibrosing Alveolitis Subcommittee of the Research Committee of the British Thoracic Society). British Thoracic Society study of cryptogenic fibrosing alveolitis: current presentation and initial management. Thorax 1997:52:38-44
21. Turner-Warwick M, Burrows B, Johnson A. Cryptogenic fibrosing alveolitis: clinical features and their influence on survival. Thorax 1980:35:171-180
22. Schwartz DA, Helmers RA, Galvin JR, Van Fossen DS, Frees KL, Dayton CS, et al. Determinants of survival in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1994;149:450-454
23. Cherniack RM, Colby TV, Flint A, Thurlbeck WM, Waldron J, Ackerson L, et al (BAL Cooperative Group Steering Committee). Quantitative assessment of lung pathology in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Am Rev Respir Dis 1991:144:892-900
24. Stack BH, Choo-Kang YF, Heard BE. The prognosis of cryptogenic fibrosing alveolitis. Thorax 1972;27:535-542
25. Scadding JG, Hinson KF. Diffuse fibrosing alveolitis (diffuse interstitial fibrosis of the lungs): correlation of histology at biopsy with prognosis. Thorax 1967;22:291-304
26. Livingstone JL, Lewis JG, Reid L, Jefferson KE. Diffuse interstitial pulmonary fibrosis: a clinical, radiological, and pathological study based on 45 patients. Q J Med 1964;33:71-103
27. Carrington CB, Gaensler EA, Coutu RE, FitzGerald MX, Gupta RG. Natural history and treated course of usual and desquamative interstitial pneumonia. N EnglJ Med 1978;298:801-809
28. Douglas WW, Ryu JH, Bjoraker JA, Schroeder DR, Myers JL, Tazelaar HD, et al. Colchicine versus prednisone as treatment of usual interstitial pneumonia. Mayo Clin Proc 1997;72:201-209
29. Hubbard R, Johnston l, Britton J. Survival in patients with cryptogenic fibrosing alveolitis: a population-based cohort study. Chest 1998:113:396-400
30. Hamman L, Rich AR. Fulminating diffuse interstitial fibrosis of the lungs. Trans Am Clin Ciimatol Assoc 1935:51:154-163
31. Hamman L, Rich AR. Acute diffuse interstitial fibrosis of the lungs. Bull Johns Hopkins Hosp 1944;74:177-212
32. Oison J, Colby TV, Elliott CG. Hamman-Rich syndrome revisited. Mayo Clin Proc 1990;65:1538-1548
33. Liebow AA, Carrington CB. Alveolar diseases. In: Simon M, editor. The Interstitial Pneumonias. New York: Grune & Stratton; 1967. pp 102-141
34. Myers JL, Colby TV. Pathologic manifestations of bronchiolitis, constrictive bronchiolitis, cryptogenic organizing pneumonia, and diffuse panbronchiolitis. Clin Chest Med 1993;14:611-622
35. Epier GR. Bronchiolitis obliterans organizing pneumonia: definition and clinical features. Chest 1992;102(Suppl):2S-6S
36. Davison AG, Heard BE, McAMister WC, Turner-Warwick ME. Cryptogenic organizing pneumonitis. Q J Med 1983;52:382-394
37. Kühn C. The pathogenesis of pulmonary fibrosis. Monogr Pathol 1993:36:78-92
38. Kradin RL, Divertie MB, Colvin RB, Ramirez J, Ryu J, Carpenter HA, et al. Usual interstitial pneumonia is a T-cell alveolitis. Clin Immunol Immunopathol 1986;40:224-235
39. Hansel! DM, Wells AU. CT evaluation of fibrosing alveolitisapplications and insights. J Thorac Imaging 1996:11:231-249
40. Yousem SA, Colby TV, Gaensler EA. Respiratory bronchiolitisassociated interstitial lung disease and its relationship to desquamative interstitial pneumonia. Mayo Clin Proc 1989:64:1373-1380
41. Nagai S, Kitaichi M, Itoh H, Nishimura K, Izumi T, Colby TV. Idiopathic nonspecific interstitial pneumonia/fibrosis: comparison with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis and bronchiolitis obliterans organizing pneumonia. Eur Respir J [in press]
42. Wright PH, Heard BE, Steel SJ, Turner-Warwick M. Cryptogenic fibrosing alveolitis: assessment by graded trephine lung biopsy histology compared with clinical, radiographie, and physiologic features. BrJ Dis Chest 1981;75:61-70
43. Winterbauer RH, Hammar SP, Mailman KO, Hays JE, Pardee NE, Morgan EH, et al. Diffuse interstitial pneumonitis: clinicopathologic correlations in 20 patients treated with prednisone/azathioprine. Am J Med 1978:65:661-672
