Blantyre transformed: class, conflict and nationalism in urban Malawi

Journal of African History

Volumn 39, Issue 2, 1998, Pages 247-269

  McCracken, John ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF STIRLING   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CLASS SYSTEM; CULTURAL HISTORY; LABOUR MOVEMENT; NATIONALISM; TWENTIETH CENTURY; URBAN HISTORY;

MALAWI;

EID: 0031696964     PISSN: 00218537     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0021853797007093     Document Type: Article

References (164)

1. For a useful introduction see Paul Maylam, 'Explaining the apartheid city: 20 Years of South African urban historiography', Journal of Southern African Studies, XXI, (1995), 19-38.
2. R. R. Kuczynski, Demographic Survey of the British Colonial Empire (London, 1949), ii, 536.
3. Richard Gray, The Two Nations (London, 1960), 92; G. N. Burden, Nyasaland Native Labour in Southern Rhodesia (Zomba, 1938).
4. Richard Gray, The Two Nations (London, 1960), 92; G. N. Burden, Nyasaland Native Labour in Southern Rhodesia (Zomba, 1938).
5. Megan Vaughan, The Story of an African Famine (Cambridge, 1987); John Iliffe, 'The poor in the modern history of Malawi', in Centre for African Studies, University of Edinburgh, Malawi: An Alternative Pattern of Development (Edinburgh, 1984), 245-92.
6. Megan Vaughan, The Story of an African Famine (Cambridge, 1987); John Iliffe, 'The poor in the modern history of Malawi', in Centre for African Studies, University of Edinburgh, Malawi: An Alternative Pattern of Development (Edinburgh, 1984), 245-92.
7. Joey Power, 'Individual enterprise and enterprising individuals: African entrepreneurship in Blantyre and Limbe, 1907-1953' (Ph.D. thesis, Dalhousie University, 1991).
8. John McCracken, 'Labour in Nyasaland: an assessment of the 1960 railway workers' strike', J. Southern Afr. Studies, XIV (1988); Tony Woods, '"Bread with freedom and peace": rail workers in Malawi 1954-1975', J. of Southern Afr. Studies, XVIII (1992). See also Mapopa Chipeta. 'Labour in colonial Malawi: the growth and development of the Malawian wage labour force during the colonial period, 1890-1964' (Ph.D. thesis, Dalhousie University, 1986).
9. John McCracken, 'Labour in Nyasaland: an assessment of the 1960 railway workers' strike', J. Southern Afr. Studies, XIV (1988); Tony Woods, '"Bread with freedom and peace": rail workers in Malawi 1954-1975', J. of Southern Afr. Studies, XVIII (1992). See also Mapopa Chipeta. 'Labour in colonial Malawi: the growth and development of the Malawian wage labour force during the colonial period, 1890-1964' (Ph.D. thesis, Dalhousie University, 1986).
10. John McCracken, 'Labour in Nyasaland: an assessment of the 1960 railway workers' strike', J. Southern Afr. Studies, XIV (1988); Tony Woods, '"Bread with freedom and peace": rail workers in Malawi 1954-1975', J. of Southern Afr. Studies, XVIII (1992). See also Mapopa Chipeta. 'Labour in colonial Malawi: the growth and development of the Malawian wage labour force during the colonial period, 1890-1964' (Ph.D. thesis, Dalhousie University, 1986).
11. Woods, 'Rail workers in Malawi', 727.
12. Iliffe, 'The poor in the modern history of Malawi', 260.
13. Blantyre Town Council Minutes, 10 June 1897, MNA BL 2/1/1/1.
14. Blantyre Town Council Minutes, 21 Sept. 1897, MNA BL 2/1/1/1.
15. Central African Times, 12 Dec. 1903; Blantyre Township Bye-Laws, Feb. 1913; Blantyre and Limbe Township Ordinances, 1930, MNA S1/392/19. See also John McCracken, 'Coercion and control in Nyasaland: aspects of the history of a colonial police force', J. Afr. Hist., XXVII (1986), 132-3.
16. Central African Times, 12 Dec. 1903; Blantyre Township Bye-Laws, Feb. 1913; Blantyre and Limbe Township Ordinances, 1930, MNA S1/392/19. See also John McCracken, 'Coercion and control in Nyasaland: aspects of the history of a colonial police force', J. Afr. Hist., XXVII (1986), 132-3.
