The Mongol-Han relations in a new configuration of social evolution

Central Asian Survey

Volumn 17, Issue 1, 1998, Pages 69-91

  Bilik, Naran ^a  

^a CHINESE ACADEMY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES   (China)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CHINESE NATIONALISM; ETHNIC IDENTITY; ETHNIC PLURALISM; ETHNICITY; MONGOL-HAN RELATIONS; RACIAL GROUP;

CHINA; MONGOLIA;

EID: 0031722616     PISSN: 02634937     EISSN: None     Source Type: Trade Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/02634939808401024     Document Type: Article

References (63)

1. Xiaotong, Fei, ed, 'Ethnic identification in China', in Toward a People's Anthropology (Beijing: New World Press, 1981). Fei Xiaotong, 'Zhonghua minzu de duoyuan yiti geju' (Plurality and unity in the configuration of the Chinese nationality), Beijing Daxue Xuebao No 4, 1989, pp 1-19. Fei Xiaotong, Zhonghua minzu duoyuan yiti geju (Plurality and unity in the configuration of the Chinese nationality), (Beijing: Zhongyang minzu daxue chubanshe, 1989).
2. Xiaotong, Fei, ed, 'Ethnic identification in China', in Toward a People's Anthropology (Beijing: New World Press, 1981). Fei Xiaotong, 'Zhonghua minzu de duoyuan yiti geju' (Plurality and unity in the configuration of the Chinese nationality), Beijing Daxue Xuebao No 4, 1989, pp 1-19. Fei Xiaotong, Zhonghua minzu duoyuan yiti geju (Plurality and unity in the configuration of the Chinese nationality), (Beijing: Zhongyang minzu daxue chubanshe, 1989).
3. Xiaotong, Fei, ed, 'Ethnic identification in China', in Toward a People's Anthropology (Beijing: New World Press, 1981). Fei Xiaotong, 'Zhonghua minzu de duoyuan yiti geju' (Plurality and unity in the configuration of the Chinese nationality), Beijing Daxue Xuebao No 4, 1989, pp 1-19. Fei Xiaotong, Zhonghua minzu duoyuan yiti geju (Plurality and unity in the configuration of the Chinese nationality), (Beijing: Zhongyang minzu daxue chubanshe, 1989).
4. Manning Nash, The Cauldron of Ethnicity in the Modern World (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989); Dru C. Gladney, Muslim Chinese: ethnic nationalism in the People's Republic (Cambridge, MA: Council on East Asian Studies, Harvard University, 1991).
5. Manning Nash, The Cauldron of Ethnicity in the Modern World (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989); Dru C. Gladney, Muslim Chinese: ethnic nationalism in the People's Republic (Cambridge, MA: Council on East Asian Studies, Harvard University, 1991).
6. The head teacher claims that this is due to the fact that women's social and familial status in cities like Hohhot has been improved so much in recent years that women usually have the final say over matters like children's upbringing, including education. Correspondingly, Chinese is the dominant medium of verbal communications in families of Mongolian-Han mixed marriages.
7. 'The Regulations for the Work of Kindergartens', issued by the State Education Commission and adopted to cover such areas as designing, compiling and publishing of teaching materials for pre-school children, is mainly oriented towards the mainstream Han kindergartens, and is not very much in agreement with those in minority areas where ethnic languages are still in good use. Lacking administratively regulated guidelines, the education sector of the government failed to provide streamlined teaching materials for Mongolian children.
8. It is true that there does exist a considerable amount of teaching materials of arithmetic and mathematics. However, they are either translated from or based on Chinese sources, hence cannot compete with the latter in terms of references and immediacy. To be closer to the original, one has to take a linguistic shortcut.
9. Built in 1954, it became one of the first key middle schools of Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region. In 1990, there were 40 classes, among which, 8 were for students from pastoral areas and 6 for urban Mongolian students: half of the 2,000 students are Mongol.
10. Children are confined in the school during weekdays, completely cut off from the outside environment of Chinese communications.
11. Based in Bichikchi, the administrative centre of Tümed Left-Wing banner, about 80 kilometres from Hohhot, the school admitted 48 pupils in 1982, 46 in 1983 and 82 in 1984, when the number of pupils reached as high as 500, distributed in 9 classes under 60 teaching staff. Now there were fewer than 20 children who had enrolled for the school in 1993, and 140 pupils in total spreading over five grades in that year.
12. This means, simply, linguistic Sinicization or Westernization, since the multilingual advocators could not help favouring Chinese or a foreign language to Mongolian in competitive and advanced social sectors. If we take their line, and maybe it is a natural trend as well, Mongolian is now receding into families in urban areas. It is now used in symbolic activities as a reminder of the past, surviving in some social quarters like emotional discourse and ethnic literature. To relegate Mongolian to secondary use is to replace it with other languages sooner or later.