44. Turner-Warwick M, Burrows B, Johnson A. Cryptogenic fibrosing alveolitis: response to corticosteroid treatment and its effect on survival. Thorax 1980:35:593-599
45. Prlmack SL, Hartman TE, Hansell DM, Muller NL. End-stage lung disease: CT findings in 61 patients. Radiology 1993:189:681-686
46. Mathieson JR, Mayo JR, Staples CA, Muller NL. Chronic diffuse infiltrative lung disease: comparison of diagnostic accuracy of CT and chest radiography. Radiology 1989:171:111-116
47. Muller NL, Miller RR. Diseases of the bronchioles: CT and histopathologic findings. Radiology 1995:196:3-12
48. Hartman TE, Primack SL, Swensen SJ, Hansell D, McGuinness G, Muller NL. Desquamative interstitial pneumonia: thin-section CT findings in 22 patients. Radiology 1993:187:787-790
49. Holt RM, Schmidt RA, Godwin D, Raghu G. High resolution CT in respiratory bronchiolitis-associated interstitial lung disease. J Comput Assist Tomogr 1993:17:46-50
50. Hartman TE, Primack SL, Kang EY, Swensen SJ, Hansell DM, McGuinness G, et al. Disease progression in usual interstitial pneumonia compared with desquamative interstitial pneumonia: assessment with serial CT. Chest 1996:110:378-382
51. Bltterman PB, Rennard SI, Keogh BA, Wewers MD, Adelberg S, Crystal RG. Familial idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis: evidence of lung inflammation in unaffected family members. N Engl J Med 1986:314:1343-1347
52. Barzo P. Familial idiopathic fibrosing alveolitis. Eur J Respir Dis 1985:66:350-352
53. Mannino DM, Etzel RA, Parrish RG. Pulmonary fibrosis deaths in the United States, 1979-1991: an analysis of multiple-cause mortality data. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1996;153:1548-1552
54. Hubbard R, Johnston l, Coultas DB, Britton J. Mortality rates from cryptogenic fibrosing alveolitis in seven countries. Thorax 1996:51:711-716
55. Iwai K, Mori T, Yamada N, Yamaguchi M, Hosoda Y. Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis: epidemiologic approaches to occupational exposure. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1994;150:670-675
56. Baumgartner KB, Samet JM, Stidley CA, Colby TV, Waldron JA. Cigarette smoking: a risk factor for idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1997:155:242-248
57. Watters LC, Schwarz Ml, Cherniack RM, Waldron JA, Dünn TL, Stanford RE, et al. Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis: pretreatment bronchoalveolar lavage cellular constituents and their relationships with lung histopathology and clinical response to therapy. Am Rev Respir Dis 1987;135:696-704
58. Perez-Padilla R, Salas J, Chapela R, Sanchez M, Carrillo G, Ferez R, et al. Mortality in Mexican patients with chronic pigeon breeder's lung compared with those with usual interstitial pneumonia. Am Rev Respir Dis 1993;148:49-53
59. Egan JJ, Woodcock AA, Stewart JP. Viruses and idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis [editorial]. Eur Respir J 1997; 10:1433-1437
60. Tablan OC, Reyes MP. Chronic interstitial pulmonary fibrosis following Mycop/asma pneumon/ae pneumonia. Am J Med 1985;79:268270
61. Ward PA, Hunninghake GW. Lung inflammation and fibrosis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1998;157:S123-S129
62. Hogg JC. Chronic interstitial lung disease of unknown cause: a new classification based on pathogenesis. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1991:156:225-233
63. Varga J, Jimenez SA. Modulation of collagen gene expression: its relation to fibrosis in systemic sclerosis and other disorders. Ann Intern Med 1995;122:60-62
64. Border WA, Noble NA. Transforming growth factor in tissue fibrosis. NEnglJMed 1994:331:1286-1292
65. Coker RK, Laurent GJ. Anticytokine approaches in pulmonary fibrosis: bringing factors into focus. Thorax 1997:52:294-296
