Can video images imitate real stimuli in animal behaviour experiments?

Biological Reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society

Volumn 73, Issue 3, 1998, Pages 267-292

  D'Eath, Richard B ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD   (United Kingdom)

^b SCOTTISH AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

CFF; Colour vision; Depth perception; Experimental design; Playback; Video images

Indexed keywords

ANIMAL BEHAVIOR; COLOR VISION; DEPTH PERCEPTION; HUMAN; IMAGE DISPLAY; IMAGE PROCESSING; IMITATION; MOVEMENT PERCEPTION; NONHUMAN; REVIEW; SOUND; STIMULUS RESPONSE; TELEVISION; VIDEORECORDING; VIRTUAL REALITY; VISION; VISUAL ACUITY;

EID: 0031719554     PISSN: 00063231     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0006323198005179     Document Type: Review

References (236)

1. ADRET, P. (1997). Discrimination of video-images by zebra finches (Taeniopygia guttata): Direct evidence from song performance. Journal of Comparative Psychology 111, 115-125.
2. ALI, M. A. & KLYNE, M. A. (1985). Vision in Vertebrates. Plenum Press, New York.
3. ALLEN, J. M. & NICOLETTO, P. F. (1997). Response of Betta splendens to computer animations of males with fins of different length. Copeia 1, 195-199.
4. AMLANER, C. J. & STOUT, J. F. (1978). Aggressive communication by LOTUS glaucescens. VI. Interactions of territory residents with a remotely controlled, locomotory model. Behaviour 66, 223-251.
5. ANDREWS, M. W. & ROSENBLUM, L. A. (1993). Live-social-video reward maintains joystick task performance in bonnet macaques. Perceptual and Motor Skills 77, 755-763.
6. ARCHER, S. N., ENDLER, J. A., LYTHGOE, J. N. & PARTRIDGE, J. C. (1987). Visual pigment polymorphism in the guppy Poecilia reticulata. Vision Research 27, 1243-1252.
7. ARCHER, S. N. & LYTHGOE, J. N. (1990). The visual pigment basis for cone polymorphism in the guppy, Poecilia reticulata. Vision Research 30, 225-233.
8. ARNOLD, K. & NEUMEYER, C. (1987). Wavelength discrimination in the turtle Pseudemys scripta elegans. Vision Research 27, 1501-1511.
9. BAKER, M. C., TRACY, T. T. & MIYASATO, L. E. (1996). Gargle vocalisations of black-capped chickadees: test of repertoire and video stimuli. Animal Behaviour 52, 1171-1175.
10. BAUER, H. R. & PHILIP, M. M. (1983). Facial and vocal individual recognition in the common chimpanzee. Psychological Record 33, 161-170.
11. BENNETT, A. T. D. & CUTHILL, I. C. (1994). Ultraviolet vision in birds: what is its function? Vision Research 34, 1471-1478.
12. BENNETT, A. T. D., CUTHILL, I. C. & NORRIS, K. J. (1994). Sexual selection and the mismeasure of color. American Naturalist 144, 848-860.
13. BENNETT, A. T. D., CUTHILL, I. C., PARTRIDGE, J. C. & LUNAU, K. (1997). Ultraviolet plumage colors predict mate preferences in starlings. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 94, 8618-8621.
14. BENNETT, A. T. D., CUTHILL, I. C., PARTRIDGE, J. C. & MAIER, E. J. (1996). Ultraviolet vision and mate choice in zebra finches. Nature 380, 433-435.
15. BOLYARD, K. J. & ROWLAND, W. J. (1996). Context-dependent response to red coloration in stickleback. Animal Behaviour 52, 923-927.
16. BOWMAKER, J. K. (1977). The visual pigments, oil droplets, and spectral sensitivity of the pigeon. Vision Research 17, 1129-1138.
17. BOWMAKER, J. K. (1991). Photoreceptors, photopigments and oil droplets. In Vision and Visual Disjunction; vol. 6: Perception of Colour (ed. P. Gouras), pp. 108-127. Macmillan, London.
18. BOYNTON, R. M. (1979). Human Color Vision, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York, USA.
19. BRADSHAW, R. H. (1992). Conspecific discrimination and social preference in the laying hen. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 33, 69-75.
20. BRADSHAW, R. H. & DAWKINS, M. S. (1993). Slides of conspecifics as representatives of real animals in laying hens (Gallus domesticus). Behavioural Processes 28, 165-172.
21. BROWN, J. L. (1965). Flicker and intermittent stimulation. In Vision and Visual Perception (ed. C. H. Graham), pp. 251-320. John Wiley and Sons, New York.
22. BROWN, S. D. & DOOLING, R. J. (1992). Perception of conspecific faces by budgerigars (Melopsittacus undulatus). I. Natural faces. Journal of Comparative Psychology 106, 203-216.
23. BRUCE, C. (1982). Face recognition by monkeys: absence of an inversion effect. Neuropsychologia 20, 515-521.
24. BUCHSBAUM, G. & GOTTSCHALK, A. (1983). Trichromacy, opponent colours coding and optimum colour information transmission in the retina. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, B 220, 89-113.
25. BULLOCK, T. H., HOFMANN, M. H., NEW, J. G. & NAHM, F. K. (1991). Dynamic properties of visual evoked potentials in the tectum of cartilaginous and bony fishes, with neuroethological implications. The Journal of Experimental Zoology Supplement 5, 142-155.