17. Central African Times, 12 Dec. 1903; Blantyre Township Bye-Laws, Feb. 1913; Blantyre and Limbe Township Ordinances, 1930, MNA S1/392/19. See also John McCracken, 'Coercion and control in Nyasaland: aspects of the history of a colonial police force', J. Afr. Hist., XXVII (1986), 132-3.
18. Central African Times, 12 Dec. 1903; Blantyre Township Bye-Laws, Feb. 1913; Blantyre and Limbe Township Ordinances, 1930, MNA S1/392/19. See also John McCracken, 'Coercion and control in Nyasaland: aspects of the history of a colonial police force', J. Afr. Hist., XXVII (1986), 132-3.
19. Geoffrey J. Morton, Just the Job: Some Experiences of a Colonial Policeman (London, 1957), 234; Power, 'Individual enterprise', 35.
20. Geoffrey J. Morton, Just the Job: Some Experiences of a Colonial Policeman (London, 1957), 234; Power, 'Individual enterprise', 35.
21. Robin Palmer, 'White farmers in Malawi: before and after the depression', Afr. Affairs, LXXXIV (1985), 211-45.
22. Annual Report of the Blantyre District for 1947, MNA NS 3/1/4; Iliffe, 'Poor in the modern history of Malawi', 263.
23. Annual Report of the Blantyre District for 1947, MNA NS 3/1/4; Iliffe, 'Poor in the modern history of Malawi', 263.
24. Blantyre Town Council minutes, 28 Feb. 1922, 30 May 1922, 30 May 1923, 1 Aug. 1923, MNA BL 2/1/1/2.
25. Annual Report of the Nyasaland Medical Department for 1936, PRO CO 626/15; 'Report by the Advisory Board of Health on the Sanitary Services in Blantyre and Limbe', 1951, MNA PC 53/5/1.
26. For a discussion of ITC housing see W. Twiston Davies, Fifty Years of Progress. An Account of the African Organisation of the Imperial Tobacco Company, 1907-1957 (Bristol, n.d. [1958]), 38-40.
27. David G. Bettison, 'The demographic structure of seventeen villages, Blantyre- Limbe, Nyasaland', Rhodes-Livingstone Communications XI (Lusaka, 1958);
28. Bettison, 'The social and economic structure of seventeen villages, Blantyre-Limbe, Nyasaland', Rhodes-Livingstone Communications XII (Lusaka, 1958); Bettison, 'Migrancy and social structure in peri-urban communities in Nyasaland', in R. J. Apthorpe (ed.), Present Interrelations in Central African Rural and Urban Life (Rhodes-Livingstone Institute, 11th Conference Proceedings, Lusaka, 1958); D. G. Bettison and P. G. Rigby, 'Patterns of income and expenditure, Blantyre-Limbe, Nyasaland', Rhodes-Livingstone Communications XX (Lusaka, 1961).
29. Bettison, 'The social and economic structure of seventeen villages, Blantyre-Limbe, Nyasaland', Rhodes-Livingstone Communications XII (Lusaka, 1958); Bettison, 'Migrancy and social structure in peri-urban communities in Nyasaland', in R. J. Apthorpe (ed.), Present Interrelations in Central African Rural and Urban Life (Rhodes-Livingstone Institute, 11th Conference Proceedings, Lusaka, 1958); D. G. Bettison and P. G. Rigby, 'Patterns of income and expenditure, Blantyre-Limbe, Nyasaland', Rhodes-Livingstone Communications XX (Lusaka, 1961).
30. Bettison, 'The social and economic structure of seventeen villages, Blantyre-Limbe, Nyasaland', Rhodes-Livingstone Communications XII (Lusaka, 1958); Bettison, 'Migrancy and social structure in peri-urban communities in Nyasaland', in R. J. Apthorpe (ed.), Present Interrelations in Central African Rural and Urban Life (Rhodes-Livingstone Institute, 11th Conference Proceedings, Lusaka, 1958); D. G. Bettison and P. G. Rigby, 'Patterns of income and expenditure, Blantyre-Limbe, Nyasaland', Rhodes-Livingstone Communications XX (Lusaka, 1961).
