Searching for Middle Ground: Native Communities and Oil Extraction in the Northern and Central Ecuadorian Amazon, 1967-1993

Environmental History

Volumn 3, Issue 2, 1998, Pages 144-168

  Sabin, Paul ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ENVIRONMENTAL HISTORY; INDIGENOUS POPULATION; LAND RIGHTS; OIL PRODUCTION; POLITICAL RESISTANCE;

AMAZONIA; ECUADOR;

EID: 0031710071     PISSN: 10845453     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/envhis/3.2.144     Document Type: Article

References (117)

1. The two officials were Katherine McGinty, the White House director for environmental policy, and James Mack, the American chargé d'affaires in Ecuador. James Brooke, "Oil and Tourism Don't Mix, Inciting Amazon Battle," New York Times, 26 September 1993, 3. In Ecuador, the Amazonian provinces are collectively referred to as the "El Oriente" or "the East." To minimize confusion for the English-speaking reader, I have used "Ecuadorian Amazon" or "Amazonian Ecuador."
2. Since 1983, Abya-Yala Press has published Kipu: El Mundo Indígena en la Prensa Ecuatoriana, collected articles from the Ecuadorian press about Ecuadorian indigenous peoples [hereafter Kipu]. For the Cofánes of Dureno blocking road construction by the CEPE-Texaco consortium, see Hoy, 27 January 1988, in Kipu 10 (1988): 159. For the sequestering of government officials in the town of Sarayacu in 1989, see Hoy, 11 May 1989, in Kipu 12 (1989): 274-76. For the Huaorani spearing, see El Comercio, 5 November 1977, in Kipu 9 (1987): 224.
3. Since 1983, Abya-Yala Press has published Kipu: El Mundo Indígena en la Prensa Ecuatoriana, collected articles from the Ecuadorian press about Ecuadorian indigenous peoples [hereafter Kipu]. For the Cofánes of Dureno blocking road construction by the CEPE-Texaco consortium, see Hoy, 27 January 1988, in Kipu 10 (1988): 159. For the sequestering of government officials in the town of Sarayacu in 1989, see Hoy, 11 May 1989, in Kipu 12 (1989): 274-76. For the Huaorani spearing, see El Comercio, 5 November 1977, in Kipu 9 (1987): 224.
4. Since 1983, Abya-Yala Press has published Kipu: El Mundo Indígena en la Prensa Ecuatoriana, collected articles from the Ecuadorian press about Ecuadorian indigenous peoples [hereafter Kipu]. For the Cofánes of Dureno blocking road construction by the CEPE-Texaco consortium, see Hoy, 27 January 1988, in Kipu 10 (1988): 159. For the sequestering of government officials in the town of Sarayacu in 1989, see Hoy, 11 May 1989, in Kipu 12 (1989): 274-76. For the Huaorani spearing, see El Comercio, 5 November 1977, in Kipu 9 (1987): 224.
5. Since 1983, Abya-Yala Press has published Kipu: El Mundo Indígena en la Prensa Ecuatoriana, collected articles from the Ecuadorian press about Ecuadorian indigenous peoples [hereafter Kipu]. For the Cofánes of Dureno blocking road construction by the CEPE-Texaco consortium, see Hoy, 27 January 1988, in Kipu 10 (1988): 159. For the sequestering of government officials in the town of Sarayacu in 1989, see Hoy, 11 May 1989, in Kipu 12 (1989): 274-76. For the Huaorani spearing, see El Comercio, 5 November 1977, in Kipu 9 (1987): 224.
6. Unión de Nativos de la Amazonía Ecuatoriana, Problematica Social y Agraria en el Oriente Ecuatoriano: Reflexiones nacidas al interior de la UNAE (Quito: Union de Nativos de la Amazonía Ecuatoriana, June 1985), 9. See also Anthony Bebbington, "Modernization From Below: An Alternative Indigenous Development?" Economic Geography 69 (1993): 274-92, and Anthony Bebbington et al., "Fragile Lands, Fragile Organizations: Indian Organizations and the Politics of Sustainability in Ecuador," Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers 18 (1993): 179-96.
7. Unión de Nativos de la Amazonía Ecuatoriana, Problematica Social y Agraria en el Oriente Ecuatoriano: Reflexiones nacidas al interior de la UNAE (Quito: Union de Nativos de la Amazonía Ecuatoriana, June 1985), 9. See also Anthony Bebbington, "Modernization From Below: An Alternative Indigenous Development?" Economic Geography 69 (1993): 274-92, and Anthony Bebbington et al., "Fragile Lands, Fragile Organizations: Indian Organizations and the Politics of Sustainability in Ecuador," Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers 18 (1993): 179-96.
8. Unión de Nativos de la Amazonía Ecuatoriana, Problematica Social y Agraria en el Oriente Ecuatoriano: Reflexiones nacidas al interior de la UNAE (Quito: Union de Nativos de la Amazonía Ecuatoriana, June 1985), 9. See also Anthony Bebbington, "Modernization From Below: An Alternative Indigenous Development?" Economic Geography 69 (1993): 274-92, and Anthony Bebbington et al., "Fragile Lands, Fragile Organizations: Indian Organizations and the Politics of Sustainability in Ecuador," Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers 18 (1993): 179-96.
9. Richard White, The Middle Ground: Indians, Empires, and Republics in the Great Lakes Region, 1650-1815 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991). I discussed some dimensions of this "modern middle ground" in a previous article. See Paul Sabin, "Voices from the Hydrocarbon Frontier: Canada's Mackenzie Valley Pipeline Inquiry (1974-1977)," Environmental History Review 19 (1995): 17-48. For two recent efforts to develop White's concept of the middle ground, see Beth A. Conklin and Laura R. Graham, "The Shifting Middle Ground: Amazonian Indians and Eco-Politics," American Anthropologist 97 (1995): 695-710, and Darcee McLaren, "Living the Middle Ground: Two Dakota Missionaries, 1887-1912," Ethnohistory 43 (1996): 277-305. Conklin and Graham nicely analyze the symbolic politics of the modern middle ground in Brazil, looking particularly at the ways that the international environmental community has misrepresented native ambitions while adopting the native cause as its own. This essay details another side of the triangular politics of the middle ground, i.e., the relationship between native peoples and the state and oil companies in the Ecuadorian Amazon.
10. Richard White, The Middle Ground: Indians, Empires, and Republics in the Great Lakes Region, 1650-1815 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991). I discussed some dimensions of this "modern middle ground" in a previous article. See Paul Sabin, "Voices from the Hydrocarbon Frontier: Canada's Mackenzie Valley Pipeline Inquiry (1974-1977)," Environmental History Review 19 (1995): 17-48. For two recent efforts to develop White's concept of the middle ground, see Beth A. Conklin and Laura R. Graham, "The Shifting Middle Ground: Amazonian Indians and Eco-Politics," American Anthropologist 97 (1995): 695-710, and Darcee McLaren, "Living the Middle Ground: Two Dakota Missionaries, 1887-1912," Ethnohistory 43 (1996): 277-305. Conklin and Graham nicely analyze the symbolic politics of the modern middle ground in Brazil, looking particularly at the ways that the international environmental community has misrepresented native ambitions while adopting the native cause as its own. This essay details another side of the triangular politics of the middle ground, i.e., the relationship between native peoples and the state and oil companies in the Ecuadorian Amazon.
11. Richard White, The Middle Ground: Indians, Empires, and Republics in the Great Lakes Region, 1650-1815 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991). I discussed some dimensions of this "modern middle ground" in a previous article. See Paul Sabin, "Voices from the Hydrocarbon Frontier: Canada's Mackenzie Valley Pipeline Inquiry (1974-1977)," Environmental History Review 19 (1995): 17-48. For two recent efforts to develop White's concept of the middle ground, see Beth A. Conklin and Laura R. Graham, "The Shifting Middle Ground: Amazonian Indians and Eco-Politics," American Anthropologist 97 (1995): 695-710, and Darcee McLaren, "Living the Middle Ground: Two Dakota Missionaries, 1887-1912," Ethnohistory 43 (1996): 277-305. Conklin and Graham nicely analyze the symbolic politics of the modern middle ground in Brazil, looking particularly at the ways that the international environmental community has misrepresented native ambitions while adopting the native cause as its own. This essay details another side of the triangular politics of the middle ground, i.e., the relationship between native peoples and the state and oil companies in the Ecuadorian Amazon.
12. Richard White, The Middle Ground: Indians, Empires, and Republics in the Great Lakes Region, 1650-1815 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991). I discussed some dimensions of this "modern middle ground" in a previous article. See Paul Sabin, "Voices from the Hydrocarbon Frontier: Canada's Mackenzie Valley Pipeline Inquiry (1974-1977)," Environmental History Review 19 (1995): 17-48. For two recent efforts to develop White's concept of the middle ground, see Beth A. Conklin and Laura R. Graham, "The Shifting Middle Ground: Amazonian Indians and Eco-Politics," American Anthropologist 97 (1995): 695-710, and Darcee McLaren, "Living the Middle Ground: Two Dakota Missionaries, 1887-1912," Ethnohistory 43 (1996): 277-305. Conklin and Graham nicely analyze the symbolic politics of the modern middle ground in Brazil, looking particularly at the ways that the international environmental community has misrepresented native ambitions while adopting the native cause as its own. This essay details another side of the triangular politics of the middle ground, i.e., the relationship between native peoples and the state and oil companies in the Ecuadorian Amazon.
13. Udo Oberem, Los Quijos: Historia de la transculturation de un grupo indígena en el Oriente Ecuatoriano, trans. from the 1962 German edition (Otavalo, Ecuador: Instituto Otavaleño de Antropología, 1980), 29; R. J. Bromley, "Agricultural Colonization in the Upper Amazon Basin: The Impact of Oil Discoveries," Tijdschrift voor Economische en Sociale Geografie 63, (1972): 281. The eastern region experienced substantial change during the century preceding the 1967 discovery of oil. An earlier rubber boom brought "rubber barons" up the rivers from Peru; they enslaved and employed local people when possible, driving other native groups to seek refuge. Following the decline of the rubber trade, oil exploration in the 1930s and 1940s brought road construction, employment, and colonists to areas around Puyo. Then, in 1941, Peru invaded Ecuador from the east, seizing half of Ecuador's Amazon territory, including most navigable rivers. The war sparked increased activity by the Ecuadorian military, which shut down the exchange of rain forest and hacienda products with Peruvian traders. See Norman E. Whitten Jr., "Amazonia Today at the Base of the Andes: An Ethnic Interface in Ecological, Social, and Ideological Perspectives," in Cultural Transformations and Ethnicity in Modern Ecuador, ed. Norman E. Whitten Jr. (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1981), 121-61.
14. Udo Oberem, Los Quijos: Historia de la transculturation de un grupo indígena en el Oriente Ecuatoriano, trans. from the 1962 German edition (Otavalo, Ecuador: Instituto Otavaleño de Antropología, 1980), 29; R. J. Bromley, "Agricultural Colonization in the Upper Amazon Basin: The Impact of Oil Discoveries," Tijdschrift voor Economische en Sociale Geografie 63, (1972): 281. The eastern region experienced substantial change during the century preceding the 1967 discovery of oil. An earlier rubber boom brought "rubber barons" up the rivers from Peru; they enslaved and employed local people when possible, driving other native groups to seek refuge. Following the decline of the rubber trade, oil exploration in the 1930s and 1940s brought road construction, employment, and colonists to areas around Puyo. Then, in 1941, Peru invaded Ecuador from the east, seizing half of Ecuador's Amazon territory, including most navigable rivers. The war sparked increased activity by the Ecuadorian military, which shut down the exchange of rain forest and hacienda products with Peruvian traders. See Norman E. Whitten Jr., "Amazonia Today at the Base of the Andes: An Ethnic Interface in Ecological, Social, and Ideological Perspectives," in Cultural Transformations and Ethnicity in Modern Ecuador, ed. Norman E. Whitten Jr. (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1981), 121-61.