26. BURKHARDT, D. (1989). UV vision: a bird's eye view of feathers. Journal of Comparative Physiology A 164, 787-796.
27. BURKHARDT, D. & FINGER, E. (1991). Black, white and UV: how birds see birds. Naturwissenschaften 78, 279-280.
28. BUTLER, R. A. (1961). The responsiveness of rhesus monkeys to motion pictures. Genetic Psychology 98, 239-245.
29. BUTLER, R. A. & WOOLPY, J. H. (1963). Visual attention in the rhesus monkey. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology 56, 324-328.
30. CABE, P. A. (1976). Transfer of discrimination from solid objects to pictures by pigeons: a test of theoretical models of pictorial perception. Perception and Psychophysics 19, 545-550.
31. CANDLAND, D. S. (1969). Discriminability of facial regions used by the domestic chicken in maintaining the social dominance order. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology 69, 281-285.
32. CAPITANIO, J. P., BOCCIA, M. L. & COLAIANNIA, D. J. (1985). The influence of rank on affect perception by pigtailed macaques ( Macaca nemestrina). American Journal of Primatology 8, 53-59.
33. CARNT, P. S. & TOWNSEND, G. B. (1961). Colour Television: N.T.S.C. System, Principles and Practice. Iliffe, London.
34. CARNT, P. S. & TOWNSEND, G. B. (1969). Colour Television: Pal, Secam and Other Systems. Iliffe, London.
35. CHEN, D.-M. & GOLDSMITH, T. H. (1986). Four spectral classes of cones in the retinas of birds. Journal of Comparative Physiology A 159, 473-479.
36. CLARK, D. L., MACEDONIA, J. M. & ROSENTHAL, G. G. (1997). Testing video playback to lizards in the field. Copeia 2, 421-423.
37. CLARK, D. L. & UETZ, G. W. (1990). Video image recognition by the jumping spider, Maevia inclemens (Araneae: Salticidae). Animal Behaviour 40, 884-890.
38. CLARK, D. L. & UETZ, G. W. (1992). Morph-independent mate selection in a dimorphic jumping spider: demonstration of movement bias in female choice using video-controlled courtship behaviour. Animal Behaviour 43, 247-254.
39. CLARK, D. L. & UETZ, G. W. (1993). Signal efficacy and the evolution of male dimorphism in the jumping spider Maevia inclemens. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 90, 11954-11957.
40. COHEN, P. S. & LOONEY, T. A. (1973). Schedule-induced mirror responding in the pigeon. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 19, 395-408.
41. COLLETT, T. (1977). Stereopsis in toads. Nature 267, 349-351.
42. CONNER, J. D. (1982). The temporal properties of rod vision. Journal of Physiology 332, 139-155.
43. COOK, M. & MINEKA, S. (1989). Observational conditioning of fear to fear-relevant versus fear-irrelevant stimuli in rhesus monkeys. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 98, 448-459.
44. COOK, M. & MINEKA, S. (1990). Selective associations in the observational conditioning of fear in rhesus monkeys. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behaviour Processes 16, 372-389.
45. CROZIER, W. J. & WOLF, E. (1940). The flicker response curve for Fundulus. Journal of General Physiology 23, 677-694.
46. CROZIER, W. J. & WOLFE, E. (1941a). The flicker response contour for Phrynosoma (horned lizard; cone retina). Journal of General Physiology 24, 317-324.
47. CROZIER, W. J. & WOLF, E. (1941b). The simplest flicker threshold contour for the Zebra finch. Journal of General Physiology 24, 625-633.
48. CROZIER, W. J. & WOLF, E. (1944). Flicker response contours for the sparrow, and the theory of the avian pecten. Journal of General Physiology 27, 315-324.
49. CROZIER, W. J., WOLF, E. & ZERRAHN-WOLF, G. (1939). The flicker response function for the turtle Pseudemys. Journal of General Physiology 22(3), 311-340.
50. CUTHILL, I. C. & BENNETT, A. T. D. (1993). Mimicry and the eye of the beholder. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B 253, 203-204.
51. DABELSTEEN, T. & PEDERSEN, S. B. (1985). A method for computerised modification of certain natural animal sounds for communication study purposes. Biological Cybernetics 52, 399-104.
52. DABELSTEEN, T. & PEDERSEN, S. B. (1991). A portable digital sound emitter for interactive playback of animal vocalisations. Bioacoustics 3, 193-206.
53. DASSER, V. (1987). Slides of group members as representations of the real animals (Macaco fascicularis). Ethology 76, 65-73.
54. DAVENPORT. R. K. & ROGERS, C. M. (1971). Perception of photographs by apes. Behaviour 39, 318-320.
55. DAWKINS, M. S. (1995). How do hens view other hens? The use of lateral and binocular visual fields in social recognition. Behaviour 132, 591-606.
56. DAWKINS, M. S., GUILFORD, T., BRAITHWAITE, V. A. & KREBS, J. R. (1996). Discrimination and recognition of photographs of places by homing pigeons. Behavioural Processes 36, 27-38.
57. DAWKINS, R. (1968). The ontogeny of pecking preference in domestic chicks. Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie 25, 170-186.