31. For an excellent account emphasising the economic role of women in these villages, see Vaughan, Story of an African Famine, 128-32.
32. See particularly Bettison, 'Social and economic structure of a sample of peri-urban villages'.
33. Bettison, 'Migrancy and social structure',
34. Bettison, 'Demographic structure of seventeen villages', 73-4. For the high percentage of 'non-indigenous' Africans in Salisbury, see Brian Raftopoulos, 'Nationalism and labour in Salisbury, 1953-1965', J. Southern Afr. Studies, XXI (1995), 82.
35. Bettison, 'Demographic structure of seventeen villages', 73-4. For the high percentage of 'non-indigenous' Africans in Salisbury, see Brian Raftopoulos, 'Nationalism and labour in Salisbury, 1953-1965', J. Southern Afr. Studies, XXI (1995), 82.
36. Bettison, 'Demographic structure of seventeen villages', 18-19.
37. Veronica Berry and Celia Petty (eds.), The Nyasaland Survey Papers, 1938-1943. Agriculture, Food and Health (London, 1992), 138-43.
38. Veronica Berry and Celia Petty (eds.), The Nyasaland Survey Papers, 1938-1943. Agriculture, Food and Health (London, 1992), 138-43.
39. Central African Times, 30 Nov. 1901.
40. Blantyre District Annual Report, 1931, MNA NSB 7/1/2. For further information on earnings in the informal sector, see Iliffe, 'Poor in the modern history of Malawi', 262.
41. For further details on Mtemenyama and other small businessmen in this period, see Power, 'Individual enterprise and enterprising individuals', 173-93.
42. S. Thomas, Secretary for Blantyre Native Association, to PC, Southern Province, MNA NS 1/3/4, quoted in Power, ibid. 199-200. For the continuing importance of kachasu in the economy of women in the vicinity of Blantyre, see H. D. Ng'wane, 'Economics of kacasu distilling and brewing of African beer in a Blantyre-Limbe village', in R. J. Apthorpe (ed.), Present Interrelations in Central African Rural and Urban Life.
43. S. Thomas, Secretary for Blantyre Native Association, to PC, Southern Province, MNA NS 1/3/4, quoted in Power, ibid. 199-200. For the continuing importance of kachasu in the economy of women in the vicinity of Blantyre, see H. D. Ng'wane, 'Economics of kacasu distilling and brewing of African beer in a Blantyre-Limbe village', in R. J. Apthorpe (ed.), Present Interrelations in Central African Rural and Urban Life.
44. Annual Report of the Nyasaland Public Works Department for 1951; 'Proposal to remove capital from Zomba', 1947, PRO CO 525/213.
45. Colby to Lennox-Boyd, 24 Mar. 1956, PRO CO 1015/1133.
46. Intelligence Report for half year ending June 1937, MNA S2/6iii/27; Blantyre District Annual Report for 1947, MNA NS 3/1/4; Morton, Just the Job, 236.
47. J. G. Pike and G. T. Rimmington, Malawi: A Geographical Study (London, 1965), 169; Malawi Population Census 1966: Final Report (Zomba, 1967), 34.
48. J. G. Pike and G. T. Rimmington, Malawi: A Geographical Study (London, 1965), 169; Malawi Population Census 1966: Final Report (Zomba, 1967), 34.
49. Blantyre District Annual Report for 1947, MNA NS 3/1/4; DC Blantyre to PC Southern Province, MNA NSB 3/12/1.
50. Annual Reports of the Nyasaland Labour Department, 1946-49. Vaughan, Story of an African Famine, 29-49, provides a graphic account of changes in the price and availability of food during the famine.
51. Annual Reports of the Nyasaland Labour Department, 1946-49. Vaughan, Story of an African Famine, 29-49, provides a graphic account of changes in the price and availability of food during the famine.
52. Annual Report of the Labour Branch of Provincial Administration, 1938, PRO CO 626/18; Annual Reports of the Labour Department, 1946-1951.
53. Annual Report of the Labour Branch of Provincial Administration, 1938, PRO CO 626/18; Annual Reports of the Labour Department, 1946-1951.
