Social capital: its relationship to innovation in science and technology

Science and Public Policy

Volumn 25, Issue 2, 1998, Pages 103-115

  Fountain, Jane E ^a  

^a HARVARD UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

BIOTECHNOLOGY RESOURCES; ENVIRONMENTAL ECONOMICS; UNITED STATES;

INDUSTRIAL POLICY; PUBLIC-PRIVATE PARTNERSHIPS; SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY; SOCIAL CAPITAL; TECHNOLOGY POLICY;

USA;

EID: 0031712228     PISSN: 03023427     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (84)

1. Among a large body of research see Peter N Dale, The Myth of Japanese Uniqueness (St. Martin's Press, New York, 1986); Toshihiro Nishiguchi, "Strategic dualism: an alternative in industrial societies", PhD dissertation, Nuffield College, Oxford University, 1989; Ken-ichi Imai, Ikujiro Nonaka, and Hirotaka Takeuchi, "Managing the new product development process: how Japanese companies learn and unlearn", in Kim Clark et al (editors), The Uneasy Alliance (Harvard Business School Press, Boston, 1985).
2. Among a large body of research see Peter N Dale, The Myth of Japanese Uniqueness (St. Martin's Press, New York, 1986); Toshihiro Nishiguchi, "Strategic dualism: an alternative in industrial societies", PhD dissertation, Nuffield College, Oxford University, 1989; Ken-ichi Imai, Ikujiro Nonaka, and Hirotaka Takeuchi, "Managing the new product development process: how Japanese companies learn and unlearn", in Kim Clark et al (editors), The Uneasy Alliance (Harvard Business School Press, Boston, 1985).
3. Among a large body of research see Peter N Dale, The Myth of Japanese Uniqueness (St. Martin's Press, New York, 1986); Toshihiro Nishiguchi, "Strategic dualism: an alternative in industrial societies", PhD dissertation, Nuffield College, Oxford University, 1989; Ken-ichi Imai, Ikujiro Nonaka, and Hirotaka Takeuchi, "Managing the new product development process: how Japanese companies learn and unlearn", in Kim Clark et al (editors), The Uneasy Alliance (Harvard Business School Press, Boston, 1985).
4. See Frank Pyke and Werner Sengenberger, Industrial Districts and Local Economic Regeneration (International Institute for Labour Studies, Geneva, 1992); Allen Scott, New Industrial Spaces: Flexible Production Organization and Regional Development in North America and Western Europe (Pion, London, 1988) both cited in Annalee Saxenian, Regional Advantage (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1994) page 172.
5. See Frank Pyke and Werner Sengenberger, Industrial Districts and Local Economic Regeneration (International Institute for Labour Studies, Geneva, 1992); Allen Scott, New Industrial Spaces: Flexible Production Organization and Regional Development in North America and Western Europe (Pion, London, 1988) both cited in Annalee Saxenian, Regional Advantage (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1994) page 172.
6. See Frank Pyke and Werner Sengenberger, Industrial Districts and Local Economic Regeneration (International Institute for Labour Studies, Geneva, 1992); Allen Scott, New Industrial Spaces: Flexible Production Organization and Regional Development in North America and Western Europe (Pion, London, 1988) both cited in Annalee Saxenian, Regional Advantage (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1994) page 172.
7. See, among a large base of research, Sebastiano Brusco, "Small firms and industrial districts: the experience of Italy", in David Keeble and Robert Wever, New Firms and Regional Development in Europe (Croon Helm, London, 1982); Michael J Piore and Charles Sabel, The Second Industrial Divide: Possibilities for Prosperity (Basic Books, New York, 1984); and Frank Pyke, Giacomo Becattini, and Werner Sengenberger, Industrial Districts and Inter-Firm Cooperation in Italy (International Institute for Labour Studies, Geneva, 1990).
8. See, among a large base of research, Sebastiano Brusco, "Small firms and industrial districts: the experience of Italy", in David Keeble and Robert Wever, New Firms and Regional Development in Europe (Croon Helm, London, 1982); Michael J Piore and Charles Sabel, The Second Industrial Divide: Possibilities for Prosperity (Basic Books, New York, 1984); and Frank Pyke, Giacomo Becattini, and Werner Sengenberger, Industrial Districts and Inter-Firm Cooperation in Italy (International Institute for Labour Studies, Geneva, 1990).