58. D'EATH, R. B. & DAWKINS, M. S. (1996). Laying hens do not discriminate between video images of conspecifics. Animal Behaviour 52, 903-912.
59. DELIUS, J. D. (1992). Categorical discrimination of objects and pictures by pigeons. Animal Learning and Behaviour 20, 301-311.
60. DEREGOWSKI, J. B. (1989). Real space and represented space: Cross-cultural perspectives. Behavioural Brain Science 12, 51-119.
61. DEVALOIS, R. L. & DEVALOIS, K. K. (1988). Spatial Vision. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
62. DEVALOIS, R. L. & JACOBS, G. H. (1968). Primate color vision. Science 162, 533-540.
63. DEVOE, R. D. (1972). Dual sensitivities of cells in wolf spider eyes at ultraviolet and visible wavelengths of light. Journal of General Physiology 59, 247-269.
64. DEVOE, R. D. (1975). Ultraviolet and green receptors in principal eyes of jumping spiders. Journal of General Physiology 66, 193-207.
65. DITTRICH, W. (1994). How monkeys see others: Discrimination and recognition of monkeys's shape. Behavioural Processes 33, 139-154.
66. DITTRICH, W., GILBERT, F., GREEN, P., MCGREGOR, P. & GREWCOCK, D. (1993). Imperfect mimicry: a pigeon's perspective. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B 251, 195-200.
67. DITTRICH, W. H. & LEA, S. E. G. (1993). Motion as a natural category for pigeons: generalisation and a feature-positive effect. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 59, 115-129.
68. DODT, E. & WIRTH, A. (1953). Differentiation between rods and cones by flicker electroretinography in pigeon and guinea pig. Acta Physiologica Scandinavica 30, 80-89.
69. DOUGLAS, R. H. & HAWRYSHYN, C. W. (1990). Behavioural studies of fish vision: an analysis of visual capabilities. In The Visual System of Fish (ed. R. H. Douglas and M. B. A. Djamgoz), pp. 279-343. Chapman and Hall, London.
70. EMMERTON, J. & DELIUS, J. D. (1980). Wavelength discrimination in the 'visible' and ultraviolet spectrum by pigeons. Journal of Comparative Physiology 141, 47-52.
71. EVANS, C. S. (1991). Of ducklings and Turing machines: Interactive playbacks enhance subsequent responsiveness to conspecific calls. Ethology 89, 125-134.
72. EVANS, C. S., EVANS, L. & MAKLER, P. (1993a). On the meaning of alarm calls: functional reference in an avian vocal system. Animal Behaviour 46, 23-38.
73. EVANS, C. S., MACEDONIA, J. M. & MARLER, P. (1993b). Effects of apparent size and speed on the response of chickens, Gallus gallus, to computer-generated simulations of aerial predators. Animal Behaviour 46, 1-11.
74. EVANS, C. S. & MARLER, P. (1991). On the use of video images as social stimuli in birds: audience effects on alarm calling. Animal Behaviour 41, 17-26.
75. EVANS, C. S. & MARLER, P. (1992). Female appearance as a factor in the responsiveness of male chickens during antipredator behaviour and courtship. Animal Behaviour 43, 137-145.
76. EWERT, J.-P. (1980). Neuroethology. Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
77. FALLS, J. B. (1992). Playback: a historical perspective. In Playback and Studies in Animal Communication (ed. P. K. McGregor), pp. 11-33. Plenum Press, New York.
78. FERRY, E. S. (1892). Persistence of vision. American Journal of Science 44, 192-207.
79. FLEISHMAN, L. J., LOEW, E. R. & LEAL, M. (1993). Ultraviolet vision in lizards. Nature 365, 397.
80. FLEISHMAN, L. J., MARSHALL, C. J. & HERTZ, P. E. (1995). Comparative study of temporal response properties of the visual system of three species of anoline lizards. Copiea 2, 422-431.
81. FLEISHMAN, L. J., MCCLINTOCK, W. J., D'EATH, R. B., BRAINARD, D. H. & ENDLER, J. A. (1998). Colour perception and the use of video playback experiments in animal behaviour. Animal Behaviour (in press).
82. FORSTER, L. (1985). Target discrimination in jumping spiders (Araneae: Salticidae). In Neurobiology of Arachnids (ed. F. G. Barth). Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
83. FOX, R. (1978). Binocular vision and stereopsis. In Frontiers in Visual Science (ed. S. J. Cool and E. L. Smith), pp. 316-327. Springer-Verlag, New York.
84. FOX, R. (1981). Stereopsis in animals and human infants: A review of behavioural investigations. In Development of Perception: Psychobiological Perspectives, vol. 2, The Visual System (ed. R. N. Aslin, J. R. Alberts and M. R. Petersen). Academic Press, New York.
85. Fox, R., LEHMKUHLE, S. W. & BUSH, R. C. (1977). Stereopsis in the falcon. Science 197, 79-81.
86. FOX, R., LEHMKUHLE, S. W. & WESTENDORF, D. H. (1976). Falcon visual acuity. Science 192, 263-265.
87. FUJITA, K. (1987). Species recognition by five macaque monkeys. Primates 28, 353-366.
88. FUJITA, K. (1993a). Development of visual preference for closely related species by infant and juvenile macaques with restricted social experience. Primates 34, 141-150.
89. FUJITA, K. (1993b). Role of some physical characteristics in species recognition by pigtail monkeys. Primates 34, 133-140.