15. Udo Oberem, Los Quijos: Historia de la transculturation de un grupo indígena en el Oriente Ecuatoriano, trans. from the 1962 German edition (Otavalo, Ecuador: Instituto Otavaleño de Antropología, 1980), 29; R. J. Bromley, "Agricultural Colonization in the Upper Amazon Basin: The Impact of Oil Discoveries," Tijdschrift voor Economische en Sociale Geografie 63, (1972): 281. The eastern region experienced substantial change during the century preceding the 1967 discovery of oil. An earlier rubber boom brought "rubber barons" up the rivers from Peru; they enslaved and employed local people when possible, driving other native groups to seek refuge. Following the decline of the rubber trade, oil exploration in the 1930s and 1940s brought road construction, employment, and colonists to areas around Puyo. Then, in 1941, Peru invaded Ecuador from the east, seizing half of Ecuador's Amazon territory, including most navigable rivers. The war sparked increased activity by the Ecuadorian military, which shut down the exchange of rain forest and hacienda products with Peruvian traders. See Norman E. Whitten Jr., "Amazonia Today at the Base of the Andes: An Ethnic Interface in Ecological, Social, and Ideological Perspectives," in Cultural Transformations and Ethnicity in Modern Ecuador, ed. Norman E. Whitten Jr. (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1981), 121-61.
16. Population estimates from the early 1990s should be taken as rough guides, since no one knows with certainty what the populations are today, much less in 1960. For population statistics, see Chapter 2 of Nelson Gomez et al., Tempestad en la Amazonia Ecuatoriana (Quito: CIESA, 1992); Whitten, "Amazonia Today"; and Lucy Ruiz, "Pueblos Indigenas y Etnicidad en la Amazonia," in Indios: Una reflexión sobre el levantamiento indigena de 1990 (Quito: Instituto Latinoamericano de Investigaciones Sociales, 1991), 451. For far higher population estimates of the Quichua, see CONFENIAE, Estructura de la CONFENIAE (Quito: CONFENIAE, 1980). The Huaorani did not engage in trade until the late 1960s, and one subgroup of that people, the Tagaeri, does not engage in trade even today. Still, foreign products played an important role, and the Huaorani often stole manufactured goods from company camps. The Huaorani are atypical in their isolation, although their culture has undergone dramatic change since evangelical missionaries encouraged many of them to settle more permanently in a small part of their former territory. David Stoll, Fishers of Men or Founders of Empire?: The Wycliffe Bible Translators in Latin America (Cambridge, Mass: Cultural Survival, 1982); James A. Yost, "Twenty Years of Contact: The Mechanisms of Change in Wao ('Auca') Culture," in Cultural Transformations and Ethnicity in Modern Ecuador, ed. Norman E. Whitten Jr. (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1981), 677-704; Joe Kane, Savages (New York: Knopf, 1995); Laura Rival, "Social Transformation and the Impact of Formal Schooling on the Huaorani of Amazonian Ecuador" (Ph.D. diss., London School of Economics, 1992).
17. Population estimates from the early 1990s should be taken as rough guides, since no one knows with certainty what the populations are today, much less in 1960. For population statistics, see Chapter 2 of Nelson Gomez et al., Tempestad en la Amazonia Ecuatoriana (Quito: CIESA, 1992); Whitten, "Amazonia Today"; and Lucy Ruiz, "Pueblos Indigenas y Etnicidad en la Amazonia," in Indios: Una reflexión sobre el levantamiento indigena de 1990 (Quito: Instituto Latinoamericano de Investigaciones Sociales, 1991), 451. For far higher population estimates of the Quichua, see CONFENIAE, Estructura de la CONFENIAE (Quito: CONFENIAE, 1980). The Huaorani did not engage in trade until the late 1960s, and one subgroup of that people, the Tagaeri, does not engage in trade even today. Still, foreign products played an important role, and the Huaorani often stole manufactured goods from company camps. The Huaorani are atypical in their isolation, although their culture has undergone dramatic change since evangelical missionaries encouraged many of them to settle more permanently in a small part of their former territory. David Stoll, Fishers of Men or Founders of Empire?: The Wycliffe Bible Translators in Latin America (Cambridge, Mass: Cultural Survival, 1982); James A. Yost, "Twenty Years of Contact: The Mechanisms of Change in Wao ('Auca') Culture," in Cultural Transformations and Ethnicity in Modern Ecuador, ed. Norman E. Whitten Jr. (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1981), 677-704; Joe Kane, Savages (New York: Knopf, 1995); Laura Rival, "Social Transformation and the Impact of Formal Schooling on the Huaorani of Amazonian Ecuador" (Ph.D. diss., London School of Economics, 1992).
18. Population estimates from the early 1990s should be taken as rough guides, since no one knows with certainty what the populations are today, much less in 1960. For population statistics, see Chapter 2 of Nelson Gomez et al., Tempestad en la Amazonia Ecuatoriana (Quito: CIESA, 1992); Whitten, "Amazonia Today"; and Lucy Ruiz, "Pueblos Indigenas y Etnicidad en la Amazonia," in Indios: Una reflexión sobre el levantamiento indigena de 1990 (Quito: Instituto Latinoamericano de Investigaciones Sociales, 1991), 451. For far higher population estimates of the Quichua, see CONFENIAE, Estructura de la CONFENIAE (Quito: CONFENIAE, 1980). The Huaorani did not engage in trade until the late 1960s, and one subgroup of that people, the Tagaeri, does not engage in trade even today. Still, foreign products played an important role, and the Huaorani often stole manufactured goods from company camps. The Huaorani are atypical in their isolation, although their culture has undergone dramatic change since evangelical missionaries encouraged many of them to settle more permanently in a small part of their former territory. David Stoll, Fishers of Men or Founders of Empire?: The Wycliffe Bible Translators in Latin America (Cambridge, Mass: Cultural Survival, 1982); James A. Yost, "Twenty Years of Contact: The Mechanisms of Change in Wao ('Auca') Culture," in Cultural Transformations and Ethnicity in Modern Ecuador, ed. Norman E. Whitten Jr. (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1981), 677-704; Joe Kane, Savages (New York: Knopf, 1995); Laura Rival, "Social Transformation and the Impact of Formal Schooling on the Huaorani of Amazonian Ecuador" (Ph.D. diss., London School of Economics, 1992).
19. Population estimates from the early 1990s should be taken as rough guides, since no one knows with certainty what the populations are today, much less in 1960. For population statistics, see Chapter 2 of Nelson Gomez et al., Tempestad en la Amazonia Ecuatoriana (Quito: CIESA, 1992); Whitten, "Amazonia Today"; and Lucy Ruiz, "Pueblos Indigenas y Etnicidad en la Amazonia," in Indios: Una reflexión sobre el levantamiento indigena de 1990 (Quito: Instituto Latinoamericano de Investigaciones Sociales, 1991), 451. For far higher population estimates of the Quichua, see CONFENIAE, Estructura de la CONFENIAE (Quito: CONFENIAE, 1980). The Huaorani did not engage in trade until the late 1960s, and one subgroup of that people, the Tagaeri, does not engage in trade even today. Still, foreign products played an important role, and the Huaorani often stole manufactured goods from company camps. The Huaorani are atypical in their isolation, although their culture has undergone dramatic change since evangelical missionaries encouraged many of them to settle more permanently in a small part of their former territory. David Stoll, Fishers of Men or Founders of Empire?: The Wycliffe Bible Translators in Latin America (Cambridge, Mass: Cultural Survival, 1982); James A. Yost, "Twenty Years of Contact: The Mechanisms of Change in Wao ('Auca') Culture," in Cultural Transformations and Ethnicity in Modern Ecuador, ed. Norman E. Whitten Jr. (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1981), 677-704; Joe Kane, Savages (New York: Knopf, 1995); Laura Rival, "Social Transformation and the Impact of Formal Schooling on the Huaorani of Amazonian Ecuador" (Ph.D. diss., London School of Economics, 1992).
20. Population estimates from the early 1990s should be taken as rough guides, since no one knows with certainty what the populations are today, much less in 1960. For population statistics, see Chapter 2 of Nelson Gomez et al., Tempestad en la Amazonia Ecuatoriana (Quito: CIESA, 1992); Whitten, "Amazonia Today"; and Lucy Ruiz, "Pueblos Indigenas y Etnicidad en la Amazonia," in Indios: Una reflexión sobre el levantamiento indigena de 1990 (Quito: Instituto Latinoamericano de Investigaciones Sociales, 1991), 451. For far higher population estimates of the Quichua, see CONFENIAE, Estructura de la CONFENIAE (Quito: CONFENIAE, 1980). The Huaorani did not engage in trade until the late 1960s, and one subgroup of that people, the Tagaeri, does not engage in trade even today. Still, foreign products played an important role, and the Huaorani often stole manufactured goods from company camps. The Huaorani are atypical in their isolation, although their culture has undergone dramatic change since evangelical missionaries encouraged many of them to settle more permanently in a small part of their former territory. David Stoll, Fishers of Men or Founders of Empire?: The Wycliffe Bible Translators in Latin America (Cambridge, Mass: Cultural Survival, 1982); James A. Yost, "Twenty Years of Contact: The Mechanisms of Change in Wao ('Auca') Culture," in Cultural Transformations and Ethnicity in Modern Ecuador, ed. Norman E. Whitten Jr. (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1981), 677-704; Joe Kane, Savages (New York: Knopf, 1995); Laura Rival, "Social Transformation and the Impact of Formal Schooling on the Huaorani of Amazonian Ecuador" (Ph.D. diss., London School of Economics, 1992).
21. Population estimates from the early 1990s should be taken as rough guides, since no one knows with certainty what the populations are today, much less in 1960. For population statistics, see Chapter 2 of Nelson Gomez et al., Tempestad en la Amazonia Ecuatoriana (Quito: CIESA, 1992); Whitten, "Amazonia Today"; and Lucy Ruiz, "Pueblos Indigenas y Etnicidad en la Amazonia," in Indios: Una reflexión sobre el levantamiento indigena de 1990 (Quito: Instituto Latinoamericano de Investigaciones Sociales, 1991), 451. For far higher population estimates of the Quichua, see CONFENIAE, Estructura de la CONFENIAE (Quito: CONFENIAE, 1980). The Huaorani did not engage in trade until the late 1960s, and one subgroup of that people, the Tagaeri, does not engage in trade even today. Still, foreign products played an important role, and the Huaorani often stole manufactured goods from company camps. The Huaorani are atypical in their isolation, although their culture has undergone dramatic change since evangelical missionaries encouraged many of them to settle more permanently in a small part of their former territory. David Stoll, Fishers of Men or Founders of Empire?: The Wycliffe Bible Translators in Latin America (Cambridge, Mass: Cultural Survival, 1982); James A. Yost, "Twenty Years of Contact: The Mechanisms of Change in Wao ('Auca') Culture," in Cultural Transformations and Ethnicity in Modern Ecuador, ed. Norman E. Whitten Jr. (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1981), 677-704; Joe Kane, Savages (New York: Knopf, 1995); Laura Rival, "Social Transformation and the Impact of Formal Schooling on the Huaorani of Amazonian Ecuador" (Ph.D. diss., London School of Economics, 1992).
22. Population estimates from the early 1990s should be taken as rough guides, since no one knows with certainty what the populations are today, much less in 1960. For population statistics, see Chapter 2 of Nelson Gomez et al., Tempestad en la Amazonia Ecuatoriana (Quito: CIESA, 1992); Whitten, "Amazonia Today"; and Lucy Ruiz, "Pueblos Indigenas y Etnicidad en la Amazonia," in Indios: Una reflexión sobre el levantamiento indigena de 1990 (Quito: Instituto Latinoamericano de Investigaciones Sociales, 1991), 451. For far higher population estimates of the Quichua, see CONFENIAE, Estructura de la CONFENIAE (Quito: CONFENIAE, 1980). The Huaorani did not engage in trade until the late 1960s, and one subgroup of that people, the Tagaeri, does not engage in trade even today. Still, foreign products played an important role, and the Huaorani often stole manufactured goods from company camps. The Huaorani are atypical in their isolation, although their culture has undergone dramatic change since evangelical missionaries encouraged many of them to settle more permanently in a small part of their former territory. David Stoll, Fishers of Men or Founders of Empire?: The Wycliffe Bible Translators in Latin America (Cambridge, Mass: Cultural Survival, 1982); James A. Yost, "Twenty Years of Contact: The Mechanisms of Change in Wao ('Auca') Culture," in Cultural Transformations and Ethnicity in Modern Ecuador, ed. Norman E. Whitten Jr. (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1981), 677-704; Joe Kane, Savages (New York: Knopf, 1995); Laura Rival, "Social Transformation and the Impact of Formal Schooling on the Huaorani of Amazonian Ecuador" (Ph.D. diss., London School of Economics, 1992).