9. See, among a large base of research, Sebastiano Brusco, "Small firms and industrial districts: the experience of Italy", in David Keeble and Robert Wever, New Firms and Regional Development in Europe (Croon Helm, London, 1982); Michael J Piore and Charles Sabel, The Second Industrial Divide: Possibilities for Prosperity (Basic Books, New York, 1984); and Frank Pyke, Giacomo Becattini, and Werner Sengenberger, Industrial Districts and Inter-Firm Cooperation in Italy (International Institute for Labour Studies, Geneva, 1990).
10. James S Coleman, Foundations of Social Theory (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass, 1990) pages 300-321; Robert Putnam, Making Democracy Work: Civic Traditions in Modern Italy (Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, 1993) chapter 6; Robert Putnam, "The prosperous community: social capital and public life", The American Prospect, 13, Spring 1993. Glenn Loury first introduced the term "social capital" and noted its importance to economic development: see Glenn Loury, "A dynamic theory of racial income differences", in P A Wallace and A LeMund (editors), Women, Minorities, and Employment Discrimination (Lexington Books, Lexington, Mass, 1977); Glenn Loury, "Why should we care about group inequality?", Social Philosophy and Policy, 5, 1987, pages 249-271.
11. James S Coleman, Foundations of Social Theory (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass, 1990) pages 300-321; Robert Putnam, Making Democracy Work: Civic Traditions in Modern Italy (Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, 1993) chapter 6; Robert Putnam, "The prosperous community: social capital and public life", The American Prospect, 13, Spring 1993. Glenn Loury first introduced the term "social capital" and noted its importance to economic development: see Glenn Loury, "A dynamic theory of racial income differences", in P A Wallace and A LeMund (editors), Women, Minorities, and Employment Discrimination (Lexington Books, Lexington, Mass, 1977); Glenn Loury, "Why should we care about group inequality?", Social Philosophy and Policy, 5, 1987, pages 249-271.
12. James S Coleman, Foundations of Social Theory (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass, 1990) pages 300-321; Robert Putnam, Making Democracy Work: Civic Traditions in Modern Italy (Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, 1993) chapter 6; Robert Putnam, "The prosperous community: social capital and public life", The American Prospect, 13, Spring 1993. Glenn Loury first introduced the term "social capital" and noted its importance to economic development: see Glenn Loury, "A dynamic theory of racial income differences", in P A Wallace and A LeMund (editors), Women, Minorities, and Employment Discrimination (Lexington Books, Lexington, Mass, 1977); Glenn Loury, "Why should we care about group inequality?", Social Philosophy and Policy, 5, 1987, pages 249-271.
13. James S Coleman, Foundations of Social Theory (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass, 1990) pages 300-321; Robert Putnam, Making Democracy Work: Civic Traditions in Modern Italy (Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, 1993) chapter 6; Robert Putnam, "The prosperous community: social capital and public life", The American Prospect, 13, Spring 1993. Glenn Loury first introduced the term "social capital" and noted its importance to economic development: see Glenn Loury, "A dynamic theory of racial income differences", in P A Wallace and A LeMund (editors), Women, Minorities, and Employment Discrimination (Lexington Books, Lexington, Mass, 1977); Glenn Loury, "Why should we care about group inequality?", Social Philosophy and Policy, 5, 1987, pages 249-271.
14. James S Coleman, Foundations of Social Theory (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass, 1990) pages 300-321; Robert Putnam, Making Democracy Work: Civic Traditions in Modern Italy (Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, 1993) chapter 6; Robert Putnam, "The prosperous community: social capital and public life", The American Prospect, 13, Spring 1993. Glenn Loury first introduced the term "social capital" and noted its importance to economic development: see Glenn Loury, "A dynamic theory of racial income differences", in P A Wallace and A LeMund (editors), Women, Minorities, and Employment Discrimination (Lexington Books, Lexington, Mass, 1977); Glenn Loury, "Why should we care about group inequality?", Social Philosophy and Policy, 5, 1987, pages 249-271.
15. Lewis M Branscomb, "Social capital: the key element in science-based development", Science-Based Economic Development: Case Studies around the World, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 798; Lewis M Branscomb and Young-Hwan Choi, "A framework for discussing Korea's techno-economic future", in Lewis M Branscomb and Young-Hwan Choi (editors), Korea at the Turning Point: Innovation-Based Strategies for Development (Praeger, Westport, Conn, 1996).