90. GALLUP, G. G. J. (1968). Mirror-image stimulation. Psychological Bulletin 70, 782-793.
91. GALLUP, G. G. J. (1970). Chimpanzees: Self-recognition. Science 167, 86-87.
92. GOLDSMITH, T. H. (1990). Optimization, constraint, and history in the evolution of eyes. Quarterly Review of Biology 65, 281-322.
93. GOVARDOVSKII, V. I. & ZUEVA, L. V. (1977). Visual pigments of chicken and pigeon. Vision Research 17, 537-543.
94. GRANIT, R. & HARPER, P. (1930). Comparative studies of the peripheral and central retina. II. Synaptic reactions in the eye. American Journal of Physiology 95, 211-228.
95. GRANIT, R. & RIDDELL, L. A. (1934). The electrical responses of light- and dark-adapted frogs' eyes to rhythmic and continuous stimuli. Journal of Physiology 81, 1-28.
96. GRIGOR, P. N., HUGHES, B. O. & APPLEBY, M. C. (1995). Social inhibition of movement in domestic hens. Animal Behaviour 49, 1381-1388.
97. GUILD, J. (1931). The colorimetric properties of the spectrum. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London A 230, 149-187.
98. GUTHRIE, S. D. M. (1990). The physiology of the teleostean optic tectum. In The Visual System of Fish (ed. R. H. Douglas and M. B. A. Djamgoz), pp. 279-343. Chapman and Hall, London.
99. GYGER, M., KARAKASHIAN, S. & MARLER, P. (1986). Avian alarm calling: is there an audience effect? Animal Behaviour 34, 1570-1572.
100. HARKNESS, L. (1977). Chameleons use accommodation cues to judge distance. Nature 267, 346-349.
101. HARRIS, V. A. (1964). The Life of the Rainbow Lizard. Hutchinson, London.
102. HECHT, S. & VERRIJP, C. D. ( 1933). Intermittent stimulation by light. Journal of General Physiology 17, 237-282.
103. HELMHOLTZ, H. L. F., VON. (1866). Handbuch der physiologischen Optik. Voss, Hamburg and Leipzig.
104. HENDRICKS, J. (1966). Flicker thresholds as determined by a modified conditioned suppression procedure. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behaviour 9, 501-506.
105. HERRNSTEIN, R. J. (1984). Objects, categories and discriminative stimuli. In Animal Cognition (ed. H. L. Roitblat, T. G. Bever and H. S. Terrace), pp. 233-261. Lawrence Erlbaum, Hillsdale, New Jersey.
106. HERRNSTEIN, R. J. & LOVELAND, D. H. (1964). Complex visual concept in the pigeon. Science 146, 549-551.
107. HERRNSTEIN, R. J., LOVELAND, D. H. & CABLE, C. (1976). Natural concepts in pigeons. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behaviour Processes 2, 285-302.
108. HERSHBERGER, W. (1970). Attached-shadow orientation perceived as depth by chickens reared in an environment illuminated from below. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology 73, 407-111.
109. HERZOG, M. & HOPF, S. (1986). Recognition of visual pattern components in squirrel monkeys. European Archives of Psychiatry and Neurological Sciences 236, 10-16.
110. HEYES, C. M. (1994). Reflections on self-recognition in primates. Animal Behaviour 47, 909-919.
111. HOUTMAN, A. M. (1992). Female zebra finches choose extrapair copulations with genetically attractive males. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B 249, 3-6.
112. HUMPHREY, N. K. (1972). 'Interest' and 'pleasure': two determinants of a monkey's visual preferences. Perception 1, 395-416.
113. HUMPHREY, N. K. (1974). Species and individuals in the perceptual world of monkeys. Perception 3, 105-114.
114. HUMPHREY, N. K. & KEEBLE, G. R. (1974). The reaction of monkeys to 'fearsome' pictures. Nature 251, 500-502.
115. HUMPHREY, N. K. & KEEBLE, G. R. (1976). How monkeys acquire a new way of seeing. Perception 5, 51-56.
116. HYLKEMA, B. S. (1942). Examination of the visual field by determining the fusion frequency. Acta Opthal. 20, 181-193.
117. IFUNE, C. K., VERMEIRE, B. A. & HAMILTON, C. R. (1984). Hemispheric differences in split-brain monkeys viewing and responding to videotape recordings. Behavioral and Neural Biology 11, 231-235.
118. INGLE, D. (1976). Spatial vision in anurans. In The Amphibian Visual System: A Multidisciplinary Approach (ed. K. Kite), pp. 119-140. Academic Press, New York.
119. JACOBS, G. H. (1981). Comparative Color Vision. Academic Press, London.
120. JACOBS, G. H. (1992). Data and interpretations in comparative color vision. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 15, 40-41.
121. JACOBS, G. H. (1993). The distribution and nature of colour vision among the mammals. Biological Reviews 68, 413-471.
122. JENSSEN, T. A. (1970). Female response to filmed displays of Anolis nebulosus (Sauria, Iguanidae). Animal Behaviour 18, 640-647.
123. JONES, R. B., LARKINS, C. & HUGHES, B. O. (1996). Approach/avoidance responses of domestic chicks to familiar and unfamiliar video images of biologically neutral stimuli. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 48, 81-98.