23. Population estimates from the early 1990s should be taken as rough guides, since no one knows with certainty what the populations are today, much less in 1960. For population statistics, see Chapter 2 of Nelson Gomez et al., Tempestad en la Amazonia Ecuatoriana (Quito: CIESA, 1992); Whitten, "Amazonia Today"; and Lucy Ruiz, "Pueblos Indigenas y Etnicidad en la Amazonia," in Indios: Una reflexión sobre el levantamiento indigena de 1990 (Quito: Instituto Latinoamericano de Investigaciones Sociales, 1991), 451. For far higher population estimates of the Quichua, see CONFENIAE, Estructura de la CONFENIAE (Quito: CONFENIAE, 1980). The Huaorani did not engage in trade until the late 1960s, and one subgroup of that people, the Tagaeri, does not engage in trade even today. Still, foreign products played an important role, and the Huaorani often stole manufactured goods from company camps. The Huaorani are atypical in their isolation, although their culture has undergone dramatic change since evangelical missionaries encouraged many of them to settle more permanently in a small part of their former territory. David Stoll, Fishers of Men or Founders of Empire?: The Wycliffe Bible Translators in Latin America (Cambridge, Mass: Cultural Survival, 1982); James A. Yost, "Twenty Years of Contact: The Mechanisms of Change in Wao ('Auca') Culture," in Cultural Transformations and Ethnicity in Modern Ecuador, ed. Norman E. Whitten Jr. (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1981), 677-704; Joe Kane, Savages (New York: Knopf, 1995); Laura Rival, "Social Transformation and the Impact of Formal Schooling on the Huaorani of Amazonian Ecuador" (Ph.D. diss., London School of Economics, 1992).
24. See Norman E. Whitten Jr., Sacha Runa: Ethnicity and Adaptation of Ecuadorian Jungle Quichua (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1976); Sicuanga Runa: The Other Side of Development in Amazonian Ecuador (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1985); and the scholarly work of the authors who contributed articles to Cultural Transformations and Ethnicity in Modern Ecuador, ed. Norman Whitten Jr. (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1981). For the Quijos Quichua, see Oberem, Los Quijos; Theodore MacDonald Jr., "Processes of Change in Amazonian Ecuador: Quijos Quichua Indians Become Cattlemen" (Ph.D. diss., University of Illinois, 1979); and Blanca Muratorio, Rucu-yaya Alonso y la historia social y económica del Alto Napo (Quito: Abya-Yala, 1987). An interesting Secoya perspective can be found in Angel Celestino Piaguaje's commentary on missionaries, trade, local politics, and development, in ËCORASA: Autobiografia de un Secoya (Shushufindi, Ecuador: Ediciones CICAME, 1990). A worthwhile collection of narrative accounts examining key points in the twentieth-century history of the Oriente can be found in Leonir Dall'Alba Ballardín, ed., Pioneros, Nativos y Colonos: El Dorado en el siglo XX (Quito: Ediciones Abya-Yala, Petroecuador, and Mision Josefina de Napo, 1992). For an account of the Cofán, see Scott Robinson, "Toward an Understanding of Kofan Shamanism" (Ph. D diss., Cornell University, 1979).
25. See Norman E. Whitten Jr., Sacha Runa: Ethnicity and Adaptation of Ecuadorian Jungle Quichua (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1976); Sicuanga Runa: The Other Side of Development in Amazonian Ecuador (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1985); and the scholarly work of the authors who contributed articles to Cultural Transformations and Ethnicity in Modern Ecuador, ed. Norman Whitten Jr. (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1981). For the Quijos Quichua, see Oberem, Los Quijos; Theodore MacDonald Jr., "Processes of Change in Amazonian Ecuador: Quijos Quichua Indians Become Cattlemen" (Ph.D. diss., University of Illinois, 1979); and Blanca Muratorio, Rucu-yaya Alonso y la historia social y económica del Alto Napo (Quito: Abya-Yala, 1987). An interesting Secoya perspective can be found in Angel Celestino Piaguaje's commentary on missionaries, trade, local politics, and development, in ËCORASA: Autobiografia de un Secoya (Shushufindi, Ecuador: Ediciones CICAME, 1990). A worthwhile collection of narrative accounts examining key points in the twentieth-century history of the Oriente can be found in Leonir Dall'Alba Ballardín, ed., Pioneros, Nativos y Colonos: El Dorado en el siglo XX (Quito: Ediciones Abya-Yala, Petroecuador, and Mision Josefina de Napo, 1992). For an account of the Cofán, see Scott Robinson, "Toward an Understanding of Kofan Shamanism" (Ph. D diss., Cornell University, 1979).
26. See Norman E. Whitten Jr., Sacha Runa: Ethnicity and Adaptation of Ecuadorian Jungle Quichua (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1976); Sicuanga Runa: The Other Side of Development in Amazonian Ecuador (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1985); and the scholarly work of the authors who contributed articles to Cultural Transformations and Ethnicity in Modern Ecuador, ed. Norman Whitten Jr. (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1981). For the Quijos Quichua, see Oberem, Los Quijos; Theodore MacDonald Jr., "Processes of Change in Amazonian Ecuador: Quijos Quichua Indians Become Cattlemen" (Ph.D. diss., University of Illinois, 1979); and Blanca Muratorio, Rucu-yaya Alonso y la historia social y económica del Alto Napo (Quito: Abya-Yala, 1987). An interesting Secoya perspective can be found in Angel Celestino Piaguaje's commentary on missionaries, trade, local politics, and development, in ËCORASA: Autobiografia de un Secoya (Shushufindi, Ecuador: Ediciones CICAME, 1990). A worthwhile collection of narrative accounts examining key points in the twentieth-century history of the Oriente can be found in Leonir Dall'Alba Ballardín, ed., Pioneros, Nativos y Colonos: El Dorado en el siglo XX (Quito: Ediciones Abya-Yala, Petroecuador, and Mision Josefina de Napo, 1992). For an account of the Cofán, see Scott Robinson, "Toward an Understanding of Kofan Shamanism" (Ph. D diss., Cornell University, 1979).
27. See Norman E. Whitten Jr., Sacha Runa: Ethnicity and Adaptation of Ecuadorian Jungle Quichua (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1976); Sicuanga Runa: The Other Side of Development in Amazonian Ecuador (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1985); and the scholarly work of the authors who contributed articles to Cultural Transformations and Ethnicity in Modern Ecuador, ed. Norman Whitten Jr. (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1981). For the Quijos Quichua, see Oberem, Los Quijos; Theodore MacDonald Jr., "Processes of Change in Amazonian Ecuador: Quijos Quichua Indians Become Cattlemen" (Ph.D. diss., University of Illinois, 1979); and Blanca Muratorio, Rucu-yaya Alonso y la historia social y económica del Alto Napo (Quito: Abya-Yala, 1987). An interesting Secoya perspective can be found in Angel Celestino Piaguaje's commentary on missionaries, trade, local politics, and development, in ËCORASA: Autobiografia de un Secoya (Shushufindi, Ecuador: Ediciones CICAME, 1990). A worthwhile collection of narrative accounts examining key points in the twentieth-century history of the Oriente can be found in Leonir Dall'Alba Ballardín, ed., Pioneros, Nativos y Colonos: El Dorado en el siglo XX (Quito: Ediciones Abya-Yala, Petroecuador, and Mision Josefina de Napo, 1992). For an account of the Cofán, see Scott Robinson, "Toward an Understanding of Kofan Shamanism" (Ph. D diss., Cornell University, 1979).
28. See Norman E. Whitten Jr., Sacha Runa: Ethnicity and Adaptation of Ecuadorian Jungle Quichua (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1976); Sicuanga Runa: The Other Side of Development in Amazonian Ecuador (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1985); and the scholarly work of the authors who contributed articles to Cultural Transformations and Ethnicity in Modern Ecuador, ed. Norman Whitten Jr. (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1981). For the Quijos Quichua, see Oberem, Los Quijos; Theodore MacDonald Jr., "Processes of Change in Amazonian Ecuador: Quijos Quichua Indians Become Cattlemen" (Ph.D. diss., University of Illinois, 1979); and Blanca Muratorio, Rucu-yaya Alonso y la historia social y económica del Alto Napo (Quito: Abya-Yala, 1987). An interesting Secoya perspective can be found in Angel Celestino Piaguaje's commentary on missionaries, trade, local politics, and development, in ËCORASA: Autobiografia de un Secoya (Shushufindi, Ecuador: Ediciones CICAME, 1990). A worthwhile collection of narrative accounts examining key points in the twentieth-century history of the Oriente can be found in Leonir Dall'Alba Ballardín, ed., Pioneros, Nativos y Colonos: El Dorado en el siglo XX (Quito: Ediciones Abya-Yala, Petroecuador, and Mision Josefina de Napo, 1992). For an account of the Cofán, see Scott Robinson, "Toward an Understanding of Kofan Shamanism" (Ph. D diss., Cornell University, 1979).
29. See Norman E. Whitten Jr., Sacha Runa: Ethnicity and Adaptation of Ecuadorian Jungle Quichua (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1976); Sicuanga Runa: The Other Side of Development in Amazonian Ecuador (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1985); and the scholarly work of the authors who contributed articles to Cultural Transformations and Ethnicity in Modern Ecuador, ed. Norman Whitten Jr. (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1981). For the Quijos Quichua, see Oberem, Los Quijos; Theodore MacDonald Jr., "Processes of Change in Amazonian Ecuador: Quijos Quichua Indians Become Cattlemen" (Ph.D. diss., University of Illinois, 1979); and Blanca Muratorio, Rucu-yaya Alonso y la historia social y económica del Alto Napo (Quito: Abya-Yala, 1987). An interesting Secoya perspective can be found in Angel Celestino Piaguaje's commentary on missionaries, trade, local politics, and development, in ËCORASA: Autobiografia de un Secoya (Shushufindi, Ecuador: Ediciones CICAME, 1990). A worthwhile collection of narrative accounts examining key points in the twentieth-century history of the Oriente can be found in Leonir Dall'Alba Ballardín, ed., Pioneros, Nativos y Colonos: El Dorado en el siglo XX (Quito: Ediciones Abya-Yala, Petroecuador, and Mision Josefina de Napo, 1992). For an account of the Cofán, see Scott Robinson, "Toward an Understanding of Kofan Shamanism" (Ph. D diss., Cornell University, 1979).
30. See Norman E. Whitten Jr., Sacha Runa: Ethnicity and Adaptation of Ecuadorian Jungle Quichua (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1976); Sicuanga Runa: The Other Side of Development in Amazonian Ecuador (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1985); and the scholarly work of the authors who contributed articles to Cultural Transformations and Ethnicity in Modern Ecuador, ed. Norman Whitten Jr. (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1981). For the Quijos Quichua, see Oberem, Los Quijos; Theodore MacDonald Jr., "Processes of Change in Amazonian Ecuador: Quijos Quichua Indians Become Cattlemen" (Ph.D. diss., University of Illinois, 1979); and Blanca Muratorio, Rucu-yaya Alonso y la historia social y económica del Alto Napo (Quito: Abya-Yala, 1987). An interesting Secoya perspective can be found in Angel Celestino Piaguaje's commentary on missionaries, trade, local politics, and development, in ËCORASA: Autobiografia de un Secoya (Shushufindi, Ecuador: Ediciones CICAME, 1990). A worthwhile collection of narrative accounts examining key points in the twentieth-century history of the Oriente can be found in Leonir Dall'Alba Ballardín, ed., Pioneros, Nativos y Colonos: El Dorado en el siglo XX (Quito: Ediciones Abya-Yala, Petroecuador, and Mision Josefina de Napo, 1992). For an account of the Cofán, see Scott Robinson, "Toward an Understanding of Kofan Shamanism" (Ph. D diss., Cornell University, 1979).