66. Broekelmann TJ, Limper AH, Colby TV, McDonald JA. Transforming growth factor beta 1 is present at sites of extracellular matrix gene expression in human pulmonary fibrosis. Proc Natl Acad SciUSA 1991:88:6642-6646
67. Saleh D, Barnes PJ, Giaid A. Increased production of the potent oxidant peroxynitrite in the lungs of patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1997;155:1763-1769
68. Lohr RH, Boland BJ, Douglas WW, Dockrell DH, Colby TV, Swensen SJ, et al. Organizing pneumonia: features and prognosis of cryptogenic, secondary, and focal variants. Arch Intern Med 1997:157:1323-1329
69. Tazelaar HD, Viggiano RW, Pickersgill J, Colby TV. Interstitial lung disease in polymyositis and dermatomyositis: clinical features and prognosis as correlated with histologie findings. Am Rev Respir Dis 1990:141:727-733
70. Yousem SA, Colby TV, Carrington CB. Lung biopsy in rheumatoid arthritis. Am Rev Respir Dis 1985:131:770-777
71. Tukiainen P, Taskinen E, Holst! P, Korhola 0, Valle M. Prognosis in cryptogenic fibrosing alveolitis. Thorax 1983:38:349-355
72. Galko B, Grossman RF, Day A, Tenenbaum J, Kirsh J, Rebuck AS. Hypertrophie pulmonary osteoarthropathy in four patients with interstitial pulmonary disease. Chest 1985:88:94-97
73. Kennedy Jl, Fulmer JD. Pulmonary hypertension in the interstitial lung diseases [editorial]. Chest 1985:87:558-560
74. Picado C, Gomez de Almedia R, Xaubet A, Montserrat J, Letang E, Sanchez-Lloret J. Spontaneous pneumothorax in cryptogenic fibrosing alveolitis. Respiration 1985:48:77-80
75. DeRemee RA, Harrison EG Jr, Andersen HA. The concept of classic interstitial pneumonitis-fibrosis (CIP-F) as a clinicopathologic syndrome. Chest 1972:61:213-220
76. Todd NW, Wise RA. Respiratory complications in the collagen vascular diseases. Clin Pu/m Med 1996:3:101-112
77. Nada AK, Torres VE, Ryu JH, Lie JT, Holley KE. Pulmonary fibrosis as an unusual clinical manifestation of a pulmonary-renal vasculitis in elderly patients. Mayo Clin Proc 1990;65:847-856
78. Kondoh Y, Taniguchi H, Kawabata Y, Yokoi T, Suzuki K, Takagi K. Acute exacerbation in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis: analysis of clinical and pathologic findings in three cases. Chest 1993;103:1808-1812
79. Schwartz DA, Merchant RK, Helmers RA, Gilbert SR, Dayton CS, Hunninghake GW. The influence of cigarette smoking on lung function in patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Am Rev Respir Dis 1991;144:504-506
80. Staples CA, Müller NL, Vedal S, Abboud R, Ostrow D, Miller RR. Usual interstitial pneumonia: correlation of CT with clinical, functional, and radiologie findings. Radiology 1987;162:377-381
81. Muller NL, Miller RR, Webb WR, Evans KG, Ostrow DN. Fibrosing alveolitis: CT-pathologic correlation. Radiology 1986;160:585-588
82. Remy-Jardin M, Giraud F, Remy J, Copin MC, Gosselin B, Duhamel A. Importance of ground-glass attenuation in chronic diffuse infiltrative lung disease: pathologic-CT correlation. Radiology 1993; 189:693-698
83. Bergin C, Castellino RA. Mediastinal lymph node enlargement on CT scans in patients with usual interstitial pneumonitis. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1990;154:251-254
84. Niimi H, Kang EY, Kwong JS, Carignan S, Muller NL. CT of chronic infiltrative lung disease: prevalence of mediastinal lymphadenopathy. J Comput Assist Tomogr 1996;20:305-308
85. Fujiwara T. Pneumomediastinum in pulmonary fibrosis: detection by computed tomography. Chest 1993; 104:44-46
86. Line BR, Fulmer JD, Reynolds HY, Roberts WC, Jones AE, Harris EK, et al. Gallium-67 citrate scanning in the staging of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis: correlation and physiologic and morphologic features and bronchoalveolar lavage. Am Rev Respir Dis 1978;118:355-365
87. Keogh BA, Crystal RG. Clinical significance of pulmonary function tests: pulmonary function testing in interstitial pulmonary disease; what does it tell us? Chest 1980;78:856-865