124. KEELING, L. J. & HURNIK, J. F. (1993). Chickens show socially facilitated feeding behaviour in response to a video image of a conspecific. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 36, 223-231.
125. KENDRICK, K. M. (1994). Neurobiological correlates of visual and olfactory recognition in sheep. Behavioural Processes 33, 89-112.
126. KODRIC-BROWN, A. & NICOLETTO, P. F. (1997). Repeatability of female choice in the guppy: response to live and videotaped males. Animal Behaviour 54, 369-376.
127. KOSKELAINEN, A., HEMILA, S. & DONNER, K. (194). Spectral sensitivities of short- and long-wavelength sensitive cone mechanisms in the frog retina. Acta Physiologica Scandinavica 152, 115-124.
128. KYES, R. C. & CANDLAND, D. K. (1984). Baboon (Papio hamadryas) visual preferences for socially relevant stimuli. International Journal of Primatology 5, 355.
129. KYES, R. C., MAYER, K. E. & BUNNELL, B. N. (1992). Perception of stimuli presented as photographic slides in cynomolgus macaques (Macaco fascicularis). Primates 33, 407-412.
130. LAND, M. (1990). Vision in other animals. In Images and Understanding: Thoughts about Images: Ideas about Understanding (ed. H. B. Barlow, C. Blakemore, M. Weston-Smith and J. Miller), pp. 197-212. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
131. LANDIS, C. (1954). Determinants of the Critical Flicker-Fusion threshold. Physiological Reviews 34, 259-286.
132. LEA, S. E. G. (1984). In what sense do pigeons learn concepts? In Animal Cognition (ed. H. L. Roitblat, T. G. Bever and H. C. Terrace), pp. 263-276. Lawrence Erlbaum, Hillsdale, New Jersey.
133. LEA, S. E. G. & HARRISON, S. N. (1978). Discrimination of polymorphous stimulus sets by pigeons. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 30, 521-537.
134. LEA, S. E. G., LOHMANN, A. & RYAN, C. M. E. (1993). Discrimination of five-dimensional stimuli by pigeons: limitations of feature analysis. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 46B, 19-42.
135. LEVINSON, J. Z. (1968). Flicker fusion phenomena. Science 160, 21-28.
136. LIVINGSTONE, M. & HUBEL, D. (1988). Segregation of form, color, movement and depth: anatomy, physiology and perception. Science 240, 740-749.
137. LUMSDEN, E. A. (1977). Generalisation of an operant response to photographs and drawings/silhouettes of a three-dimensional object at various orientations. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society 10, 405-407.
138. LYTHGOE, J. N. (1979). The Ecology of vision. Clarendon Press, Oxford.
139. LYTHGOE, R. J. & TANSLEY, K. (1929). The relation of the critical frequency of flicker to the adaptation of the eye. Proceedings of the Royal Society (London) 105, 60-92.
140. MACEDONIA, J. M., EVANS, C. S. & LOSOS, J. B. (1994). Male Anolis lizards discriminate video-recorded conspecific and heterospecific displays. Animal Behaviour 47, 1220-1223.
141. MACEDONIA, J. M. & STAMPS, J. A. (1994). Species recognition in Anolisgrahami (Sauria, Iguanidae): evidence from responses to video playbacks of conspecific and heterospecific displays. Ethology 98, 246-264.
142. MARKS, W. B., DOBELLE, W. H. & MACNICHOL, E. F., JR. (1964). Visual pigments of single primate cones. Science 143, 1181-1183.
143. MARTEN, K. & PSARAKOS, S. (1995). Using self-view television to distinguish between self-examination and social behaviour in the bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus). Consciousness and Cognition 4, 205-224.
144. MAXWELL, J. C. (1890). Experiments with colour, as perceived by the eye. In Scientific Papers, vol. 1 (ed. W. D. Niven), pp. 126-154. Cambridge University Press, London.
145. MCCLINTOCK, W. J. & UETZ, G. W. (1996). Female choice and pre-existing bias: visual cues during courtship in two Schizocosa wolf spiders (Araneae: Lycosidae). Animal Behaviour 52, 167-181.
146. MCDONALD, C. G., REIMCHEN, T. E. & HAWRYSHYN, C. W. (1995). Nuptial colour loss and signal masking in Gasterosteus: an analysis using video imaging. Behaviour 132, 963-977.
147. MCFADDEN, S. A. (1993). Constructing the three-dimensional image. In Vision, Brain, and Behaviour in Birds (ed. H. P. Zeigler and H.-J. Bischof), pp. 47-61. MIT, Cambridge, Mass.
148. MCFADDEN, S. A. & WILD, J. M. (1986). Binocular depth perception in the pigeon. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behaviour 45, 149-160.
149. MCGREGOR, P. K., DABELSTEEN, T. D., SHEPARD, M. & PEDERSEN, S. B. (1992). The signal value of matched singing in great tits: evidence from interactive playback experiments. Animal Behaviour 43, 987-998.
150. MCKINNON, J. S. (1995). Video mate preferences of female three-spined sticklebacks from populations with divergent male coloration. Animal Behaviour 50, 1645-1655.
151. MCKINNON, J. S. & MCPHAIL, J. D. (1996). Male aggression and colour in divergent populations of the threespine stickleback: experiments with animations. Canadian Journal of Zoology 74, 1727-1733.