54. Southern Province Annual Report for 1947, MNA NS 3/1/12. For further information on economic change in the immediate post-war period, see Vaughan, Story of an African Famine, 102-7.
55. Annual Report on the Social and Economic Progress of the People of Nyasaland, 1931, CO 626/10.
56. Secretary, Advisory Board of Health to PC Southern Province, 26 Apr. 1951, MNA PC 53/5/1.
57. Ibid.
58. Life and Work in British Central Africa, 15 June 1898.
59. T. Cullen Young, 'The native newspaper', Africa, XI (1938),
60. quoted in George Shepperson, Myth and Reality in Malawi (Evanston, 1966), 5.
61. Governor, Nyasaland to Colonial Secretary, 20 June 1928, PRO CO 525/125.
62. Robin Palmer, 'Working conditions and worker responses on Nyasaland tea estates, 1930-1953 J. Afr. Hist., XXVII (1986), 119.
63. Minutes of a meeting of the Nyasaland Teachers' Association, 7 Oct. 1945, MNA NSB 3/3/6.
64. Annual Report of the Nyasaland Labour Department for 1946.
65. Meetings of the Nyasaland African Congress, Blantyre branch, with domestic servants, 23 Mar. and 2 June 1946, MNA NS 1/3/10.
66. Charles Matinga, President's Address to the 3rd Conference of the Nyasaland African Congress, 23 Sept. 1946, MNA PCC 1/4/1.
67. For a vivid description of the operation of sewage disposal in Blantyre, see Morton, Just the Job, 244-6. By 1957, the number of domestic servants in and around Blantyre was estimated at 3,500. David G. Bettison, 'The private domestic servant in Blantyre-Limbe', Nyasaland Journal, XII 1 (1959), 36.
68. For a vivid description of the operation of sewage disposal in Blantyre, see Morton, Just the Job, 244-6. By 1957, the number of domestic servants in and around Blantyre was estimated at 3,500. David G. Bettison, 'The private domestic servant in Blantyre-Limbe', Nyasaland Journal, XII 1 (1959), 36.
69. Blantyre Town Council Minutes, 22 May 1947, MNA BL 2/1/1/13.
70. Blantyre Town Council Minutes, 23 Apr. 1951, MNA BL 2/1/1/14.
71. Blantyre District Annual Report for 1947, MNA NS 3/1/4;
72. Annual Reports of the Labour Department for 1947 and 1949, Report of an Economic Survey of Nyasaland 1958-59 (Salisbury, 1959), 75.
73. H. W. Stevens to W. M. Codrington, 7 Jan. 1959, Malawi Railway Archives.
74. Report of an Economic Survey of Nyasaland, 1958-59, 75; Thomas M. Franck, Race and Nationalism. The Struggle for Power in Rhodesia-Nyasaland (London, 1960), 156.
75. Report of an Economic Survey of Nyasaland, 1958-59, 75; Thomas M. Franck, Race and Nationalism. The Struggle for Power in Rhodesia-Nyasaland (London, 1960), 156.
76. Annual Report of the Nyasaland Labour Department, 1955, 18.
77. Annual Report of the Labour Department, 1946, 6.
78. C. D. James, 'On behalf of the railway African staff' to General Manager, Associated Railways, 5 Feb. 1947, MNA NSB 3/3/6; Annual Report on Blantyre District for 1947, MNA NS 3/1/4.
79. C. D. James, 'On behalf of the railway African staff' to General Manager, Associated Railways, 5 Feb. 1947, MNA NSB 3/3/6; Annual Report on Blantyre District for 1947, MNA NS 3/1/4.
80. Annual Report of the Labour Department for 1947.
81. Nyasaland Political Intelligence Report for Feb. 1951, PRO CO 537/7231.
82. Nyasaland Political Intelligence Report for Mar. 1951, PRO CO 537/7231.
83. Annual Reports of the Labour Department for 1956 and 1957.
84. See D. G. Bettison and R. J. Apthorpe, 'Authority and residence in a peri-urban social structure: Ndirande, Nyasaland', Nyasaland Journal, XIV (1961), 11-12.
85. My account of Makata is informed both by the fascinating obituary of him written by Orton Chirwa, the founder of the Malawi Congress Party, in the Malawi Nezvs, 19 Apr. 1962, and by the information provided in Power, 'African entrepreneurship in Blantyre and Limbe'.