88. Robertson HT. Clinical application of pulmonary function and exercise tests in the management of patients with interstitial lung disease. Semin Respir Crit Care Med 1994;15:l-9
89. Fulmer JD, Roberts WC, von Gal ER, Crystal RG. Morphologicphysiologic correlates of the severity of fibrosis and degree of cellularity in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. J Clin Invest 1979;63:665-676
90. Nugent KM, Peterson MW, Jolies H, Monick MM, Hunninghake GW. Correlation of chest roentgenograms with pulmonary function and bronchoalveolar lavage in interstitial lung disease. Chest 1989;96:1224-1227
91. Rudd RM, Haslam PL, Turner-Warwick M. Cryptogenic fibrosing alveolitis: relationship of pulmonary physiology and bronchoalveolar lavage to response to treatment and prognosis. Am Rev Respir Dis 1981:124:1-8
92. Hanson D, Winterbauer RH, Kirtland SH, Wu R. Changes in pulmonary function test results after 1 year of therapy as predictors of survival in patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Chest 1995:108:305-310
93. Erbes R, Schaberg T, Loddenkemper R. Lung function tests in patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis: are they helpful in predicting outcome? Chest 1997:111:51-57
94. Johnson MA, Kwan S, Snell NJ, Nunn AJ, Darbyshire JH, TurnerWarwick M. Randomised controlled trial comparing prednisolone alone with cyclophosphamide and low dose prednisolone in combination in cryptogenic fibrosing alveolitis. Thorax 1989:44:280-288
95. Swensen SJ, Aughenbaugh GL, Myers JL. Diffuse lung disease: diagnostic accuracy of CT in patients undergoing surgical biopsy of the lung. Radiology 1997;205:229-234
96. Orens JB, Kazerooni EA, Martinez FJ, Curtis JL, Gross BH, Flint A, et al. The sensitivity of high-resolution CT in detecting idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis proved by open lung biopsy: a prospective study. Chest 1995:108:109-115
97. Lynch DA, Newell JD, Logan PM, King TE Jr, Muller NL. Can CT distinguish hypersensitivity pneumonitis from idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis? AJR Am J Roentgenol 1995:165:807-811
98. Primack SL, Hartman TE, Ikezoe J, Akira M, Sakatani M, Muller NL. Acute interstitial pneumonia: radiographie and CT findings in nine patients. Radiology 1993:188:817-820
99. Wall CP, Gaensler EA, Carrington CB, Hayes JA. Comparison of transbronchial and open biopsies in chronic infiltrative lung diseases. Am Rev Respir Dis 1981:123:280-285
100. Harris RJ, Kavuru MS, Rice TW, Kirby TJ. The diagnostic and therapeutic utility of thoracoscopy: a review. Chest 1995:108:828841
101. Hunninghake G, Schwartz D, King T, Lynch J, Hogg J, Waldron J, et al. Open lung biopsy in IPF [abstract]. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1998;157:A277
102. Goldstein RA, Rohatgi PK, Bergofsky EH, Block ER, Daniele RP, Dantzker DR, et al (American Thoracic Society Committee on Health Care Policy and Clinical Practice). Clinical role of bronchoalveolar lavage in adults with pulmonary disease. Am Rev Respir Dis 1990:142:481-486
103. Mapel DW, Samet JM, Coultas DB. Corticosteroids and the treat ment of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis: past, present, and future. Chest 1996:110:1058-1067
104. Raghu G, Depaso WJ, Cain K, Hammar SP, Wetzel CE, Dreis DF, et al. Azathioprine combined with prednisone in the treatment of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis: a prospective double-blind, random-ized, placebo-controlled clinical trial. Am Rev Respir Dis 1991;144:291-296
105. Baughman RP, Lower EE. Use of intermittent, intravenous cyclophosphamide for idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Chest 1992;102:1090-1094
106. Alton EW, Johnson M, Turner-Warwick M. Advanced cryptogenic fibrosing alveolitis: preliminary report on treatment with cyclosporin A. Respir Med 1989:83:277-279