152. MCQUOID, E. M. & GALEF, B. G., JR. (1993). Social stimuli influencing feeding behaviour of Burmese fowl: a video analysis. Animal Behaviour 46, 13-22.
153. MCQUOID, E. M. & GALEF, B. G., JR. (1994). Effects of access to food during training on social learning by Burmese red junglefowl. Animal Behaviour 48, 737-739.
154. MENZEL, E. W. J., SAVAGE-RUMBAUGH, E. S. & LAWSON, J. (1985). Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) spatial problem solving with the use of mirrors and televised equivalents of mirrors. Journal of Comparative Psychology 99, 211-217.
155. MENZEL, R. (1979). Spectral sensitivity and colour vision in invertebrates. In Handbook of Sensory Physiology, VII/6A: Invertebrate Photoreceptors (ed. H. Autrum), pp. 503-580. Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
156. MICHELSEN, A., ANDERSEN, B. B., STORM, J., KIRCHNER, W. H. & LINDAUER, M. (1992). How honeybees perceive communication dances, studied by means of a mechanical model. Behavioural Ecology and Sociobiology 30, 143-150.
157. MILINSKI, M. (1987). Tit for tat in sticklebacks and the evolution of cooperation. Nature 125, 433-435.
158. MILINSKI, M. & BARKER, T. C. M. (1990). Female sticklebacks use male coloration in mate choice and hence avoid parasitised males. Nature 344, 330-333.
159. MILLER, R. E., CAUL, W. F. & MIRSKY, I. A. (1967). Communication of affects between feral and socially isolated monkeys. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 7, 231-239.
160. MINEKA, S. & COOK, M. (1988). Social learning and the acquisition of snake fear in monkeys. In Social Learning (ed. T. Zentall and B. G. Galef, Jr.), pp. 51-73. Lawrence Erlbaum, Hillsdale, New Jersey.
161. MUNTZ, W. R. A. (1962). Effectiveness of different colors of light in releasing positive phototactic behaviour of frogs, and a possible function of the retinal projection to the diencephalon. Journal of Neurophysiology 25, 712-720.
162. NEITZ, J., NEITZ, M. & JACOBS, G. H. (1993). More than three different cone pigments among people with normal color vision. Vision Research 33, 117-122.
163. NEUMEYER, C. (1985). An ultraviolet receptor as a fourth receptor type in goldfish color vision. Naturwissenschaften 72, 162-163.
164. NEUMEYER, C. (1986). Wavelength discrimination in the goldfish. Journal of Comparative Physiology A 158, 203-213.
165. NEUMEYER, C. (1992). Tetrachromatic colour-vision in goldfish: evidence from colour mixture experiments. Journal of Comparative Physiology A 171, 639-649.
166. NEUMEYER, C. & ARNOLD, K. (1989). Tetrachromatic color vision in the goldfish becomes trichromatic under white adaptation light of moderate intensity. Vision Research 29, 1719-1727.
167. NUBOER, J. F. W., COEMANS, M. A. J. M. & VOS, J. J. (1992a). Artificial lighting in poultry houses: are photometric units appropriate for describing illumination intensities? British Poultry Science 33, 135-140.
168. NUBOER, J. F. W., COEMANS, M. A. J. M. & Vos, J. J. (1992b). Artificial lighting in poultry houses: do hens perceive the modulation of fluorescent lamps as flicker? British Poultry Science 33, 123-133.
169. NUBOER, J. K. & WORTEL, J. F. (1987). Colour vision via the pigeon's red and yellow retinal fields. In Seeing Contour and Colour (ed J. Kulikowski, C. M. Dickinson and I. J. Murray). Pergamon Press, Oxford.
170. ONURAL, L., BOZDAGI, G. & ATALAR, A. (1994). New high-resolution display device for holographic three-dimensional video: principles and simulations. Optical Engineering 33, 835-844.
171. OTT, M. & SCHAEFFEL, F. (1995). A negatively powered lens in the chameleon. Nature 373, 165-166.
172. OYAMA, T. & JITSUMORI, M. (1973). A behavioural study of colour mixture in the carp. Vision Research 13, 2299-2308.
173. PALACIOS, A., BONNARDEL, V. & VARELA, F. (1990). An autoshaping method for wavelength discrimination in birds. Comptes Rendues de l'Académie des Sciences, série III: Sciences de la Vie 311, 213-218.
174. PALACIOS, A., MARTINOYA, C., BLOCH, S. & VARELA, F. J. (1990). Color mixing in the pigeon. A psychophysical determination in the longwave spectral range. Vision Research 30, 587-596.
175. PALACIOS, A. G. & VARELA, F. J. (1992). Color mixing in the pigeon (Columba livia). II: a psychophysical determination in the middle, short and near-UV wavelength range. Vision Research 32, 1947-1953.
176. PATTERSON-KANE, E., NICOL, C. J., FOSTER, T. M. & TEMPLE, W. (1997). Limited perception of video images by domestic hens. Animal Behaviour 53, 951-963.
177. PEASLEE, A. G. & WILSON, G. (1989). Spectral sensitivity in jumping spiders. Journal of Comparative Physiology 164, 359-363.
178. PEPPERBERG, I. M. (1994). Vocal learning in grey parrots (Psittacus erithacus) effects of social interaction, reference, and context. Auk 111, 300-313.