86. L. L. Lubani for Lawrence Makata (Secretary), Nyasaland African Divers Association, 5 Aug. 1947, MNA NSB 3/3/6.
87. Annual Report on the Southern Province for 1947, MNA NS 3/1/12.
88. Constitution of the Nyasaland African Drivers' Association, 1947, MNA NSB 3/3/6.
89. Records of the 4th Annual Meeting of the Nyasaland African Congress, 22-26 Sept. 1947, MNA PCC 1/4/1.
90. Annual Report of the Labour Department, 1949.
91. Provincial Labour Officer to PC, Southern Province, 13 Nov. 1948, MNA NSB 3/3/6.
92. For a useful discussion, see Bill Freund, The African Worker (Cambridge, 1988), 91-109.
93. Obituary of L. M. Makata by O. E. Ching'oli Chirwa, Malawi News, 19 Apr. 1962.
94. Nyasaland Political Intelligence Report for Nov. 1953, PRO CO 1015/455.
95. Power, 'African entrepreneurship', 293-4, 250, 286-7; Minutes of a General Meeting of the Ndirande Welfare Club, 15 June 1941; James F. Sangala to DC, Blantyre, 21 June 1947, MNA NSB 3/3/5.
96. Power, 'African entrepreneurship', 293-4, 250, 286-7; Minutes of a General Meeting of the Ndirande Welfare Club, 15 June 1941; James F. Sangala to DC, Blantyre, 21 June 1947, MNA NSB 3/3/5.
97. Power, 'African entrepreneurship', 293-4, 250, 286-7; Minutes of a General Meeting of the Ndirande Welfare Club, 15 June 1941; James F. Sangala to DC, Blantyre, 21 June 1947, MNA NSB 3/3/5.
98. Minutes of a meeting of the Blantyre branch of the Nyasaland African Motor Transport Workers, 25-26 September 1948, MNA NSB 3/3/6; Nyasaland Political Intelligence Report for Oct. 1949, PRO CO 537/4725; Power, 'African entrepreneurship', 320.
99. Minutes of a meeting of the Blantyre branch of the Nyasaland African Motor Transport Workers, 25-26 September 1948, MNA NSB 3/3/6; Nyasaland Political Intelligence Report for Oct. 1949, PRO CO 537/4725; Power, 'African entrepreneurship', 320.
100. Minutes of a meeting of the Blantyre branch of the Nyasaland African Motor Transport Workers, 25-26 September 1948, MNA NSB 3/3/6; Nyasaland Political Intelligence Report for Oct. 1949, PRO CO 537/4725; Power, 'African entrepreneurship', 320.
101. J. C. Morgan to Sir Robert Armitage, 12 July 1957, MNA SMP/23050/77 quoted in IlifFe, 'Poor in the modern history of Malawi', 124.
102. Figures calculated from Annual Reports of the Labour Department 1952 to 1960. See also David G. Bettison, 'The poverty datum line in Central Africa', Rhodes-Livingstone Journal, XXVII (1960). This notes that wages in Blantyre were somewhat less than half those in Salisbury in the late 1950S, but that food prices were nearly half as cheap. Overall, however: 'the average wage is in each case well below the cost of goods and services required to keep a family in health and decency', [4-5]
103. Figures calculated from Annual Reports of the Labour Department 1952 to 1960. See also David G. Bettison, 'The poverty datum line in Central Africa', Rhodes-Livingstone Journal, XXVII (1960). This notes that wages in Blantyre were somewhat less than half those in Salisbury in the late 1950S, but that food prices were nearly half as cheap. Overall, however: 'the average wage is in each case well below the cost of goods and services required to keep a family in health and decency', [4-5]
104. Labour Department Reports for 1958-1961; Chipeta, 'Labour in a colonial context', 450.
105. Labour Department Reports for 1958-1961; Chipeta, 'Labour in a colonial context', 450.
106. Blantyre Town Council minutes, 15 Aug. 1949, 14 Jan. 1952, 27 Mar. 1952, 26 Jan. 1953, 12 Oct. 1953, 8 Mar. 1954, MNA BL 2/1/1/14 and 2/1/1/15.