31. See Norman E. Whitten Jr., Sacha Runa: Ethnicity and Adaptation of Ecuadorian Jungle Quichua (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1976); Sicuanga Runa: The Other Side of Development in Amazonian Ecuador (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1985); and the scholarly work of the authors who contributed articles to Cultural Transformations and Ethnicity in Modern Ecuador, ed. Norman Whitten Jr. (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1981). For the Quijos Quichua, see Oberem, Los Quijos; Theodore MacDonald Jr., "Processes of Change in Amazonian Ecuador: Quijos Quichua Indians Become Cattlemen" (Ph.D. diss., University of Illinois, 1979); and Blanca Muratorio, Rucu-yaya Alonso y la historia social y económica del Alto Napo (Quito: Abya-Yala, 1987). An interesting Secoya perspective can be found in Angel Celestino Piaguaje's commentary on missionaries, trade, local politics, and development, in ËCORASA: Autobiografia de un Secoya (Shushufindi, Ecuador: Ediciones CICAME, 1990). A worthwhile collection of narrative accounts examining key points in the twentieth-century history of the Oriente can be found in Leonir Dall'Alba Ballardín, ed., Pioneros, Nativos y Colonos: El Dorado en el siglo XX (Quito: Ediciones Abya-Yala, Petroecuador, and Mision Josefina de Napo, 1992). For an account of the Cofán, see Scott Robinson, "Toward an Understanding of Kofan Shamanism" (Ph. D diss., Cornell University, 1979).
32. See Norman E. Whitten Jr., Sacha Runa: Ethnicity and Adaptation of Ecuadorian Jungle Quichua (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1976); Sicuanga Runa: The Other Side of Development in Amazonian Ecuador (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1985); and the scholarly work of the authors who contributed articles to Cultural Transformations and Ethnicity in Modern Ecuador, ed. Norman Whitten Jr. (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1981). For the Quijos Quichua, see Oberem, Los Quijos; Theodore MacDonald Jr., "Processes of Change in Amazonian Ecuador: Quijos Quichua Indians Become Cattlemen" (Ph.D. diss., University of Illinois, 1979); and Blanca Muratorio, Rucu-yaya Alonso y la historia social y económica del Alto Napo (Quito: Abya-Yala, 1987). An interesting Secoya perspective can be found in Angel Celestino Piaguaje's commentary on missionaries, trade, local politics, and development, in ËCORASA: Autobiografia de un Secoya (Shushufindi, Ecuador: Ediciones CICAME, 1990). A worthwhile collection of narrative accounts examining key points in the twentieth-century history of the Oriente can be found in Leonir Dall'Alba Ballardín, ed., Pioneros, Nativos y Colonos: El Dorado en el siglo XX (Quito: Ediciones Abya-Yala, Petroecuador, and Mision Josefina de Napo, 1992). For an account of the Cofán, see Scott Robinson, "Toward an Understanding of Kofan Shamanism" (Ph. D diss., Cornell University, 1979).
33. George Philip, Oil and Politics in Latin America (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982), 276-78; Jose V. Zevallos, El Estado Ecuatoriano y las Transnacionales Petroleras: Ocho años de alianza y conflicto, 1972-1979 (Quito: La Universidad Catolica, 1981).
34. George Philip, Oil and Politics in Latin America (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982), 276-78; Jose V. Zevallos, El Estado Ecuatoriano y las Transnacionales Petroleras: Ocho años de alianza y conflicto, 1972-1979 (Quito: La Universidad Catolica, 1981).
35. Carlos Quevedo and Jorge Medina, "La Contaminación en las Actividades Hidrocarburiferas en el Ecuador," paper presented at Primero Congreso Ecuatoriano del Medio Ambiente, Quito, Ecuador, 7-14 February 1987, 12, 14, 16; Hoffman, Jurado, Sandoval, Consultores Cía, Ltda., "Contaminación ambiental hidrocarburifera en la Reserva d'e Producción Faunistica de Cuyabeno" (Quito: Hoffman, Jurado, Sandoval, Consultores Cía, Ltda., April 1992), 8-9; Judith Kimmerling, "Disregarding Environmental Law: Petroleum Development in Protected Natural Areas and Indigenous Homelands in the Ecuadorian Amazon," Hastings International and Comparative Law Review 14 (1991): 849-903; Chris af Jochnick, Roger Normand, and Sarah Zaidi, Rights Violations in the Ecuadorian Amazon: The Human Consequences of Oil Development (New York: Center for Economic and Social Rights, March 1994), 16-20. See also Judith Kimmerling, Amazon Crude (Washington, D.C.: National Resources Defense Council, 1991).
36. Carlos Quevedo and Jorge Medina, "La Contaminación en las Actividades Hidrocarburiferas en el Ecuador," paper presented at Primero Congreso Ecuatoriano del Medio Ambiente, Quito, Ecuador, 7-14 February 1987, 12, 14, 16; Hoffman, Jurado, Sandoval, Consultores Cía, Ltda., "Contaminación ambiental hidrocarburifera en la Reserva d'e Producción Faunistica de Cuyabeno" (Quito: Hoffman, Jurado, Sandoval, Consultores Cía, Ltda., April 1992), 8-9; Judith Kimmerling, "Disregarding Environmental Law: Petroleum Development in Protected Natural Areas and Indigenous Homelands in the Ecuadorian Amazon," Hastings International and Comparative Law Review 14 (1991): 849-903; Chris af Jochnick, Roger Normand, and Sarah Zaidi, Rights Violations in the Ecuadorian Amazon: The Human Consequences of Oil Development (New York: Center for Economic and Social Rights, March 1994), 16-20. See also Judith Kimmerling, Amazon Crude (Washington, D.C.: National Resources Defense Council, 1991).
37. Carlos Quevedo and Jorge Medina, "La Contaminación en las Actividades Hidrocarburiferas en el Ecuador," paper presented at Primero Congreso Ecuatoriano del Medio Ambiente, Quito, Ecuador, 7-14 February 1987, 12, 14, 16; Hoffman, Jurado, Sandoval, Consultores Cía, Ltda., "Contaminación ambiental hidrocarburifera en la Reserva d'e Producción Faunistica de Cuyabeno" (Quito: Hoffman, Jurado, Sandoval, Consultores Cía, Ltda., April 1992), 8-9; Judith Kimmerling, "Disregarding Environmental Law: Petroleum Development in Protected Natural Areas and Indigenous Homelands in the Ecuadorian Amazon," Hastings International and Comparative Law Review 14 (1991): 849-903; Chris af Jochnick, Roger Normand, and Sarah Zaidi, Rights Violations in the Ecuadorian Amazon: The Human Consequences of Oil Development (New York: Center for Economic and Social Rights, March 1994), 16-20. See also Judith Kimmerling, Amazon Crude (Washington, D.C.: National Resources Defense Council, 1991).
38. Carlos Quevedo and Jorge Medina, "La Contaminación en las Actividades Hidrocarburiferas en el Ecuador," paper presented at Primero Congreso Ecuatoriano del Medio Ambiente, Quito, Ecuador, 7-14 February 1987, 12, 14, 16; Hoffman, Jurado, Sandoval, Consultores Cía, Ltda., "Contaminación ambiental hidrocarburifera en la Reserva d'e Producción Faunistica de Cuyabeno" (Quito: Hoffman, Jurado, Sandoval, Consultores Cía, Ltda., April 1992), 8-9; Judith Kimmerling, "Disregarding Environmental Law: Petroleum Development in Protected Natural Areas and Indigenous Homelands in the Ecuadorian Amazon," Hastings International and Comparative Law Review 14 (1991): 849-903; Chris af Jochnick, Roger Normand, and Sarah Zaidi, Rights Violations in the Ecuadorian Amazon: The Human Consequences of Oil Development (New York: Center for Economic and Social Rights, March 1994), 16-20. See also Judith Kimmerling, Amazon Crude (Washington, D.C.: National Resources Defense Council, 1991).
39. Carlos Quevedo and Jorge Medina, "La Contaminación en las Actividades Hidrocarburiferas en el Ecuador," paper presented at Primero Congreso Ecuatoriano del Medio Ambiente, Quito, Ecuador, 7-14 February 1987, 12, 14, 16; Hoffman, Jurado, Sandoval, Consultores Cía, Ltda., "Contaminación ambiental hidrocarburifera en la Reserva d'e Producción Faunistica de Cuyabeno" (Quito: Hoffman, Jurado, Sandoval, Consultores Cía, Ltda., April 1992), 8-9; Judith Kimmerling, "Disregarding Environmental Law: Petroleum Development in Protected Natural Areas and Indigenous Homelands in the Ecuadorian Amazon," Hastings International and Comparative Law Review 14 (1991): 849-903; Chris af Jochnick, Roger Normand, and Sarah Zaidi, Rights Violations in the Ecuadorian Amazon: The Human Consequences of Oil Development (New York: Center for Economic and Social Rights, March 1994), 16-20. See also Judith Kimmerling, Amazon Crude (Washington, D.C.: National Resources Defense Council, 1991).
40. Hoy, 3 June 1991, in Kipu 16 (1991): 139; Douglas Southgate and Morris Whitaker, Economic Progress and the Environment: One Developing Country's Policy Crisis (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994); Carlos Luzuriaga, interview by the author, Quito, Ecuador, 15 November 1992. Since this incident, the environmental agency has successfully fined the oil companies, though the fines have tended to be more symbolic than punitive.
41. Hoy, 3 June 1991, in Kipu 16 (1991): 139; Douglas Southgate and Morris Whitaker, Economic Progress and the Environment: One Developing Country's Policy Crisis (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994); Carlos Luzuriaga, interview by the author, Quito, Ecuador, 15 November 1992. Since this incident, the environmental agency has successfully fined the oil companies, though the fines have tended to be more symbolic than punitive.
42. Oliverio Vasconez Salvador, La Colonización de la Región Amazónica Ecuatoriana: Obra Nacional (Quito: Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganadaría, 1977).
43. El Comercio, 17 December 1986, in Kipu 24 (1986): 18; William T. Vickers, "Indian Policy in Amazonian Ecuador," in Frontier Expansion in Amazonia, ed. Marianne Schmink and Charles H. Wood (Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 1984), 27; D. A. Easrwood and H. J. Pollard, "Amazonian Colonization in Eastern Ecuador: Land Use Conflicts in a Planning Vacuum," Singapore Journal of Tropical Geography 13 (1992): 103-17.
44. El Comercio, 17 December 1986, in Kipu 24 (1986): 18; William T. Vickers, "Indian Policy in Amazonian Ecuador," in Frontier Expansion in Amazonia, ed. Marianne Schmink and Charles H. Wood (Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 1984), 27; D. A. Easrwood and H. J. Pollard, "Amazonian Colonization in Eastern Ecuador: Land Use Conflicts in a Planning Vacuum," Singapore Journal of Tropical Geography 13 (1992): 103-17.
45. El Comercio, 17 December 1986, in Kipu 24 (1986): 18; William T. Vickers, "Indian Policy in Amazonian Ecuador," in Frontier Expansion in Amazonia, ed. Marianne Schmink and Charles H. Wood (Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 1984), 27; D. A. Easrwood and H. J. Pollard, "Amazonian Colonization in Eastern Ecuador: Land Use Conflicts in a Planning Vacuum," Singapore Journal of Tropical Geography 13 (1992): 103-17.
46. Bromley, "Agricultural Colonization," 287; Fundación Natura, Development Policy Issues for Ecuador's Amazonia (Quito: Fundación Natura, 1988), 10; Instituto Ecuatoriano de Reforma Agraria y Colonización, Proyecto Piloto de Colonización Nor-Oriente (Quito: IERAC, Sección Colonización Empresorial, 1971); Henri Barral, Informe sobre la colonización en la Provincia del Napo (Quito: ORSTOM, 1978), 5-9.
47. Bromley, "Agricultural Colonization," 287; Fundación Natura, Development Policy Issues for Ecuador's Amazonia (Quito: Fundación Natura, 1988), 10; Instituto Ecuatoriano de Reforma Agraria y Colonización, Proyecto Piloto de Colonización Nor-Oriente (Quito: IERAC, Sección Colonización Empresorial, 1971); Henri Barral, Informe sobre la colonización en la Provincia del Napo (Quito: ORSTOM, 1978), 5-9.
48. Bromley, "Agricultural Colonization," 287; Fundación Natura, Development Policy Issues for Ecuador's Amazonia (Quito: Fundación Natura, 1988), 10; Instituto Ecuatoriano de Reforma Agraria y Colonización, Proyecto Piloto de Colonización Nor-Oriente (Quito: IERAC, Sección Colonización Empresorial, 1971); Henri Barral, Informe sobre la colonización en la Provincia del Napo (Quito: ORSTOM, 1978), 5-9.