13. Clifford Geertz, The Interpretation of Cultures (London: Fontana Press, 1973), p 83.
14. He has been in close contact with me since my last two field trips to Inner Mongolia in 1995. We discussed and exchanged ideas over his plan, and agreed to keep in touch.
15. E. J. Hobsbawm, Nations and Nationalism since 1780 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990) p 96.
16. David Crystal, The Cambridge Encyclopaedia of Language (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), p 358.
17. Ibid, p 34.
18. Eric Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger, eds, The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983).
19. Joshua A. Fishman, 'Nathan Birnbaum's view of American Jewry', in Language & Ethnicity in Minority Socioloinguistic Perspective (Clevedon & Philadelphia: Multilingual Matters Ltd, 1989).
20. David Crystal, 1987, pp 308, 367, 303.
21. Eric Hobsbawm, 1990, pp 41-42.
22. Lynn Hunt, The Sacred and the French Revolution', Jeffrey C. Alexander, ed. Durkheimian sociology: cultural studies (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), p 31.
23. Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities (Thetford, Norfolk: The Thetford Press Ltd, 1983).
24. R. I. Levi, 'Emotion, Knowing, and Culture', R. A. Shweder and R. A. LeVine, eds, Culture Theory (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984), p 231.
25. Drew Westen, Self & Society, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1985), pp 103-104.
26. Rosaldo, Michelle Z., 'Toward an Anthropology of Self and Feeling', in R. A. Shweder and R. A. LeVine, eds, Culture Theory (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984).
27. Caroline Humphrey, 'The Moral Authority of the Past in Post-Socialist Mongoli' in Religion, State and Society, Vol 20, Nos 3 & 4, 1992.
28. The Mongolian Khan who united different warring tribes during the 12th-13th centuries and waged war in China and Central Asia. He became much admired and worshipped by his later generations. He is now the ultimate symbol of the Mongolian history and the centre for the Mongolian emotion.
29. For oneself or for the group? This dual-valuedness, which represents ethnic emotions on one hand, and earthly life or pragmatism on the other, throws them onto a stage where they cannot articulate their lines without ambiguity.
30. Or we may preferably use James Scott's terms 'public transcript' and 'hidden transcript'. However, what we are concerned about is ethical or moral arguments rather than despotism and suppression, and we deliberately avoid using his terms for clearness. Cf. James C. Scott, Domination and the Arts of Resistance (Yale University Press, 1990).
31. Katherine Nelson, 'Some evidence for the cognitive primacy of categorisation and its functional Basis' P. N. Johnson-Laird and P. C. Wason eds. Thinking: readings in cognitive science (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977), p 237.
32. Alain Fenet, 'The question of minorities in the order of law', G. Ghaliand ed., Minority Peoples in the Age of Nation-States (trans. Tony Berrett) (London: Pluto Press, 1977), p 22.
33. Shui Tianzhong, Chao Ge (Zhongguo xiandai yishu pinping congshu [Book Series on Assessment of Modem Art in China]) (Nanning: Guangxi meishu chubanshe & Xianggang xiandai chubanshe, 1993).
34. Shui Tianzhong, Chao Ge, 1993 p 60.
35. Paul Gauguin, 'A letter to Emile Schuffenecker', Copenhagen, 14 January 1885, in Herschel B. Chipp, Theories of Modern Art (Berkeley, Los Angeles and London: University of California Press), pp 58-59.
36. The Han population in Inner Mongolia in 1949 was 5,145,000 and by 1990 when the fourth nation-wide population census took place, it hit 17,298,700, an increase of 12,153,700 over 40 years. The main inflow of Han population is prioritised towards mining, industrial enterprise, opening up new land, and 're-education' of young intellectuals by resettling, etc. Cf. Buhe et al., eds, Nemenggu dacidian (a Grand Dictionary of Inner Mongolia), (Hohhot: Neimenggu renmin chubanshe, 1991).
37. Chog points out that the Mongolian culture in a physical sense will soon vanish in the face of the world-wide marketization trend. The moral obligation of a Mongolian artist is to record the change of state as well as the sensitive and conflicting social mood with heavy emotional involvement (private communication).
38. John W. Berry, et al., Cross-cultural Psychology: Research and Applications (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), p 145.
39. James J. Gibsen, The Senses Considered as Perceptual Systems (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1996).