107. Power, 'African entrepreneurship in Blantyre and Limbe', 3-4 and 311-12.
108. Annual Report of the Labour Department, 1955; Annual Reports of the Public Works Department, 7955-6.
109. Annual Report of the Labour Department, 1955; Annual Reports of the Public Works Department, 7955-6.
110. Southern Province Operations Diary, entry for 8 Mar. 1949, Rhodes House Library, Devlin Commission Papers, Box 9.
111. James F. Sangala to All Africans resident in Nyasaland Protectorate, 1 Oct. 1943, MNA NSB 3/3/6.
112. Acting Governor's speech to the Nyasaland African Congress, 22 Sept. 1947, MNA PCC/1/4/1.
113. Nyasaland Political Intelligence Report for Sept. 1952, PRO CO 1015/464.
114. Nyasaland Political Intelligence Reports, May-Sept. 1953, PRO CO 1015/464 and CO 1015/465.
115. Nyasaland Political Intelligence Report for Apr. 1956, PRO CO 1015/961.
116. Figures drawn from Annual Labour Reports, 1957 and 1960; Monthly Intelligence Report for Feb. 1963, PRO DO 183/136. The author of this report calculated that only about ID per cent of the workers in the industries represented were members of unions.
117. Figures drawn from Annual Labour Reports, 1957 and 1960; Monthly Intelligence Report for Feb. 1963, PRO DO 183/136. The author of this report calculated that only about ID per cent of the workers in the industries represented were members of unions.
118. For Chihana, see Malawi News, 29 June 1961.
119. Annual Report of the Labour Department, 1960.
120. McCracken, 'Labour in Nyasaland', 279-90.
121. Obituary of Makata by Orton Chirwa, Malawi News, 19 Apr. 1962; Statement by Thomas Andrew Karua to the Special Branch, 1959, RHL Devlin Commission Papers, Box 6. It is an indication of Makata's influence that his fellow-detainees in Kanjedza Camp made him their spokesman. Almost the only reference to Makata and Lubani in published accounts comes in the Devlin Report (Report of the Nyasaland Commission of Enquiry, Cmnd. 814 [London, 1959]) 26, where they are disparagingly described as 'two elderly businessmen'. (In fact, they were in their early forties at the time.)
122. Obituary of Makata by Orton Chirwa, Malawi News, 19 Apr. 1962; Statement by Thomas Andrew Karua to the Special Branch, 1959, RHL Devlin Commission Papers, Box 6. It is an indication of Makata's influence that his fellow-detainees in Kanjedza Camp made him their spokesman. Almost the only reference to Makata and Lubani in published accounts comes in the Devlin Report (Report of the Nyasaland Commission of Enquiry, Cmnd. 814 [London, 1959]) 26, where they are disparagingly described as 'two elderly businessmen'. (In fact, they were in their early forties at the time.)
123. Malawi News, 2 Nov. 1961, 10 May 1962; Proceedings of the 3rd Meeting of the 76th Session of the Nyasaland Legislative Council, 6-7 Mar. 1962, 154-7.
124. Malawi News, 2 Nov. 1961, 10 May 1962; Proceedings of the 3rd Meeting of the 76th Session of the Nyasaland Legislative Council, 6-7 Mar. 1962, 154-7.
125. Woods, 'Rail workers in Malawi', 728.
126. The role of women in nationalist politics is considered in some detail in my forthcoming study, Malawi under the British.
127. Political Intelligence Report, 1958, PRO CO 1015/1749; P. F. Wilson, 'Events leading up to the declaration of a State of Emergency in Nyasaland on March 3 1959', RHL, Devlin Commission Papers, Box 9.
128. Political Intelligence Report, 1958, PRO CO 1015/1749; P. F. Wilson, 'Events leading up to the declaration of a State of Emergency in Nyasaland on March 3 1959', RHL, Devlin Commission Papers, Box 9.
129. Special Branch memo on 'The Emergency Conference of the Nyasaland African Conference', 13 Feb. 1959, RHL, Devlin Commission Papers, Box 6.