49. Bromley, "Agricultural Colonization," 287; Fundación Natura, Development Policy Issues for Ecuador's Amazonia (Quito: Fundación Natura, 1988), 10; Instituto Ecuatoriano de Reforma Agraria y Colonización, Proyecto Piloto de Colonización Nor-Oriente (Quito: IERAC, Sección Colonización Empresorial, 1971); Henri Barral, Informe sobre la colonización en la Provincia del Napo (Quito: ORSTOM, 1978), 5-9.
50. Legislation passed in the 1960s to reform land tenure (primarily in the highlands and along the coast) effectively declared much of the Amazon empty and open for colonization. Agrarian reform laws passed in 1973 further pressured traditional land use practices by declaring that inefficiently utilized land could be expropriated. Salvador, La Colonización, 33. Colonization of these lands substituted for the agrarian reform that the government had shied away from elsewhere in the country. See Theodore MacDonald Jr., "Indigenous Response to an Expanding Frontier: Jungle Quichua Economic Conversion to Cattle Ranching," in Cultural Transformations and Ethnicity in Modern Ecuador, ed. Norman E. Whitten Jr. (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1981), 356-83; Jorge E. Uquillas, "Social Impacts of Modernization and Public Policy, and Prospects for Indigenous Development in Ecuador's Amazon," in The Human Ecology of Tropical Land Settlement in Latin America, ed. Debra Schumann and William Partridge (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1989), 407-31, and "Colonization and Spontaneous Settlement in Ecuador," in Frontier Expansion in Amazonia, ed. Marianne Schmink and Charles H. Wood (Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 1984), 261-84. For conflicts over land ownership, see El Comercio, 6 October 1985, in Kipu 18 (1985): 27, and 26 October 1985, in Kipu 21 (1985): 23; Hoy, 23 December 1985, in Kipu 23 (1985): 21, and 29 August 1986, in Kipu 17 (1986): 29; Käthe Meentzen, "Resisting Land Grabbing in Ecuador: Quichua Indians Threatened by Development," Cultural Survival Quarterly 10 (1985): 30-32; "CONFENIAE Denounces Agribusiness in Ecuador: An Open Letter," Cultural Survival Quarterly 10 (1985): 33-37. See also El Comercio, 26 May 1986, in Kipu 8 (1986):24.
51. Legislation passed in the 1960s to reform land tenure (primarily in the highlands and along the coast) effectively declared much of the Amazon empty and open for colonization. Agrarian reform laws passed in 1973 further pressured traditional land use practices by declaring that inefficiently utilized land could be expropriated. Salvador, La Colonización, 33. Colonization of these lands substituted for the agrarian reform that the government had shied away from elsewhere in the country. See Theodore MacDonald Jr., "Indigenous Response to an Expanding Frontier: Jungle Quichua Economic Conversion to Cattle Ranching," in Cultural Transformations and Ethnicity in Modern Ecuador, ed. Norman E. Whitten Jr. (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1981), 356-83; Jorge E. Uquillas, "Social Impacts of Modernization and Public Policy, and Prospects for Indigenous Development in Ecuador's Amazon," in The Human Ecology of Tropical Land Settlement in Latin America, ed. Debra Schumann and William Partridge (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1989), 407-31, and "Colonization and Spontaneous Settlement in Ecuador," in Frontier Expansion in Amazonia, ed. Marianne Schmink and Charles H. Wood (Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 1984), 261-84. For conflicts over land ownership, see El Comercio, 6 October 1985, in Kipu 18 (1985): 27, and 26 October 1985, in Kipu 21 (1985): 23; Hoy, 23 December 1985, in Kipu 23 (1985): 21, and 29 August 1986, in Kipu 17 (1986): 29; Käthe Meentzen, "Resisting Land Grabbing in Ecuador: Quichua Indians Threatened by Development," Cultural Survival Quarterly 10 (1985): 30-32; "CONFENIAE Denounces Agribusiness in Ecuador: An Open Letter," Cultural Survival Quarterly 10 (1985): 33-37. See also El Comercio, 26 May 1986, in Kipu 8 (1986):24.
52. Legislation passed in the 1960s to reform land tenure (primarily in the highlands and along the coast) effectively declared much of the Amazon empty and open for colonization. Agrarian reform laws passed in 1973 further pressured traditional land use practices by declaring that inefficiently utilized land could be expropriated. Salvador, La Colonización, 33. Colonization of these lands substituted for the agrarian reform that the government had shied away from elsewhere in the country. See Theodore MacDonald Jr., "Indigenous Response to an Expanding Frontier: Jungle Quichua Economic Conversion to Cattle Ranching," in Cultural Transformations and Ethnicity in Modern Ecuador, ed. Norman E. Whitten Jr. (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1981), 356-83; Jorge E. Uquillas, "Social Impacts of Modernization and Public Policy, and Prospects for Indigenous Development in Ecuador's Amazon," in The Human Ecology of Tropical Land Settlement in Latin America, ed. Debra Schumann and William Partridge (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1989), 407-31, and "Colonization and Spontaneous Settlement in Ecuador," in Frontier Expansion in Amazonia, ed. Marianne Schmink and Charles H. Wood (Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 1984), 261-84. For conflicts over land ownership, see El Comercio, 6 October 1985, in Kipu 18 (1985): 27, and 26 October 1985, in Kipu 21 (1985): 23; Hoy, 23 December 1985, in Kipu 23 (1985): 21, and 29 August 1986, in Kipu 17 (1986): 29; Käthe Meentzen, "Resisting Land Grabbing in Ecuador: Quichua Indians Threatened by Development," Cultural Survival Quarterly 10 (1985): 30-32; "CONFENIAE Denounces Agribusiness in Ecuador: An Open Letter," Cultural Survival Quarterly 10 (1985): 33-37. See also El Comercio, 26 May 1986, in Kipu 8 (1986):24.
53. Legislation passed in the 1960s to reform land tenure (primarily in the highlands and along the coast) effectively declared much of the Amazon empty and open for colonization. Agrarian reform laws passed in 1973 further pressured traditional land use practices by declaring that inefficiently utilized land could be expropriated. Salvador, La Colonización, 33. Colonization of these lands substituted for the agrarian reform that the government had shied away from elsewhere in the country. See Theodore MacDonald Jr., "Indigenous Response to an Expanding Frontier: Jungle Quichua Economic Conversion to Cattle Ranching," in Cultural Transformations and Ethnicity in Modern Ecuador, ed. Norman E. Whitten Jr. (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1981), 356-83; Jorge E. Uquillas, "Social Impacts of Modernization and Public Policy, and Prospects for Indigenous Development in Ecuador's Amazon," in The Human Ecology of Tropical Land Settlement in Latin America, ed. Debra Schumann and William Partridge (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1989), 407-31, and "Colonization and Spontaneous Settlement in Ecuador," in Frontier Expansion in Amazonia, ed. Marianne Schmink and Charles H. Wood (Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 1984), 261-84. For conflicts over land ownership, see El Comercio, 6 October 1985, in Kipu 18 (1985): 27, and 26 October 1985, in Kipu 21 (1985): 23; Hoy, 23 December 1985, in Kipu 23 (1985): 21, and 29 August 1986, in Kipu 17 (1986): 29; Käthe Meentzen, "Resisting Land Grabbing in Ecuador: Quichua Indians Threatened by Development," Cultural Survival Quarterly 10 (1985): 30-32; "CONFENIAE Denounces Agribusiness in Ecuador: An Open Letter," Cultural Survival Quarterly 10 (1985): 33-37. See also El Comercio, 26 May 1986, in Kipu 8 (1986):24.
54. Legislation passed in the 1960s to reform land tenure (primarily in the highlands and along the coast) effectively declared much of the Amazon empty and open for colonization. Agrarian reform laws passed in 1973 further pressured traditional land use practices by declaring that inefficiently utilized land could be expropriated. Salvador, La Colonización, 33. Colonization of
55. Legislation passed in the 1960s to reform land tenure (primarily in the highlands and along the coast) effectively declared much of the Amazon empty and open for colonization. Agrarian reform laws passed in 1973 further pressured traditional land use practices by declaring that inefficiently utilized land could be expropriated. Salvador, La Colonización, 33. Colonization of these lands substituted for the agrarian reform that the government had shied away from elsewhere in the country. See Theodore MacDonald Jr., "Indigenous Response to an Expanding Frontier: Jungle Quichua Economic Conversion to Cattle Ranching," in Cultural Transformations and Ethnicity in Modern Ecuador, ed. Norman E. Whitten Jr. (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1981), 356-83; Jorge E. Uquillas, "Social Impacts of Modernization and Public Policy, and Prospects for Indigenous Development in Ecuador's Amazon," in The Human Ecology of Tropical Land Settlement in Latin America, ed. Debra Schumann and William Partridge (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1989), 407-31, and "Colonization and Spontaneous Settlement in Ecuador," in Frontier Expansion in Amazonia, ed. Marianne Schmink and Charles H. Wood (Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 1984), 261-84. For conflicts over land ownership, see El Comercio, 6 October 1985, in Kipu 18 (1985): 27, and 26 October 1985, in Kipu 21 (1985): 23; Hoy, 23 December 1985, in Kipu 23 (1985): 21, and 29 August 1986, in Kipu 17 (1986): 29; Käthe Meentzen, "Resisting Land Grabbing in Ecuador: Quichua Indians Threatened by Development," Cultural Survival Quarterly 10 (1985): 30-32; "CONFENIAE Denounces Agribusiness in Ecuador: An Open Letter," Cultural Survival Quarterly 10 (1985): 33-37. See also El Comercio, 26 May 1986, in Kipu 8 (1986):24.
56. Legislation passed in the 1960s to reform land tenure (primarily in the highlands and along the coast) effectively declared much of the Amazon empty and open for colonization. Agrarian reform laws passed in 1973 further pressured traditional land use practices by declaring that inefficiently utilized land could be expropriated. Salvador, La Colonización, 33. Colonization of these lands substituted for the agrarian reform that the government had shied away from elsewhere in the country. See Theodore MacDonald Jr., "Indigenous Response to an Expanding Frontier: Jungle Quichua Economic Conversion to Cattle Ranching," in Cultural Transformations and Ethnicity in Modern Ecuador, ed. Norman E. Whitten Jr. (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1981), 356-83; Jorge E. Uquillas, "Social Impacts of Modernization and Public Policy, and Prospects for Indigenous Development in Ecuador's Amazon," in The Human Ecology of Tropical Land Settlement in Latin America, ed. Debra Schumann and William Partridge (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1989), 407-31, and "Colonization and Spontaneous Settlement in Ecuador," in Frontier Expansion in Amazonia, ed. Marianne Schmink and Charles H. Wood (Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 1984), 261-84. For conflicts over land ownership, see El Comercio, 6 October 1985, in Kipu 18 (1985): 27, and 26 October 1985, in Kipu 21 (1985): 23; Hoy, 23 December 1985, in Kipu 23 (1985): 21, and 29 August 1986, in Kipu 17 (1986): 29; Käthe Meentzen, "Resisting Land Grabbing in Ecuador: Quichua Indians Threatened by Development," Cultural Survival Quarterly 10 (1985): 30-32; "CONFENIAE Denounces Agribusiness in Ecuador: An Open Letter," Cultural Survival Quarterly 10 (1985): 33-37. See also El Comercio, 26 May 1986, in Kipu 8 (1986):24.
57. Legislation passed in the 1960s to reform land tenure (primarily in the highlands and along the coast) effectively declared much of the Amazon empty and open for colonization. Agrarian reform laws passed in 1973 further pressured traditional land use practices by declaring that inefficiently utilized land could be expropriated. Salvador, La Colonización, 33. Colonization of these lands substituted for the agrarian reform that the government had shied away from elsewhere in the country. See Theodore MacDonald Jr., "Indigenous Response to an Expanding Frontier: Jungle Quichua Economic Conversion to Cattle Ranching," in Cultural Transformations and Ethnicity in Modern Ecuador, ed. Norman E. Whitten Jr. (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1981), 356-83; Jorge E. Uquillas, "Social Impacts of Modernization and Public Policy, and Prospects for Indigenous Development in Ecuador's Amazon," in The Human Ecology of Tropical Land Settlement in Latin America, ed. Debra Schumann and William Partridge (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1989), 407-31, and "Colonization and Spontaneous Settlement in Ecuador," in Frontier Expansion in Amazonia, ed. Marianne Schmink and Charles H. Wood (Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 1984), 261-84. For conflicts over land ownership, see El Comercio, 6 October 1985, in Kipu 18 (1985): 27, and 26 October 1985, in Kipu 21 (1985): 23; Hoy, 23 December 1985, in Kipu 23 (1985): 21, and 29 August 1986, in Kipu 17 (1986): 29; Käthe Meentzen, "Resisting Land Grabbing in Ecuador: Quichua Indians Threatened by Development," Cultural Survival Quarterly 10 (1985): 30-32; "CONFENIAE Denounces Agribusiness in Ecuador: An Open Letter," Cultural Survival Quarterly 10 (1985): 33-37. See also El Comercio, 26 May 1986, in Kipu 8 (1986):24.