40. John Theodor Merz A History of European Thought in the Nineteenth Century (New York: Dover Publications, 1965). Vol 1, p 57.
41. M. Featherstone, ed., Global Culture: Nationalism, Globalisation and Modernity (London: Sage. 1990); Robert J. Foster, 'Making national cultures in the global ecumene', in Annual Review of Anthropology, Vol 20, 1992, pp 235-260.
42. M. Featherstone, ed., Global Culture: Nationalism, Globalisation and Modernity (London: Sage. 1990); Robert J. Foster, 'Making national cultures in the global ecumene', in Annual Review of Anthropology, Vol 20, 1992, pp 235-260.
43. James Tyson, 'Fiery symbol of Chinese culture comes into its own in the "Year of Dragon"', in Christian Science Monitor, 11 January 1988. p 7; Barry Sautman, Tibetans, Africans and peasants: Tails of the Han Chinese Intelligentsia's 'Bell Curve'. Unpublished paper.
44. James Tyson, 'Fiery symbol of Chinese culture comes into its own in the "Year of Dragon"', in Christian Science Monitor, 11 January 1988. p 7; Barry Sautman, Tibetans, Africans and peasants: Tails of the Han Chinese Intelligentsia's 'Bell Curve'. Unpublished paper.
45. For example, Xiao Gongqin, 'Minzu zhuyi yu zhongguo zhuanxing shiqi de yishi xingtai (Nationalism and ideology in the Transitional Period of China) in Zhanlüe yu guanli (Strategy and Management), No 4, 1994.
46. Barry Sautman. 'Tibetsans, Africans and Peasants: Tails of the Han Chinese Intelligentsia's "Bell Curve."'
47. Xu Naixiang et al., Shuo Long (On the Dragon) (Beijing: Zijincheng chubanshe, 1987), pp 4-19; Zhao Qiguang, 'Dragon: the Symbol of China' in Oriental Art, 38: 72-80, 1991; Barry Sautman, 'Tibetans, Africans and peasants: Tails of the Han Chinese Intelligentsia's 'Bell Curve'.
48. Xu Naixiang et al., Shuo Long (On the Dragon) (Beijing: Zijincheng chubanshe, 1987), pp 4-19; Zhao Qiguang, 'Dragon: the Symbol of China' in Oriental Art, 38: 72-80, 1991; Barry Sautman, 'Tibetans, Africans and peasants: Tails of the Han Chinese Intelligentsia's 'Bell Curve'.
49. Xu Naixiang et al., Shuo Long (On the Dragon) (Beijing: Zijincheng chubanshe, 1987), pp 4-19; Zhao Qiguang, 'Dragon: the Symbol of China' in Oriental Art, 38: 72-80, 1991; Barry Sautman, 'Tibetans, Africans and peasants: Tails of the Han Chinese Intelligentsia's 'Bell Curve'.
50. Almaz Khan, 'Chinggis Khan', in Stevan Harrell, ed., Cultural Encounters on China's Ethnic Frontiers (Seattle and London: University of Washington Press, 1994).
51. Ibid.
52. Wang Tingdon, ed., Mengguzu jianshi (A concise history of the Mongolian nationality). (Hohhot: Neimenggu renmin chubanshe. 1985), p 395.
53. Mengguzu Jianshi Bianxie Zu (Writing group on a concise history of the Mongolian nationality), Mengguzu jianshi (A concise history of the Mongolian nationality) (Hohhot: Neimenggu chubanshe, 1985), p 421; Almaz Khan, 'Chinggis Khan', In Stevan Harrell (ed.), Cultural Encounters on China's Ethnic Frontiers, 1994.
54. Mengguzu Jianshi Bianxie Zu (Writing group on a concise history of the Mongolian nationality), Mengguzu jianshi (A concise history of the Mongolian nationality) (Hohhot: Neimenggu chubanshe, 1985), p 421; Almaz Khan, 'Chinggis Khan', In Stevan Harrell (ed.), Cultural Encounters on China's Ethnic Frontiers, 1994.
55. Cheng Xu, Neimenggu fengwu zhi (Customs and Relics of Inner Mongolia) (Hohhot: Neimenggu renmin chubanshe, 1985), p 80. Almaz Khan, 'Chinggis Khan', in Stevan Harrell, ed., Cultural Encounters on China's Ethnic Frontiers.
56. Cheng Xu, Neimenggu fengwu zhi (Customs and Relics of Inner Mongolia) (Hohhot: Neimenggu renmin chubanshe, 1985), p 80. Almaz Khan, 'Chinggis Khan', in Stevan Harrell, ed., Cultural Encounters on China's Ethnic Frontiers.
57. Neimenggu zizhiqu danganju (Inner Mongolian Archives Bureau) and Neimenggu zizhiqu dangan guan (Inner Mongolia Archives House). Neimenggu zizhiqu dashiji (Big Events in Inner Mongolia). (Hohhot: Neimenggu renmin chubanshe, 1988) pp 269-270, 271, 272.
58. It was also reported by CCTV news on 22 October 1995 that to mark the 50th anniversary of the United Nations, President Jiang Zemin presented the UN general secretary Boutros Boutros Ghali with the 'Century Tripod' on which 56 dragons were casted, representing the 56 nationalities, the offspring of Yanhuang.
59. Neimenggu dacidian (A Grand Dictionary of Inner Mongolia), p 15.
60. Rong Xang and Rong Genglin, Tumote Yange (A History of Tümed) (Hohhot: Culture Bureau of Tümed Left Wing Banner of Inner Mongolia, 1981).
61. All the population figures of Hohhotian Mongols, cf. Ma Guoqing, 'Dushi, Dusihua yu Tumote Mengguzu de Wenhua Bianyi' (Cities, Urbanization and Cultural Change of the Turned Mongols), in Ruan Xihu, ed., Dusi Renleixue (Urban Anthropology), (Beijing: Huaxian chubanshe, 1991).
62. Ma Guoqing 1991.
63. Robert J. Foster, 'Making national cultures in the global ecumene', in Annual Review of Anthropology, Vol 20, 1992, pp 235-260.