130. Operations Control Diary, 3 Mar. 1959, RHL, Devlin Commission Papers, Box 9.
131. Ibid, 5 Mar. 1959.
132. Governor, Zomba to Federal Prime Minister, Salisbury, 6 Mar. 1959, Zimbabwe National Archives, F 236 CX 27/3/1.
133. Malawi News, 22 Oct. 1960, quoted in Woods, 'Rail workers in Malawi', 731.
134. H. W. Stevens to R. A. Short, 27 Aug. 1959, MRA; Malawi News, 4 June 1960.
135. H. W. Stevens to R. A. Short, 27 Aug. 1959, MRA; Malawi News, 4 June 1960.
136. Malawi News, 7 May and 4 June 1960.
137. For a detailed analysis of this strike, see McCracken, 'Labour in Nyasaland'.
138. John Iliffe, 'Wage labour and urbanisation', in M. H. Y. Kaniki (ed.), Tanzania under Colonial Rule (London, 1980), 286-87; B. M. Strouts to E. A. Short, 20 Nov. 1960, MRA.
139. John Iliffe, 'Wage labour and urbanisation', in M. H. Y. Kaniki (ed.), Tanzania under Colonial Rule (London, 1980), 286-87; B. M. Strouts to E. A. Short, 20 Nov. 1960, MRA.
140. Strouts to Short, 23 Nov. 1960, MRA.
141. Memo handed to Lord Rupert Nevill by Lord Perth, 25 Nov. 1960, MRA.
142. Strouts to Short, 18-20 Nov. 1960, MRA.
143. Woods, 'Rail workers in Malawi', 731-2.
144. Woods, 'Rail workers in Malawi', 731-2; McCracken, 'Labour in Nyasaland', 283. Among politically active Central Africans in the 1950S, 'Capricorn' was synonymous with 'stooge' or 'sellout'.
145. Woods, 'Rail workers in Malawi', 731-2; McCracken, 'Labour in Nyasaland', 283. Among politically active Central Africans in the 1950S, 'Capricorn' was synonymous with 'stooge' or 'sellout'.
146. Monthly Intelligence Report, March 1962, DO 183/136.
147. Monthly Intelligence Reports, Oct. 1962, Feb. 1963, PRO DO 183/136.
148. For a useful introduction, see Philip Short, Banda (London, 1974), 156-57.
149. Malawi News, 14, 21 Sept. 1961.
150. Malawi News, 28 Sept. 1961.
151. Malawi News, 29 June 1962; Monthly Intelligence Report, June 1962, PRO DO 183/136.
152. Malawi News, 29 June 1962; Monthly Intelligence Report, June 1962, PRO DO 183/136.
153. Monthly Intelligence Report, July 1962, PRO DO 183/136.
154. Monthly Intelligence Report, Aug. 1962, PRO DO 183/136.
155. Monthly Intelligence Reports, Feb., March, April 1963, PRO DO 183/136.
156. Malawi News, 17 May 1963; Monthly Intelligence Reports, May 1963, DO 183/136 and May 1964, DO 183/137.
157. Malawi News, 17 May 1963; Monthly Intelligence Reports, May 1963, DO 183/136 and May 1964, DO 183/137.
158. Monthly Intelligence Report, Feb. 1964, PRO DO 183/137.
159. Monthly Intelligence Reports, Aug., Sept., 1963, PRO DO 183/136.
160. Woods, 'Rail workers in Malawi', 737-8.
161. Annual Report of the Labour Department, 1957.
162. Iliffe, 'Poor in the modern history of Malawi', 276; Dharam Ghai and Samir Radwan, 'Growth and inequality: rural development in Malawi, 1964-78', in D. Ghai and S. Radwan (eds.), Agrarian Policies and Rural Poverty in Africa (Geneva, 1983), 90.
163. Iliffe, 'Poor in the modern history of Malawi', 276; Dharam Ghai and Samir Radwan, 'Growth and inequality: rural development in Malawi, 1964-78', in D. Ghai and S. Radwan (eds.), Agrarian Policies and Rural Poverty in Africa (Geneva, 1983), 90.
164. An alternative analysis is contained in Woods, 'Rail workers in Malawi', 737-8. This, however, is based on the questionable assumption, for which no evidence has yet been presented, that a single tradition of worker militancy can be traced from the 1960 strike through to the protests of railway workers in the early 1970S and on to the wave of strikes that swept through Blantyre from May 1992.