16. Lewis M Branscomb, "Social capital: the key element in science-based development", Science-Based Economic Development: Case Studies around the World, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 798; Lewis M Branscomb and Young-Hwan Choi, "A framework for discussing Korea's techno-economic future", in Lewis M Branscomb and Young-Hwan Choi (editors), Korea at the Turning Point: Innovation-Based Strategies for Development (Praeger, Westport, Conn, 1996).
17. Branscomb, see reference 5; Branscomb and Choi, see reference 5; Lewis M Branscomb and Young-Hwan Choi, "The next stage: the road to an innovation-led Korea", in Lewis M Branscomb and Young-Hwan Choi, Korea at the Turning Point, see reference 5, chapter 15; Lewis M Branscomb and Henry Ergas, "Contrasting models: Brazil and small European countries", in Lewis M Branscomb and Young-Hwan Choi, Korea at the Turning Point, see reference 5, chapter 11; and see also Richard R Nelson (editor), National Systems of Innovation: A Comparative Analysis (Oxford University Press, New York, 1993).
18. Branscomb, see reference 5; Branscomb and Choi, see reference 5; Lewis M Branscomb and Young-Hwan Choi, "The next stage: the road to an innovation-led Korea", in Lewis M Branscomb and Young-Hwan Choi, Korea at the Turning Point, see reference 5, chapter 15; Lewis M Branscomb and Henry Ergas, "Contrasting models: Brazil and small European countries", in Lewis M Branscomb and Young-Hwan Choi, Korea at the Turning Point, see reference 5, chapter 11; and see also Richard R Nelson (editor), National Systems of Innovation: A Comparative Analysis (Oxford University Press, New York, 1993).
19. Branscomb, see reference 5; Branscomb and Choi, see reference 5; Lewis M Branscomb and Young-Hwan Choi, "The next stage: the road to an innovation-led Korea", in Lewis M Branscomb and Young-Hwan Choi, Korea at the Turning Point, see reference 5, chapter 15; Lewis M Branscomb and Henry Ergas, "Contrasting models: Brazil and small European countries", in Lewis M Branscomb and Young-Hwan Choi, Korea at the Turning Point, see reference 5, chapter 11; and see also Richard R Nelson (editor), National Systems of Innovation: A Comparative Analysis (Oxford University Press, New York, 1993).
20. Lewis Branscomb et al, "Investing in innovation: a strategy for U.S. technology policy", Science, Technology, and Public Policy Program Discussion Paper, Harvard University, 1997.
21. Putnam, "The prosperous community", see reference 4.
22. Ronald S Burt, Structural Holes: The Social Structure of Competition (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, 1992) page 12.
23. Elinor Ostrom, Governing the Commons: The Evolution of Institutions for Collective Action (Cambridge University Press, New York, 1990).
24. David Hume (1740), Book 3, Part 2, Section 5, quoted in Robert D Putnam, Making Democracy Work, see reference 4, page 163.
25. See, for example, Jeffrey Pressman and Aaron Wildavsky, Implementation (University of California Press, Berkeley, 1973); Eugene Bardach, The Implementation Game (The MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass, 1977).
26. See, for example, Jeffrey Pressman and Aaron Wildavsky, Implementation (University of California Press, Berkeley, 1973); Eugene Bardach, The Implementation Game (The MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass, 1977).
27. For micro-level explanations of the development of interorganizational arrangements, see Peter Smith Ring and Andrew Van de Ven, "Developmental processes of cooperative interorganizational relationships", Academy of Management Review, 19(1), 1994; Jane E Fountain, "Trust as a basis for interorganizational forms", paper delivered at conference on Network Analysis and Innovations in Public Programs, University of Wisconsin at Madison, 30 September 1994.
28. For micro-level explanations of the development of interorganizational arrangements, see Peter Smith Ring and Andrew Van de Ven, "Developmental processes of cooperative interorganizational relationships", Academy of Management Review, 19(1), 1994; Jane E Fountain, "Trust as a basis for interorganizational forms", paper delivered at conference on Network Analysis and Innovations in Public Programs, University of Wisconsin at Madison, 30 September 1994.