107. Moolman JA, Bardin PG, Rossouw OJ, Joubert JR. Cyclosporin as a treatment for interstitial lung disease of unknown aetiology. Thorax 1991;46:592-595
108. Sen RP, Walsh TE, Fisher W, Brock N. Pulmonary complications of combination therapy with cyclophosphamide and prednisone. Chest 1991:99:143-146
109. Lynch JP III, McCune WJ. Immunosuppressive and cytotoxic pharmacotherapy for pulmonary disorders. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1997:155:395-420
110. Haslam PL, Turton CW, Lukoszek A, Salsbury AJ, Dewar A, Collins JV, et al. Bronchoalveolar lavage fluid cell counts in cryptogenic fibrosing alveolitis and their relation to therapy. Thorax 1980:35:328-339
111. Rennard SI, Bitterman PB, Ozaki T, Rom WN, Crystal RG. Colchi cine suppresses the release of fibroblast growth factors from alveolar macrophages in vitro: the basis of a possible therapeutic approach to the fibrotic disorders. Am Rev Respir Dis 1988:137:181-185
112. Entzian P, Schlaak M, Seitzer U, Bufe A, Acil Y, Zabel P. Antiinflammatory and antifibrotic properties of colchicine: implications for idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Lung 1997;175:41-51
113. Peters SG, McDougall JC, Douglas WW, Coles DT, DeRemee RA. Colchicine in the treatment of pulmonary fibrosis. Chest 1993:103:101-104
114. Douglas WW, Ryu JH, Swensen SJ, Offord KP, Schroeder DR, Caron GM, et al. Colchicine versus prednisone in the treatment of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis-a randomized prospective study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1998:158:220-225
115. lyer SN, Margolin SB, Hyde DM, Giri SN. Lung fibrosis is ameliorated by pirfenidone fed in diet after the second dose in a three-dose bleomycin-hamster model. Exp Lung Res 1998:24:119-132
116. Watters LC, King TE, Schwarz MI, Waldron JA, Stanford RE, Cherniak RM. A clinical, radiographie, and physiologic scoring system for the longitudinal assessment of patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Am Rev Respir Dis 1986:133:97-103
117. Turner-Warwick M, Haslam PL. The value of serial bronchoalveolar lavages in assessing the clinical progress of patients with cryptogenic fibrosing alveolitis. Am Rev Respir Dis 1987;135:26-34
118. Garcia JG, Wolven RG, Garcia PL, Keogh BA. Assessment of interlobar variation of bronchoalveolar lavage cellular differentials in interstitial lung diseases. Am Rev Respir Dis 1986;133:444-449
119. Behr J, Maier K, Degenkolb B, Krombach F, Vogelmeir C. Antioxidative and clinical effects of high-dose N-acetylcysteine in fibrosing alveolitis: adjunctive therapy to maintenance immunosuppression. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1997:156:1897-1901
120. Trulock EP. Lung transplantation. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1997:155:789-818
121. Peterson MW, Monick M, Hunninghake GW. Prognostic role of eosinophils in pulmonary fibrosis. Chest 1987:92:51-56
122. Gay SE, Kazerooni EA, Toews GB, Lynch JP III, Gross BH, Cascade PN, et al. Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis: predicting response to therapy and survival. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1998:157:1063-1072
123. Panos RJ, Mortenson RL, Niccoli SA, King TE Jr. Clinical deterioration in patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis: causes and assessment. Am J Med 1990;88:396-404
124. Lee HJ, Im JG, Ahn JM, Yeon KM. Lung cancer in patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis: CT findings. J Comput Assist Tomogr 1996:20:979-982
125. Turner-Warwick M, Lebowitz M, Burrows B, Johnson A. Cryptogenic fibrosing alveolitis and lung cancer. Thorax 1980:35:496-499
126. Hunninghake GW, Kalica AR. Approaches to the treatment of pulmonary fibrosis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1995:151:915-918
127. Goldstein RH, Fine A. Potential therapeutic initiatives for fibrogenic lung diseases. Chest 1995:108:848-855