58. Legislation passed in the 1960s to reform land tenure (primarily in the highlands and along the coast) effectively declared much of the Amazon empty and open for colonization. Agrarian reform laws passed in 1973 further pressured traditional land use practices by declaring that inefficiently utilized land could be expropriated. Salvador, La Colonización, 33. Colonization of these lands substituted for the agrarian reform that the government had shied away from elsewhere in the country. See Theodore MacDonald Jr., "Indigenous Response to an Expanding Frontier: Jungle Quichua Economic Conversion to Cattle Ranching," in Cultural Transformations and Ethnicity in Modern Ecuador, ed. Norman E. Whitten Jr. (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1981), 356-83; Jorge E. Uquillas, "Social Impacts of Modernization and Public Policy, and Prospects for Indigenous Development in Ecuador's Amazon," in The Human Ecology of Tropical Land Settlement in Latin America, ed. Debra Schumann and William Partridge (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1989), 407-31, and "Colonization and Spontaneous Settlement in Ecuador," in Frontier Expansion in Amazonia, ed. Marianne Schmink and Charles H. Wood (Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 1984), 261-84. For conflicts over land ownership, see El Comercio, 6 October 1985, in Kipu 18 (1985): 27, and 26 October 1985, in Kipu 21 (1985): 23; Hoy, 23 December 1985, in Kipu 23 (1985): 21, and 29 August 1986, in Kipu 17 (1986): 29; Käthe Meentzen, "Resisting Land Grabbing in Ecuador: Quichua Indians Threatened by Development," Cultural Survival Quarterly 10 (1985): 30-32; "CONFENIAE Denounces Agribusiness in Ecuador: An Open Letter," Cultural Survival Quarterly 10 (1985): 33-37. See also El Comercio, 26 May 1986, in Kipu 8 (1986):24.
59. Legislation passed in the 1960s to reform land tenure (primarily in the highlands and along the coast) effectively declared much of the Amazon empty and open for colonization. Agrarian reform laws passed in 1973 further pressured traditional land use practices by declaring that inefficiently utilized land could be expropriated. Salvador, La Colonización, 33. Colonization of these lands substituted for the agrarian reform that the government had shied away from elsewhere in the country. See Theodore MacDonald Jr., "Indigenous Response to an Expanding Frontier: Jungle Quichua Economic Conversion to Cattle Ranching," in Cultural Transformations and Ethnicity in Modern Ecuador, ed. Norman E. Whitten Jr. (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1981), 356-83; Jorge E. Uquillas, "Social Impacts of Modernization and Public Policy, and Prospects for Indigenous Development in Ecuador's Amazon," in The Human Ecology of Tropical Land Settlement in Latin America, ed. Debra Schumann and William Partridge (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1989), 407-31, and "Colonization and Spontaneous Settlement in Ecuador," in Frontier Expansion in Amazonia, ed. Marianne Schmink and Charles H. Wood (Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 1984), 261-84. For conflicts over land ownership, see El Comercio, 6 October 1985, in Kipu 18 (1985): 27, and 26 October 1985, in Kipu 21 (1985): 23; Hoy, 23 December 1985, in Kipu 23 (1985): 21, and 29 August 1986, in Kipu 17 (1986): 29; Käthe Meentzen, "Resisting Land Grabbing in Ecuador: Quichua Indians Threatened by Development," Cultural Survival Quarterly 10 (1985): 30-32; "CONFENIAE Denounces Agribusiness in Ecuador: An Open Letter," Cultural Survival Quarterly 10 (1985): 33-37. See also El Comercio, 26 May 1986, in Kipu 8 (1986):24.
60. Legislation passed in the 1960s to reform land tenure (primarily in the highlands and along the coast) effectively declared much of the Amazon empty and open for colonization. Agrarian reform laws passed in 1973 further pressured traditional land use practices by declaring that inefficiently utilized land could be expropriated. Salvador, La Colonización, 33. Colonization of these lands substituted for the agrarian reform that the government had shied away from elsewhere in the country. See Theodore MacDonald Jr., "Indigenous Response to an Expanding Frontier: Jungle Quichua Economic Conversion to Cattle Ranching," in Cultural Transformations and Ethnicity in Modern Ecuador, ed. Norman E. Whitten Jr. (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1981), 356-83; Jorge E. Uquillas, "Social Impacts of Modernization and Public Policy, and Prospects for Indigenous Development in Ecuador's Amazon," in The Human Ecology of Tropical Land Settlement in Latin America, ed. Debra Schumann and William Partridge (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1989), 407-31, and "Colonization and Spontaneous Settlement in Ecuador," in Frontier Expansion in Amazonia, ed. Marianne Schmink and Charles H. Wood (Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 1984), 261-84. For conflicts over land ownership, see El Comercio, 6 October 1985, in Kipu 18 (1985): 27, and 26 October 1985, in Kipu 21 (1985): 23; Hoy, 23 December 1985, in Kipu 23 (1985): 21, and 29 August 1986, in Kipu 17 (1986): 29; Käthe Meentzen, "Resisting Land Grabbing in Ecuador: Quichua Indians Threatened by Development," Cultural Survival Quarterly 10 (1985): 30-32; "CONFENIAE Denounces Agribusiness in Ecuador: An Open Letter," Cultural Survival Quarterly 10 (1985): 33-37. See also El Comercio, 26 May 1986, in Kipu 8 (1986):24.
61. Whitten, Sacha Runa, 252.
62. Yost, "Twenty years of Contact," 699; Padre José Miguel, interview by the author, Francisco de Orellana, 9 March 1993. For Quichua debt-servitude in the lower Napo, see Francisco Javier Beghin, "Condiciones de Servidumbre Vigentes en Haciendas del Oriente Ecuatoriano," Planificación 1 (1963): 81-96; Theodore MacDonald Jr., "'Joining the Navy to See the World,'" Cultural Survival Quarterly 7 (1983): 42-43.
63. Yost, "Twenty years of Contact," 699; Padre José Miguel, interview by the author, Francisco de Orellana, 9 March 1993. For Quichua debt-servitude in the lower Napo, see Francisco Javier Beghin, "Condiciones de Servidumbre Vigentes en Haciendas del Oriente Ecuatoriano," Planificación 1 (1963): 81-96; Theodore MacDonald Jr., "'Joining the Navy to See the World,'" Cultural Survival Quarterly 7 (1983): 42-43.
64. Yost, "Twenty years of Contact," 699; Padre José Miguel, interview by the author, Francisco de Orellana, 9 March 1993. For Quichua debt-servitude in the lower Napo, see Francisco Javier Beghin, "Condiciones de Servidumbre Vigentes en Haciendas del Oriente Ecuatoriano," Planificación 1 (1963): 81-96; Theodore MacDonald Jr., "'Joining the Navy to See the World,'" Cultural Survival Quarterly 7 (1983): 42-43.
65. The Quichua of the Tena area initially concentrated their efforts on civil justice for indigenous people, land legalization, struggles with white colonists, and efforts to convince families to send their children to the mission school. See Fundación Friedrich-Naumann, La Cultura Tradicional Indigena en la Provincia del Napo (Quito: Abya-Yala, June 1991). The Quichua leaders in Pastaza went through the Catholic schools, though the actual organization was opposed by the Dominicans. The Shuar Federation received considerable help from missionaries. Tito Marino, interview by the author, Puyo, 3 December 1992; Juan Santí, interview by the author, Puyo, 3 December 1992. For school infrastructure, see El Comercio, 21 July 1985, in Kipu 14 (1985):29; Amanecer Indio, 30 December 1985, in Kipu 8 (1986): 27. In 1984, the Ministerio de Bienestar Social provided FOIN with funds for the second stage of construction of its headquarters in Tena. Kipu 5 (1984): 24. Native federations also increasingly received aid from foreign environmental, development, and indigenous rights organizations, further liberating them from the missions while placing them in relation to new ideological pressures.
66. The Quichua of the Tena area initially concentrated their efforts on civil justice for indigenous people, land legalization, struggles with white colonists, and efforts to convince families to send their children to the mission school. See Fundación Friedrich-Naumann, La Cultura Tradicional Indigena en la Provincia del Napo (Quito: Abya-Yala, June 1991). The Quichua leaders in Pastaza went through the Catholic schools, though the actual organization was opposed by the Dominicans. The Shuar Federation received considerable help from missionaries. Tito Marino, interview by the author, Puyo, 3 December 1992; Juan Santí, interview by the author, Puyo, 3 December 1992. For school infrastructure, see El Comercio, 21 July 1985, in Kipu 14 (1985):29; Amanecer Indio, 30 December 1985, in Kipu 8 (1986): 27. In 1984, the Ministerio de Bienestar Social provided FOIN with funds for the second stage of construction of its headquarters in Tena. Kipu 5 (1984): 24. Native federations also increasingly received aid from foreign environmental, development, and indigenous rights organizations, further liberating them from the missions while placing them in relation to new ideological pressures.
67. The Quichua of the Tena area initially concentrated their efforts on civil justice for indigenous people, land legalization, struggles with white colonists, and efforts to convince families to send their children to the mission school. See Fundación Friedrich-Naumann, La Cultura Tradicional Indigena en la Provincia del Napo (Quito: Abya-Yala, June 1991). The Quichua leaders in Pastaza went through the Catholic schools, though the actual organization was opposed by the Dominicans. The Shuar Federation received considerable help from missionaries. Tito Marino, interview by the author, Puyo, 3 December 1992; Juan Santí, interview by the author, Puyo, 3 December 1992. For school infrastructure, see El Comercio, 21 July 1985, in Kipu 14 (1985):29; Amanecer Indio, 30 December 1985, in Kipu 8 (1986): 27. In 1984, the Ministerio de Bienestar Social provided FOIN with funds for the second stage of construction of its headquarters in Tena. Kipu 5 (1984): 24. Native federations also increasingly received aid from foreign environmental, development, and indigenous rights organizations, further liberating them from the missions while placing them in relation to new ideological pressures.
68. The Quichua of the Tena area initially concentrated their efforts on civil justice for indigenous people, land legalization, struggles with white colonists, and efforts to convince families to send their children to the mission school. See Fundación Friedrich-Naumann, La Cultura Tradicional Indigena en la Provincia del Napo (Quito: Abya-Yala, June 1991). The Quichua leaders in Pastaza went through the Catholic schools, though the actual organization was opposed by the Dominicans. The Shuar Federation received considerable help from missionaries. Tito Marino, interview by the author, Puyo, 3 December 1992; Juan Santí, interview by the author, Puyo, 3 December 1992. For school infrastructure, see El Comercio, 21 July 1985, in Kipu 14 (1985):29; Amanecer Indio, 30 December 1985, in Kipu 8 (1986): 27. In 1984, the Ministerio de Bienestar Social provided FOIN with funds for the second stage of construction of its headquarters in Tena. Kipu 5 (1984): 24. Native federations also increasingly received aid from foreign environmental, development, and indigenous rights organizations, further liberating them from the missions while placing them in relation to new ideological pressures.
69. MacDonald, "Processes of Change in Amazonian Ecuador"; El Comercio, 15 April 1985, in Kipu 7 (1985): 29; Joe Kane, "Letter From the Amazon: With Spears from All Sides," New Yorker, 27 September 1993, 63-64. The Cofán and Siona-Secoya also found themselves constrained by new Quichua settlements, as well as by mestizo colonists.
70. MacDonald, "Processes of Change in Amazonian Ecuador"; El Comercio, 15 April 1985, in Kipu 7 (1985): 29; Joe Kane, "Letter From the Amazon: With Spears from All Sides," New Yorker, 27 September 1993, 63-64. The Cofán and Siona-Secoya also found themselves constrained by new Quichua settlements, as well as by mestizo colonists.