29. See, for example, Christopher Matthews, Hardball (Simon and Schuster, New York, 1988) chapter 3.
30. See Coleman, reference 4.
31. See Alejandro Portes and Patricia Landolt, "The downside of social capital", The American Prospect, 26, May-June 1996.
32. A rotating credit association consists of a network of carefully selected participants, each of whom make monthly contributions and each of whom receive the 'pot' in sequence. Failure to pay, even after receiving the combined contributions, is exceedingly rare. Members typically use the funds to begin or develop small businesses or to make home improvements: see Robert Putnam, Making Democracy Work, see reference 4, pages 167-169; T Besley, S Coate and G Loury, "The economics of rotating savings and credit associations", American Economic Review, 83(4), September 1993, pages 792-811; Carlos G Velez-Ibanez, Bonds of Mutual Trust: The Cultural Systems of Rotating Credit Associations among Urban Mexicans and Chicanos (Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, NJ, 1983); Clifford Geertz, "The rotating credit association: a 'middle rung' in development", Economic Development and Cultural Change, 10, April 1962.
33. A rotating credit association consists of a network of carefully selected participants, each of whom make monthly contributions and each of whom receive the 'pot' in sequence. Failure to pay, even after receiving the combined contributions, is exceedingly rare. Members typically use the funds to begin or develop small businesses or to make home improvements: see Robert Putnam, Making Democracy Work, see reference 4, pages 167-169; T Besley, S Coate and G Loury, "The economics of rotating savings and credit associations", American Economic Review, 83(4), September 1993, pages 792-811; Carlos G Velez-Ibanez, Bonds of Mutual Trust: The Cultural Systems of Rotating Credit Associations among Urban Mexicans and Chicanos (Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, NJ, 1983); Clifford Geertz, "The rotating credit association: a 'middle rung' in development", Economic Development and Cultural Change, 10, April 1962.
34. A rotating credit association consists of a network of carefully selected participants, each of whom make monthly contributions and each of whom receive the 'pot' in sequence. Failure to pay, even after receiving the combined contributions, is exceedingly rare. Members typically use the funds to begin or develop small businesses or to make home improvements: see Robert Putnam, Making Democracy Work, see reference 4, pages 167-169; T Besley, S Coate and G Loury, "The economics of rotating savings and credit associations", American Economic Review, 83(4), September 1993, pages 792-811; Carlos G Velez-Ibanez, Bonds of Mutual Trust: The Cultural Systems of Rotating Credit Associations among Urban Mexicans and Chicanos (Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, NJ, 1983); Clifford Geertz, "The rotating credit association: a 'middle rung' in development", Economic Development and Cultural Change, 10, April 1962.
35. A rotating credit association consists of a network of carefully selected participants, each of whom make monthly contributions and each of whom receive the 'pot' in sequence. Failure to pay, even after receiving the combined contributions, is exceedingly rare. Members typically use the funds to begin or develop small businesses or to make home improvements: see Robert Putnam, Making Democracy Work, see reference 4, pages 167-169; T Besley, S Coate and G Loury, "The economics of rotating savings and credit associations", American Economic Review, 83(4), September 1993, pages 792-811; Carlos G Velez-Ibanez, Bonds of Mutual Trust: The Cultural Systems of Rotating Credit Associations among Urban Mexicans and Chicanos (Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, NJ, 1983); Clifford Geertz, "The rotating credit association: a 'middle rung' in development", Economic Development and Cultural Change, 10, April 1962.
36. Elinor Ostrom has conducted systematic comparative studies of common-pool resource management to determine why some collective action arrangements succeed while others fail to achieve cooperative, and hence, successful outcomes, and to develop recommendations regarding institutional design: see Ostrom, reference 10.
37. Robert Axelrod, The Evolution of Cooperation (Basic Books, New York, 1984); D Fudenberg and E Maskin, "A folk-theorem in repeated games with discounting and with incomplete information", Econometrica, 54, 1986.
38. Robert Axelrod, The Evolution of Cooperation (Basic Books, New York, 1984); D Fudenberg and E Maskin, "A folk-theorem in repeated games with discounting and with incomplete information", Econometrica, 54, 1986.
39. Ostrom, see reference 10.
40. The author is grateful to Ian McNay for the observation, based on his research of academic networks in Europe, that positive feedback to network actors plays as important a role as negative.