179. PERRETT, D. I., ORAM, M. W., HARRIES, M. H., BEVAN, R., HIETANEN J. K., BENSON, P. J. & THOMAS, S. (1991). Viewer-centred and object-centred coding of heads in the macaque temporal cortex. Experimental Brain Research 86, 159-173.
180. PERRETT, D. I., ROLLS, E. T. & CAAN, W. (1982). Visual neurones responsive to faces in the monkey temporal cortex. Experimental Brain Research 47, 329-342.
181. PERRY, R. J. & MCNAUGHTON, P. A. (1991). Response properties of cones from the retina of the tiger salamander. Journal of Physiology 433, 561-587.
182. PLIMPTON, E. H., SWARTZ, K. B. & ROSENBLUM, L. A. (1981). Responses of juvenile bonnet macaques to social stimuli presented through color videotapes. Developmental Psychobiology 14, 109-115.
183. PORTER, T. C. (1902). Contributions to the study of flicker. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London 70, 313-329.
184. POWELL, R. W. (1967). The pulse-to-cycle fraction as a determinant of critical flicker fusion in the pigeon. Psychological Record 17, 151-160.
185. PRAYITNO, D. S. & PHILLIPS, C. J. C. (1997). Equating the perceived intensity of coloured light to hens. British Poultry Science 38, 136-141.
186. PREMACK, D. & WOODRUFF, G. (1978). Does the chimpanzee have a theory of mind? Behavioral and Brain Sciences 1, 515-526.
187. REDICAN, W. K., KELLICUTT, M. H. & MITCHELL, G. (1971). Preferences for facial expressions in juvenile rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatto). Developmental Psychology 5, 539.
188. REYMOND, L. (1985). Spatial visual acuity of the eagle Aquila audax: a behavioural, optical and anatomical investigation. Vision Research 25, 1477-1491.
189. REYMOND, L. (1987). Spatial visual acuity of the falcon: Falco berigora: a behavioural, optical and anatomical investigation. Vision Research 27, 1859-1874.
190. ROHWER, S. (1985). Dyed birds achieve higher social status than controls in Harris' sparrows. Animal Behaviour 33, 1325-1331.
191. ROSENBLUM, E. A. & ALPERT, S. (1977). Response to mother and stranger: a first step in socialization. In Primate Bio-social Development: Biological, Social and Ecological Determinants (ed. S. Chevalier-Skolnikoff and F. E. Poirier), pp. 463-77. Garland, New York and London.
192. ROSENTHAL, G. G., EVANS, C. S. & MILLER, W. E. (1996). Female preference for dynamic traits in the green swordtail, Xiphophorus hellen. Animal Behaviour 51, 811-820.
193. ROSSEL, S. (1983). Binocular stereopsis in an insect. Nature 302, 821-822.
194. ROSTER, N. O., CLARK, D. E. & GILLINGHAM, J. C. (1995). Prey catching behaviour in frogs and toads using video-simulated prey. Copeia 2, 496-498.
195. ROVAMO, J. & RANINEN, A. (1988). Critical flicker frequency as a function of stimulus area and luminance at various eccentricities in human cone vision (a revision of Granit-Harper and Ferry-Porter Laws). Vision Research 28, 785-790.
196. ROWLAND, W. J. (1995). Do female stickleback care about male courtship vigour? Manipulation of display tempo using video playback. Behaviour 132, 951-961.
197. ROWLAND, W. J., BOLYARD, K. J. & HALPERN, A. D. (1995a). The dual effect of stickleback nuptial coloration on rivals: manipulation of a graded signal using video playback. Animal Behaviour 50, 267-272.
198. ROWLAND, W. J., BOLYARD, K. J., JENKINS, J. J. & FOWLER, J. (1995b). Video playback experiments on stickleback mate choice: female motivation and attentiveness to male colour cues. Animal Behaviour 49, 1559-1567.
199. RUMBAUGH, D. M., RICHARDSON, W. K., WASHBURN, D. A., SAVAGE-RUMBAUGH, E. S. & HOPKINS, W. D. (1989). Rhesus monkeys (Macaca, mulatto), video tasks, and implications for stimulus-response spatial contiguity. Journal of Comparative Psychology 103, 32-38.
200. RYAN, C. M. E. (1982). Concept formation and individual recognition in the domestic chicken. Behaviour Analysis Letters 2, 213-220.
201. RYAN, C. M. E. & LEA, S. E. G. (1994). Images of conspecifics as categories to be discriminated by pigeons and chickens: slides, video tapes, stuffed birds and live birds. Behavioural Processes 33, 155-176.
202. RYCHLEWSKI, T. V. & VOGEL, R. Q. (1966). Phosphor persistence in color-television screens. Electrochemical Technology 4 (1-2), 9-12.
203. SACKETT, G. P. (1965). Response of Rhesus monkeys to social stimulation presented by means of coloured slides. Perceptual and Motor Skills 20, 1027-1028.
204. SAVAGE-RUMBAUGH, E. S., RUMBAUGH, D. M. & BOYSEN, S. (1978). Sarah's problems of comprehension. Behavioural and Brain Sciences 1, 555-557.
205. SCHNEIDER, C. W. (1968). Electrophysiological analysis of the mechanisms underlying critical flicker frequency. Vision Research 8, 1235-1243.