71. See, for example, Cristóbal Tapuy, president of CONFENIAE, quoted in Hoy, 10 September 1985, in Kipu 17 (1985): 28. Nationally, the push for bilingual education among Ecuadorian indigenous groups exemplifies the attempt to increase control over the terms of integration into the national society.
72. Amanecer Indio, January 1988, in Kipu 10 (1988): 164; Hoy, 5 January 1989, in Kipu 12 (1989): 247-48; Derechos del Pueblo, March 1986, in Kipu 9 (1986): 22; Piaguaje, ËCORASA, 79. It is important to recognize that Cofán behavior in the late 1980s was influenced by outsiders, including Protestant missionaries and their children, anthropologists, and environmental and indigenous rights groups.
73. Amanecer Indio, January 1988, in Kipu 10 (1988): 164; Hoy, 5 January 1989, in Kipu 12 (1989): 247-48; Derechos del Pueblo, March 1986, in Kipu 9 (1986): 22; Piaguaje, ËCORASA, 79. It is important to recognize that Cofán behavior in the late 1980s was influenced by outsiders, including Protestant missionaries and their children, anthropologists, and environmental and indigenous rights groups.
74. Amanecer Indio, January 1988, in Kipu 10 (1988): 164; Hoy, 5 January 1989, in Kipu 12 (1989): 247-48; Derechos del Pueblo, March 1986, in Kipu 9 (1986): 22; Piaguaje, ËCORASA, 79. It is important to recognize that Cofán behavior in the late 1980s was influenced by outsiders, including Protestant missionaries and their children, anthropologists, and environmental and indigenous rights groups.
75. Amanecer Indio, January 1988, in Kipu 10 (1988): 164; Hoy, 5 January 1989, in Kipu 12 (1989): 247-48; Derechos del Pueblo, March 1986, in Kipu 9 (1986): 22; Piaguaje, ËCORASA, 79. It is important to recognize that Cofán behavior in the late 1980s was influenced by outsiders, including Protestant missionaries and their children, anthropologists, and environmental and indigenous rights groups.
76. William Vickers, "Informe preliminar sobre las culturas Siona, Secoya, y Cofán y su situación de la tierra," in Informe para la delimitación de territorios nativos Siona-Secoya, Cofán, y Huaorani, INCRAE publicación No. 39, ed. Jorge Uquillas (Quito: INCRAE, 1982), 12; Hoy, 25 October 1988, in Kipu 11 (1988): 213-14; Hoy, 4 November 1988, in Kipu 11 (1988): 219; Kane, Savages.
77. William Vickers, "Informe preliminar sobre las culturas Siona, Secoya, y Cofán y su situación de la tierra," in Informe para la delimitación de territorios nativos Siona-Secoya, Cofán, y Huaorani, INCRAE publicación No. 39, ed. Jorge Uquillas (Quito: INCRAE, 1982), 12; Hoy, 25 October 1988, in Kipu 11 (1988): 213-14; Hoy, 4 November 1988, in Kipu 11 (1988): 219; Kane, Savages.
78. William Vickers, "Informe preliminar sobre las culturas Siona, Secoya, y Cofán y su situación de la tierra," in Informe para la delimitación de territorios nativos Siona-Secoya, Cofán, y Huaorani, INCRAE publicación No. 39, ed. Jorge Uquillas (Quito: INCRAE, 1982), 12; Hoy, 25 October 1988, in Kipu 11 (1988): 213-14; Hoy, 4 November 1988, in Kipu 11 (1988): 219; Kane, Savages.
79. William Vickers, "Informe preliminar sobre las culturas Siona, Secoya, y Cofán y su situación de la tierra," in Informe para la delimitación de territorios nativos Siona-Secoya, Cofán, y Huaorani, INCRAE publicación No. 39, ed. Jorge Uquillas (Quito: INCRAE, 1982), 12; Hoy, 25 October 1988, in Kipu 11 (1988): 213-14; Hoy, 4 November 1988, in Kipu 11 (1988): 219; Kane, Savages.
80. Pablo Grefa, president of AIEPRA, interview by the author, Puyo, 3 December 1992.
81. El Comercio, 20 July 1986, in Kipu 14 (1986): 27; Jon McLin, Social and Economic Effects of Petroleum Development in Non-OPEC Developing Countries: Synthesis Report (Geneva: International Labour Organisation, 1986), 23-24. See, for example, Asociación de Pre-Cooperativas "Pacayacu" to Tribunal de Garantias Contitutionales, 14 July 1990 (unpublished letter in possession of the author). See also the coverage of the strike in Hoy throughout the month of March.
82. El Comercio, 20 July 1986, in Kipu 14 (1986): 27; Jon McLin, Social and Economic Effects of Petroleum Development in Non-OPEC Developing Countries: Synthesis Report (Geneva: International Labour Organisation, 1986), 23-24. See, for example, Asociación de Pre-Cooperativas "Pacayacu" to Tribunal de Garantias Contitutionales, 14 July 1990 (unpublished letter in possession of the author). See also the coverage of the strike in Hoy throughout the month of March.
83. El Comercio, 20 July 1986, in Kipu 14 (1986): 27; Jon McLin, Social and Economic Effects of Petroleum Development in Non-OPEC Developing Countries: Synthesis Report (Geneva: International Labour Organisation, 1986), 23-24. See, for example, Asociación de Pre-Cooperativas "Pacayacu" to Tribunal de Garantias Contitutionales, 14 July 1990 (unpublished letter in possession of the author). See also the coverage of the strike in Hoy throughout the month of March.
84. Kane, Savages, 191-96; Mike Tidwell, Amazon Stranger: A Rainforest Chief Battles Big Oil (New York: Lyons and Burford, 1996).
85. Kane, Savages, 191-96; Mike Tidwell, Amazon Stranger: A Rainforest Chief Battles Big Oil (New York: Lyons and Burford, 1996).
86. I describe the pursuit of environmental justice as a political and socioeconomic issue since there is little difference between environmental and socioeconomic justice. The problems of environmental hazards in poor and politically weak communities are simply different versions of underfunded infrastructure, inferior housing, and the inequitable provision of government services. In this sense, the environment serves as the medium for social and economic injustice. In the particular case of communities living in the extractive region, I am combining the issue of the distribution of environmental hazards with questions of access to and control over resources and the course of development. Susanna Hecht and Alexander Cockburn make environmental justice a major theme in their book on the political ecology of the Amazon, The Fate of the Forest: Developers, Destroyers and Defenders of the Amazon (London: Verso, 1989).
87. Economists Douglas Southgate and Morris Whitaker calculated that improved pollution controls would add $60 million to preproduction spending, thus raising the cost per barrel by 45 cents. Economic Progress and the Environment, 86-87. Texaco boasted in 1987 that it had maintained a cost of production in Ecuador near the lowest in the world, around $3.50 per barrel. "Los 23 años de Texaco Petroleum Company-Operadora del Consorcio CEPE-Texaco han sido positivos para el desarrollo del pais," El Universo, 4 July 1987, Special Supplement, 6.
88. Economists Douglas Southgate and Morris Whitaker calculated that improved pollution controls would add $60 million to preproduction spending, thus raising the cost per barrel by 45 cents. Economic Progress and the Environment, 86-87. Texaco boasted in 1987 that it had maintained a cost of production in Ecuador near the lowest in the world, around $3.50 per barrel. "Los 23 años de Texaco Petroleum Company-Operadora del Consorcio CEPE-Texaco han sido positivos para el desarrollo del pais," El Universo, 4 July 1987, Special Supplement, 6.
89. Conoco Ecuador Ltd., Environmental Management Plan, Block 16 (Quito: Conoco Ecuador Ltd., 22 January 1991), 4.
90. Conoco Ecuador Ltd., The Relationship Between the Waorani and Conoco: Guiding Principles (Quito: Conoco Ecuador Ltd., 2 November 1989), 1.
91. White, Middle Ground, x. But see also Conklin and Graham, "Shifting Middle Ground."
92. White, Middle Ground, x. But see also Conklin and Graham, "Shifting Middle Ground."
93. Susan E. A. Hall, "Conoco's 'Green' Oil Strategy," Harvard Business School, Case No. N9-392-133, 1992.
94. Conoco Ecuador Ltd., Environmental Management Plan, 2, 10-11.
95. Edward Davies, quoted in James Brooke, "New Effort Would Test Possible Coexistence of Oil and Rain Forest," New York Times, 26 February 1991, C4.
96. Recent writing on the Block 16 case includes Hall, "Conoco's "Green" Oil Strategy"; Kane, Savages; and Marcela Enríquez Vásquez and Byron Real López, Vida por Petroleo: El caso del parque nacional Yasuní ante los Tribunales (Quito: Fundación Ecuatoriana de Estudios Sociales, 1992). Kane reports that CONFENIAE sought $211 million from the oil company. Savages, 73.
97. Recent writing on the Block 16 case includes Hall, "Conoco's "Green" Oil Strategy"; Kane, Savages; and Marcela Enríquez Vásquez and Byron Real López, Vida por Petroleo: El caso del parque nacional Yasuní ante los Tribunales (Quito: Fundación Ecuatoriana de Estudios Sociales, 1992). Kane reports that CONFENIAE sought $211 million from the oil company. Savages, 73.
98. Recent writing on the Block 16 case includes Hall, "Conoco's "Green" Oil Strategy"; Kane, Savages; and Marcela Enríquez Vásquez and Byron Real López, Vida por Petroleo: El caso del parque nacional Yasuní ante los Tribunales (Quito: Fundación Ecuatoriana de Estudios Sociales, 1992). Kane reports that CONFENIAE sought $211 million from the oil company. Savages, 73.
99. Recent writing on the Block 16 case includes Hall, "Conoco's "Green" Oil Strategy"; Kane, Savages; and Marcela Enríquez Vásquez and Byron Real López, Vida por Petroleo: El caso del parque nacional Yasuní ante los Tribunales (Quito: Fundación Ecuatoriana de Estudios Sociales, 1992). Kane reports that CONFENIAE sought $211 million from the oil company. Savages, 73.
100. Robert F. Kennedy Jr., "Amazon Sabotage," Washington Post, 8 August 1992, A17.
101. Hall, "Conoco's 'Green' Oil Strategy," 17.
102. James Brooke, "Ecuador Gives Indians Title to Big Amazon Area," New York Times, 6 September 1992, 10; Viteri, interview; Whitten, Sacha Runa, 207-67. The Leonard Exploration Company was affiliated with Standard Oil of New Jersey. Shell began to withdraw in 1948, although its agreement with the government was not scheduled to expire until 1953. Jaime Galarza, El Festin del Petroleo (Quito: Ediciones Solitierra, 1972), 79-83, 102-5.
103. James Brooke, "Ecuador Gives Indians Title to Big Amazon Area," New York Times, 6 September 1992, 10; Viteri, interview; Whitten, Sacha Runa, 207-67. The Leonard Exploration Company was affiliated with Standard Oil of New Jersey. Shell began to withdraw in 1948, although its agreement with the government was not scheduled to expire until 1953. Jaime Galarza, El Festin del Petroleo (Quito: Ediciones Solitierra, 1972), 79-83, 102-5.
104. James Brooke, "Ecuador Gives Indians Title to Big Amazon Area," New York Times, 6 September 1992, 10; Viteri, interview; Whitten, Sacha Runa, 207-67. The Leonard Exploration Company was affiliated with Standard Oil of New Jersey. Shell began to withdraw in 1948, although its agreement with the government was not scheduled to expire until 1953. Jaime Galarza, El Festin del Petroleo (Quito: Ediciones Solitierra, 1972), 79-83, 102-5.
105. "Sarayacu Accords," 7 May 1989 and 9 May 1989 (copy in the possession of the author). The agreements were signed by Luis Luna Gaibor, executive director of IERAC; Alfonso Calderón, advisor to the president on indigenous affairs; Manuel Navarro, CEPE; Jorge Aldaz, CEPE; Medardo Santi, president of Comuna Alama Sarayacu; Antonio Vargas, president of OPIP; Luis Vargas, president of CONFENIAE; Cristóbal Tapuy, president of CONAIE. The community of Sarayacu itself did not actually have exploitable oil reserves within its territory.