41. Daniel Roos, Frank Field and James Neely, "Industry consortia", in L M Branscomb and J Keller (editors), Investing in Innovation: Creating A Research and Innovation Policy that Works (The MIT Press, Cambridge, 1997) chapter 15.
42. See reference 22.
43. See Darryl Banks and George Heaton, "Towards a new generation of environmental technology", in Investing in Innovation, see reference 22, chapter 11.
44. Robert G Eccles and D B Crane, Doing Deals: Investment Banks at Work (Harvard Business School Press, Cambridge, 1988) pages 119ff.
45. The author is grateful to Christopher Hill for noting the importance of this distinction to policymakers.
46. Burt, see reference 9, pages 13ff.
47. John F Rockart and James E Short, "The networked organization and the management of interdependence", in Michael S Scott Morton (editor). The Corporation of the 1990s (Oxford University Press, New York, 1991) page 192.
48. Richard Florida, "Toward the learning region", Futures, 27(5), June 1995, pages 527-536.
49. Jane Fountain, "Enacting technology", John F Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University, Faculty Research Working Paper, October 1995; Michael S Scott Morton, "Introduction", in Morton, see reference 28.
50. Jane Fountain, "Enacting technology", John F Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University, Faculty Research Working Paper, October 1995; Michael S Scott Morton, "Introduction", in Morton, see reference 28.
51. Brian Kahin, "Beyond the national information infrastructure initiative", in Branscomb and Keller, see reference 22.
52. Information Infrastructure Task Force, The National Information Infrastructure: Agenda for Action (US Department of Commerce, Washington, DC, 15 September 1993).
53. M Tushman and L Rosenkopf, "Organizational determinants of technological change: towards a sociology of technological evolution", in B Staw and L Cummings (editors), Research in Organizational Behavior, 14, pages 311-347; Richard R Nelson, "Capitalism as an engine of progress", Research Policy, 19(3), June 1990, pages 193-214; Michael Tushman and Philip Anderson, "Technological discontinuities and organizational environments", Administrative Science Quarterly, 31 (3), September 1986, pages 439-465; M Gort and S Klepper, "Time paths in the diffusion of product innovations", The Economic Journal, 92, September 1982, pages 630-653.
54. M Tushman and L Rosenkopf, "Organizational determinants of technological change: towards a sociology of technological evolution", in B Staw and L Cummings (editors), Research in Organizational Behavior, 14, pages 311-347; Richard R Nelson, "Capitalism as an engine of progress", Research Policy, 19(3), June 1990, pages 193-214; Michael Tushman and Philip Anderson, "Technological discontinuities and organizational environments", Administrative Science Quarterly, 31 (3), September 1986, pages 439-465; M Gort and S Klepper, "Time paths in the diffusion of product innovations", The Economic Journal, 92, September 1982, pages 630-653.
55. M Tushman and L Rosenkopf, "Organizational determinants of technological change: towards a sociology of technological evolution", in B Staw and L Cummings (editors), Research in Organizational Behavior, 14, pages 311-347; Richard R Nelson, "Capitalism as an engine of progress", Research Policy, 19(3), June 1990, pages 193-214; Michael Tushman and Philip Anderson, "Technological discontinuities and organizational environments", Administrative Science Quarterly, 31 (3), September 1986, pages 439-465; M Gort and S Klepper, "Time paths in the diffusion of product innovations", The Economic Journal, 92, September 1982, pages 630-653.
56. M Tushman and L Rosenkopf, "Organizational determinants of technological change: towards a sociology of technological evolution", in B Staw and L Cummings (editors), Research in Organizational Behavior, 14, pages 311-347; Richard R Nelson, "Capitalism as an engine of progress", Research Policy, 19(3), June 1990, pages 193-214; Michael Tushman and Philip Anderson, "Technological discontinuities and organizational environments", Administrative Science Quarterly, 31 (3), September 1986, pages 439-465; M Gort and S Klepper, "Time paths in the diffusion of product innovations", The Economic Journal, 92, September 1982, pages 630-653.
57. The discussion of learning networks in the biotechnology industry summarizes research reported in Walter W Powell, Kenneth Koput and Laurel Smith-Doerr, "Interorganizational collaboration and the locus of innovation: networks of learning in biotechnology", Administrative Science Quarterly, 41(1), March 1996, page 116.