206. SHEPARD, R. N. (1992). The perceptual organisation of colors: an adaptation to regularities of the terrestrial world? In The Adapted Mind, Evolutionary Psychology and the Generation of Culture (ed. J. H. Barkow, L. Cosmides and J. Tooby). Oxford University Press, Oxford.
207. SKRANDIES, W. (1985). Critical flicker fusion and double flash discrimination in different parts of the visual-field. International Journal of Neuroscience 25, 225-231.
208. SUBOSKI, M. D. & BARTASHUNAS, C. (1984). Mechanisms for social transmission of pecking preferences to neonatal chicks. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behaviour Processes 10, 182-194.
209. SWADDLE, J. P. & CUTHILL, I. C. (1994). Preference for symmetrical males by female zebra finches. Nature 367, 165-166.
210. SWARTZ, K. B. & ROSENBLUM, L. A. (1980). Operant responding by bonnet macaques for color videotape recordings of social stimuli. Animal Learning and Behavior 8, 311-321.
211. SYMMES, D. (1962). Self-determination of critical flicker frequencies in monkeys. Science 136, 714-715.
212. TANSLEY, K. (1957). Vision in Vertebrates. Chapman and Hall, London.
213. THOMAS, E. (1955). Untersuchungen uber den helligkeits und farbensinn der Anuren. Zoologische Jahrbucher Physiologie 66, 129-178.
214. TINBERGEN, N. & PERDECK, A. C. (1950). On the stimulus situation releasing the begging response in the newly-hatched herring gull chick (Larus argentatus. Pont). Behaviour 3, 1-39.
215. TOLMAN, C. W. (1965). Feeding behaviour of domestic chicks in the presence of their own mirror images. Canadian Psychologist 6, 227.
216. TOLMAN, C. W. (1967). The effects of tapping sounds on feeding behaviour of domestic chicks. Animal Behaviour 15, 145-148.
217. TRILLMICH, F. (1976). Learning experiments on individual recognition in budgerigars (Melopsittacus undulatus). Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie 41, 372-395.
218. VANRHIJN, J. G. (1980). Communication by agonistic displays: a discussion. Behaviour 74, 284-293.
219. VARELA, F. J., PALACIOS, A. G. & GOLDSMITH, T. H. (1993). Color Vision of Birds. In Vision, Brain and Behavior in Birds (ed. H. P. Ziegler and H.-J. Bischof), pp. 77-98. MIT, London.
220. VAUGHAN, W. J. & GREENE, S. L. (1984). Pigeon visual memory capacity. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behaviour Processes 10, 256-271.
221. VON HEUSSER, H. (1968). Ein frei gehaltener Krallenatte (Callithrix jacchus) erkennt Bilder. Zeitschrift, für Tierpsychologie 25, 710-718.
222. WAGNER, H. & SCHAEFFEL, F. (1991). Barn owls (Tyto alba) use accommodation as a distance cue. Journal of Comparative Physiology A 169, 515-521.
223. WALLS, G. L. (1942). The Vertebrate Eye and Its Adaptive Radiation. Hafner, New York.
224. WASHBURN, D. A. & HOPKINS, W. D. (1994). Videotape-versus pellet-rewarded preferences in joystick tasks by macaques. Perceptual and Motor Skills 78, 48-50.
225. WATANABE, S. (1993). Object-picture equivalence in the pigeon: an analysis with natural concept and pseudoconcept discriminations. Behavioural Processes 30, 225-232.
226. WATANABE, S., LEA, S. E. G. & DITTRICH, W. H. (1993a). What can we learn from experiments on pigeon concept discrimination. In Vision, Brain and Behavior in Birds (ed. H. P. Zeigler and H.-J. Bischof), pp. 351-376. MIT Press, London.
227. WATANABE, S., YAMASHITA, M. & WAKITA, M. (1993b). Discrimination of video images of conspecific individuals in Bengalese finches. Journal of Ethology 11, 67-72.
228. WORTEL, J. F., RUGENBRINK, H. & NUBOER, J. F. W. (1987). The photopic spectral sensitivity of the dorsal and ventral retinae of the chicken. Journal of Comparative Physiology A 160, 151-154.
229. WRIGHT, A. A. & GUMMING, W. W. (1971). Color-naming functions for the pigeon. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 15, 7-17.
230. WRIGHT, W. D. (1928-9). A re-determination of the trichromatic coefficients of the spectral colours. Transactions of the Optical Society of London 31, 201-218.
231. WRIGHT, W. D. (1964). The Measurement of Colour. Hilger and Watts, London.
232. YAGER, D. (1967). Behavioural measures and theoretical analysis of spectral sensitivity and spectral saturation in the goldfish Carassius auratus. Vision Research 7, 707-727.
233. YAGER, D. (1974). Effects of chromatic adaptation on saturation discrimination in the goldfish. Vision Research 14, 1089-1094.
234. YOUNG, T. (1807). On the theory of light and colours. In Lectures in Natural Philosophy, vol. 2, pp. 613-632. Joseph Johnson, London.
235. ZIMMERMAN, R. R. & HOCHBERG, J. (1970). Responses of infant monkeys to pictoral representations of a learned visual discrimination. Psychonomic Science 18, 307-308.
236. ZIMMERMAN, R. R. & HOCHBERG, J. (1971). The facilitation of picture discrimination after object discrimination learning in the neonatal monkey and probably vice versa. Psychonomic Science 24, 239-241.