106. Viteri interview; Ruiz, "Pueblos Indigenas y Etnicidad en la Amazonia."
107. Southgate and Whitaker, Economic Progress and the Environment, 83; Brooke, "Oil and Tourism Don't Mix"; Oil Industry Operating Guidelines for Tropical Rainforests, Report No. 2.49/170 (London: E & P Forum, April 1991). For recent accounts of developments in the Ecuadorian Amazon that fit within the context of the emerging middle ground, see Jack Epstein, "Ecuadorians Wage Legal Battle Against US Oil Company," Christian Science Monitor, 12 September 1995, 10; Hugh O'Shaughnessy, "Greens Force Texaco To Clean Up," The Observer, 7 May 1995, Business Section, 2; Julie Triedman, "Putting Scientific Know-How To Work For Clients," American Lawyer, March 1995, 45; Matthew Yeomans, "Fool's Gold: In Ecuador's Rain Forest, The Case Against Texaco is Clear-Cut," Village Voice, 4 February 1997, 46; "Ecuador Seeks U.S. Justice Dept. Intervention in Texaco Oil Spill Case," Business Wire, 22 January 1997; Dudley Althaus, "Amazon's Empty Legacy; Big Oil Responds to Environment; Toll on Rain Forest, Culture Still Unacceptable to Critics," Houston Chronicle, 15 December 1996, 27; Mario Gonzalez, "Ecuador-Oil: Maxus Suspension a Risky Move by the New President?" International Press Service, 23 August 1996.
108. Southgate and Whitaker, Economic Progress and the Environment, 83; Brooke, "Oil and Tourism Don't Mix"; Oil Industry Operating Guidelines for Tropical Rainforests, Report No. 2.49/170 (London: E & P Forum, April 1991). For recent accounts of developments in the Ecuadorian Amazon that fit within the context of the emerging middle ground, see Jack Epstein, "Ecuadorians Wage Legal Battle Against US Oil Company," Christian Science Monitor, 12 September 1995, 10; Hugh O'Shaughnessy, "Greens Force Texaco To Clean Up," The Observer, 7 May 1995, Business Section, 2; Julie Triedman, "Putting Scientific Know-How To Work For Clients," American Lawyer, March 1995, 45; Matthew Yeomans, "Fool's Gold: In Ecuador's Rain Forest, The Case Against Texaco is Clear-Cut," Village Voice, 4 February 1997, 46; "Ecuador Seeks U.S. Justice Dept. Intervention in Texaco Oil Spill Case," Business Wire, 22 January 1997; Dudley Althaus, "Amazon's Empty Legacy; Big Oil Responds to Environment; Toll on Rain Forest, Culture Still Unacceptable to Critics," Houston Chronicle, 15 December 1996, 27; Mario Gonzalez, "Ecuador-Oil: Maxus Suspension a Risky Move by the New President?" International Press Service, 23 August 1996.
109. Southgate and Whitaker, Economic Progress and the Environment, 83; Brooke, "Oil and Tourism Don't Mix"; Oil Industry Operating Guidelines for Tropical Rainforests, Report No. 2.49/170 (London: E & P Forum, April 1991). For recent accounts of developments in the Ecuadorian Amazon that fit within the context of the emerging middle ground, see Jack Epstein, "Ecuadorians Wage Legal Battle Against US Oil Company," Christian Science Monitor, 12 September 1995, 10; Hugh O'Shaughnessy, "Greens Force Texaco To Clean Up," The Observer, 7 May 1995, Business Section, 2; Julie Triedman, "Putting Scientific Know-How To Work For Clients," American Lawyer, March 1995, 45; Matthew Yeomans, "Fool's Gold: In Ecuador's Rain Forest, The Case Against Texaco is Clear-Cut," Village Voice, 4 February 1997, 46; "Ecuador Seeks U.S. Justice Dept. Intervention in Texaco Oil Spill Case," Business Wire, 22 January 1997; Dudley Althaus, "Amazon's Empty Legacy; Big Oil Responds to Environment; Toll on Rain Forest, Culture Still Unacceptable to Critics," Houston Chronicle, 15 December 1996, 27; Mario Gonzalez, "Ecuador-Oil: Maxus Suspension a Risky Move by the New President?" International Press Service, 23 August 1996.
110. Southgate and Whitaker, Economic Progress and the Environment, 83; Brooke, "Oil and Tourism Don't Mix"; Oil Industry Operating Guidelines for Tropical Rainforests, Report No. 2.49/170 (London: E & P Forum, April 1991). For recent accounts of developments in the Ecuadorian Amazon that fit within the context of the emerging middle ground, see Jack Epstein, "Ecuadorians Wage Legal Battle Against US Oil Company," Christian Science Monitor, 12 September 1995, 10; Hugh O'Shaughnessy, "Greens Force Texaco To Clean Up," The Observer, 7 May 1995, Business Section, 2; Julie Triedman, "Putting Scientific Know-How To Work For Clients," American Lawyer, March 1995, 45; Matthew Yeomans, "Fool's Gold: In Ecuador's Rain Forest, The Case Against Texaco is Clear-Cut," Village Voice, 4 February 1997, 46; "Ecuador Seeks U.S. Justice Dept. Intervention in Texaco Oil Spill Case," Business Wire, 22 January 1997; Dudley Althaus, "Amazon's Empty Legacy; Big Oil Responds to Environment; Toll on Rain Forest, Culture Still Unacceptable to Critics," Houston Chronicle, 15 December 1996, 27; Mario Gonzalez, "Ecuador-Oil: Maxus Suspension a Risky Move by the New President?" International Press Service, 23 August 1996.
111. Southgate and Whitaker, Economic Progress and the Environment, 83; Brooke, "Oil and Tourism Don't Mix"; Oil Industry Operating Guidelines for Tropical Rainforests, Report No. 2.49/170 (London: E & P Forum, April 1991). For recent accounts of developments in the Ecuadorian Amazon that fit within the context of the emerging middle ground, see Jack Epstein, "Ecuadorians Wage Legal Battle Against US Oil Company," Christian Science Monitor, 12 September 1995, 10; Hugh O'Shaughnessy, "Greens Force Texaco To Clean Up," The Observer, 7 May 1995, Business Section, 2; Julie Triedman, "Putting Scientific Know-How To Work For Clients," American Lawyer, March 1995, 45; Matthew Yeomans, "Fool's Gold: In Ecuador's Rain Forest, The Case Against Texaco is Clear-Cut," Village Voice, 4 February 1997, 46; "Ecuador Seeks U.S. Justice Dept. Intervention in Texaco Oil Spill Case," Business Wire, 22 January 1997; Dudley Althaus, "Amazon's Empty Legacy; Big Oil Responds to Environment; Toll on Rain Forest, Culture Still Unacceptable to Critics," Houston Chronicle, 15 December 1996, 27; Mario Gonzalez, "Ecuador-Oil: Maxus Suspension a Risky Move by the New President?" International Press Service, 23 August 1996.
112. Southgate and Whitaker, Economic Progress and the Environment, 83; Brooke, "Oil and Tourism Don't Mix"; Oil Industry Operating Guidelines for Tropical Rainforests, Report No. 2.49/170 (London: E & P Forum, April 1991). For recent accounts of developments in the Ecuadorian Amazon that fit within the context of the emerging middle ground, see Jack Epstein, "Ecuadorians Wage Legal Battle Against US Oil Company," Christian Science Monitor, 12 September 1995, 10; Hugh O'Shaughnessy, "Greens Force Texaco To Clean Up," The Observer, 7 May 1995, Business Section, 2; Julie Triedman, "Putting Scientific Know-How To Work For Clients," American Lawyer, March 1995, 45; Matthew Yeomans, "Fool's Gold: In Ecuador's Rain Forest, The Case Against Texaco is Clear-Cut," Village Voice, 4 February 1997, 46; "Ecuador Seeks U.S. Justice Dept. Intervention in Texaco Oil Spill Case," Business Wire, 22 January 1997; Dudley Althaus, "Amazon's Empty Legacy; Big Oil Responds to Environment; Toll on Rain Forest, Culture Still Unacceptable to Critics," Houston Chronicle, 15 December 1996, 27; Mario Gonzalez, "Ecuador-Oil: Maxus Suspension a Risky Move by the New President?" International Press Service, 23 August 1996.
113. Southgate and Whitaker, Economic Progress and the Environment, 83; Brooke, "Oil and Tourism Don't Mix"; Oil Industry Operating Guidelines for Tropical Rainforests, Report No. 2.49/170 (London: E & P Forum, April 1991). For recent accounts of developments in the Ecuadorian Amazon that fit within the context of the emerging middle ground, see Jack Epstein, "Ecuadorians Wage Legal Battle Against US Oil Company," Christian Science Monitor, 12 September 1995, 10; Hugh O'Shaughnessy, "Greens Force Texaco To Clean Up," The Observer, 7 May 1995, Business Section, 2; Julie Triedman, "Putting Scientific Know-How To Work For Clients," American Lawyer, March 1995, 45; Matthew Yeomans, "Fool's Gold: In Ecuador's Rain Forest, The Case Against Texaco is Clear-Cut," Village Voice, 4 February 1997, 46; "Ecuador Seeks U.S. Justice Dept. Intervention in Texaco Oil Spill Case," Business Wire, 22 January 1997; Dudley Althaus, "Amazon's Empty Legacy; Big Oil Responds to Environment; Toll on Rain Forest, Culture Still Unacceptable to Critics," Houston Chronicle, 15 December 1996, 27; Mario Gonzalez, "Ecuador-Oil: Maxus Suspension a Risky Move by the New President?" International Press Service, 23 August 1996.
114. Southgate and Whitaker, Economic Progress and the Environment, 83; Brooke, "Oil and Tourism Don't Mix"; Oil Industry Operating Guidelines for Tropical Rainforests, Report No. 2.49/170 (London: E & P Forum, April 1991). For recent accounts of developments in the Ecuadorian Amazon that fit within the context of the emerging middle ground, see Jack Epstein, "Ecuadorians Wage Legal Battle Against US Oil Company," Christian Science Monitor, 12 September 1995, 10; Hugh O'Shaughnessy, "Greens Force Texaco To Clean Up," The Observer, 7 May 1995, Business Section, 2; Julie Triedman, "Putting Scientific Know-How To Work For Clients," American Lawyer, March 1995, 45; Matthew Yeomans, "Fool's Gold: In Ecuador's Rain Forest, The Case Against Texaco is Clear-Cut," Village Voice, 4 February 1997, 46; "Ecuador Seeks U.S. Justice Dept. Intervention in Texaco Oil Spill Case," Business Wire, 22 January 1997; Dudley Althaus, "Amazon's Empty Legacy; Big Oil Responds to Environment; Toll on Rain Forest, Culture Still Unacceptable to Critics," Houston Chronicle, 15 December 1996, 27; Mario Gonzalez, "Ecuador-Oil: Maxus Suspension a Risky Move by the New President?" International Press Service, 23 August 1996.
115. Southgate and Whitaker, Economic Progress and the Environment, 83; Brooke, "Oil and Tourism Don't Mix"; Oil Industry Operating Guidelines for Tropical Rainforests, Report No. 2.49/170 (London: E & P Forum, April 1991). For recent accounts of developments in the Ecuadorian Amazon that fit within the context of the emerging middle ground, see Jack Epstein, "Ecuadorians Wage Legal Battle Against US Oil Company," Christian Science Monitor, 12 September 1995, 10; Hugh O'Shaughnessy, "Greens Force Texaco To Clean Up," The Observer, 7 May 1995, Business Section, 2; Julie Triedman, "Putting Scientific Know-How To Work For Clients," American Lawyer, March 1995, 45; Matthew Yeomans, "Fool's Gold: In Ecuador's Rain Forest, The Case Against Texaco is Clear-Cut," Village Voice, 4 February 1997, 46; "Ecuador Seeks U.S. Justice Dept. Intervention in Texaco Oil Spill Case," Business Wire, 22 January 1997; Dudley Althaus, "Amazon's Empty Legacy; Big Oil Responds to Environment; Toll on Rain Forest, Culture Still Unacceptable to Critics," Houston Chronicle, 15 December 1996, 27; Mario Gonzalez, "Ecuador-Oil: Maxus Suspension a Risky Move by the New President?" International Press Service, 23 August 1996.
116. Marjane Ambler, Breaking the Iron Bonds: Indian Control of Energy Development (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1990); Sabin, "Voices from the Hydrocarbon Frontier," 40-41.
117. Marjane Ambler, Breaking the Iron Bonds: Indian Control of Energy Development (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1990); Sabin, "Voices from the Hydrocarbon Frontier," 40-41.