58. See reference 34, page 117.
59. See reference 34, pages 116-120.
60. See reference 34, pages 118-120.
61. Harvey Brooks and Lucien Randazzese, "University-industry relations: the next four years and beyond", in Investing in Innovation, see reference 22, chapter 14.
62. Powell, Koput, and Smith-Doerr (see reference 34, Table 1) created a database to measure network activity of all biotech firms dedicated to research and development in human therapeutics from 1988-93. The researchers counted 230 dedicated biotech firms in human therapeutics in 1988, of which 118 firms had formal ties to other biotech firms. In 1990, 144 out of 226 firms had developed formal external relationships to other biotech firms; in 1991, the ratio was 162 out of 222; in 1992, 167 out of 206; in 1993, 176 out of 199.
63. See reference 34.
64. Powell, Koput and Smith-Doerr (see reference 34, Table 4) report the following mortality rates for firms with and those without ties: In 1988, 5.9% of those first with formal ties and 8.7% of those without ties went out of business; in 1990, mortality was 3.5% of those with ties and 23% of those without; in 1991, 8.6% of those with and 17% of those without; in 1992, 4.2% of those with ties and 5.3% without died.
65. David Guston, "Technology transfer and the use of CRADAs at the National Institutes of Health", in Investing in Innovation, see reference 22, chapter 9.
66. Michael Piore and Charles Sabel, The Second Industrial Divide: Possibilities for Prosperity (Basic Books, New York, 1984); Charles Sabel, "Flexible specialization and the reemergence of regional economies", in Paul Hirst and Jonathan Zeitlin (editors), Reversing Industrial Decline? Industrial Structure and Policy in Britain and Her Competitors (Berg, Oxford, 1988); AnnaLee Saxenian, Regional Advantage: Culture and Competition in Silicon Valley and Route 128 (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass, 1994).
67. Michael Piore and Charles Sabel, The Second Industrial Divide: Possibilities for Prosperity (Basic Books, New York, 1984); Charles Sabel, "Flexible specialization and the reemergence of regional economies", in Paul Hirst and Jonathan Zeitlin (editors), Reversing Industrial Decline? Industrial Structure and Policy in Britain and Her Competitors (Berg, Oxford, 1988); AnnaLee Saxenian, Regional Advantage: Culture and Competition in Silicon Valley and Route 128 (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass, 1994).
68. Michael Piore and Charles Sabel, The Second Industrial Divide: Possibilities for Prosperity (Basic Books, New York, 1984); Charles Sabel, "Flexible specialization and the reemergence of regional economies", in Paul Hirst and Jonathan Zeitlin (editors), Reversing Industrial Decline? Industrial Structure and Policy in Britain and Her Competitors (Berg, Oxford, 1988); AnnaLee Saxenian, Regional Advantage: Culture and Competition in Silicon Valley and Route 128 (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass, 1994).
69. Saxenian, see reference 43.
70. Saxenian, see reference 43, page 7ff.
71. See Saxenian, reference 43, for detailed histories of the industry networks in Silicon Valley and Route 128 and for a provocative argument that accounts for deep cultural differences between the two networks.
72. Michael Porter, The Competitive Advantage of Nations (Free Press, New York, 1990) pages 149-154.
73. Christopher Hill, "The Advanced Technology Program: opportunities for enhancement", in Investing in Innovation, see reference 22, chapter 6.
74. Silber and Associates, "Survey of Advanced Technology Program 1990-1992 awardees: company opinion about the ATP and its early effects", 30 January 1996, pages 21-22.
75. See reference 49, page 21.
76. See reference 49, page 24.
77. See reference 49, pages 27-30.
78. See reference 49, pages 33-36.
79. Scott A Snell and James W Dean, Jr, "Integrated manufacturing and human resource management: a human capital perspective", Academy of Management Journal, 35(3), 1992, pages 467-504.
80. Harvard University, John F Kennedy School of Government, Center for Science and International Affairs, Science, Technology and Public Policy Program, "Manufacturing partnerships in the digital environment: best practices in CALS implementation", December 1996.
81. Philip Shapira, "Manufacturing extension services: performance, challenges, and policy issues", in Investing in Innovation, see reference 22, chapter 10.
82. See reference 56.
83. See reference 56.
84. See reference 56.