Neoliberalism in a new democracy: elite politics and state reform in Nicaragua

Journal of Developing Areas

Volumn 32, Issue 2, 1998, Pages 237-264

  Everingham, Mark ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN GREEN BAY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

DEMOCRACY; ELITE POLITICS; NEOLIBERALISM; POLITICAL CHANGE;

NICARAGUA;

EID: 0031692564     PISSN: 0022037X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (152)

1. Excellent analyses of causes and trajectory are found in works by Guillermo O'Donnell, Philippe C. Schmitter, and Laurence Whitehead, eds., Transitions from Authoritarian Rule, 5 vols. (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986); Larry Diamond, Juan Linz, and Seymour Martin Lipset, eds., Democracy in Developing Countries, 4 vols. (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1989); James Malloy and Mitchell Seligson, eds., Authoritarians and Democrats: Regime Transition in Latin America (Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1987); Samuel Huntington, The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991).
2. Excellent analyses of causes and trajectory are found in works by Guillermo O'Donnell, Philippe C. Schmitter, and Laurence Whitehead, eds., Transitions from Authoritarian Rule, 5 vols. (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986); Larry Diamond, Juan Linz, and Seymour Martin Lipset, eds., Democracy in Developing Countries, 4 vols. (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1989); James Malloy and Mitchell Seligson, eds., Authoritarians and Democrats: Regime Transition in Latin America (Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1987); Samuel Huntington, The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991).
3. Excellent analyses of causes and trajectory are found in works by Guillermo O'Donnell, Philippe C. Schmitter, and Laurence Whitehead, eds., Transitions from Authoritarian Rule, 5 vols. (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986); Larry Diamond, Juan Linz, and Seymour Martin Lipset, eds., Democracy in Developing Countries, 4 vols. (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1989); James Malloy and Mitchell Seligson, eds., Authoritarians and Democrats: Regime Transition in Latin America (Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1987); Samuel Huntington, The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991).
4. Excellent analyses of causes and trajectory are found in works by Guillermo O'Donnell, Philippe C. Schmitter, and Laurence Whitehead, eds., Transitions from Authoritarian Rule, 5 vols. (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986); Larry Diamond, Juan Linz, and Seymour Martin Lipset, eds., Democracy in Developing Countries, 4 vols. (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1989); James Malloy and Mitchell Seligson, eds., Authoritarians and Democrats: Regime Transition in Latin America (Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1987); Samuel Huntington, The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991).
5. Richard Stahler-Sholk, "Sandinista Economic and Social Policy," Latin American Research Review 30 (1995): 235-50; Latin American Studies Association (LASA), Electoral Democracy under International Pressure (Pittsburgh, PA: LASA, 1990).
6. Richard Stahler-Sholk, "Sandinista Economic and Social Policy," Latin American Research Review 30 (1995): 235-50; Latin American Studies Association (LASA), Electoral Democracy under International Pressure (Pittsburgh, PA: LASA, 1990).
7. The Liberal and Conservative national political parties have deep roots in the Latin American independence period and nation-state building of the nineteenth century. Conservative landlords orchestrated insurrections against the first Liberal president, Jose Santos Zelaya, in 1908 and 1909. Sporadic civil wars, which continued over the next two-and-a-half decades, prompted the intervention of the United States on several occasions. When U.S. marines withdrew from Nicaragua in 1933, Anastasio Somoza Garcia assumed full control of the National Guard. The Liberal government betrayed the confidence of former Liberal nationalist, anti-imperialist guerrilla Augusto César Sandino. It is believed that General Somoza had him murdered in 1934. Somoza was elected fraudulently to the presidency in 1936. Liberal factions subsequently broke from the Somoza dynasty in 1944 and 1969. The dictatorship co-opted Conservative political opponents in the early 1950s and early 1970s, actions that prompted younger disgruntled Conservative members to form Christian Democratic and Social Christian movements. Meanwhile, three former members of the Moscow-aligned Socialist Party founded the Sandinista Front of National Liberation (FSLN) in 1961. By the mid-1970s, a moderate wing of the FSLN began to establish a network of communication and cooperation with a broad range of individuals and political organizations opposed to the Somoza regime. The Nicaraguan Opposition Union (UNO) constituted an alliance among the remnants of the traditional parties and modern reformist movements whose leaders remained active in national politics after the 1979 revolution. See Heather Thiessen, s.v. "Nicaragua," and Mark Everingham, s.v. "Sandino, Augusto César," in Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture, ed. Barbara Tennenbaum (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1996); Ronald MacDonald and J. Mark Ruhl, Party Politics and Elections in Latin America (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1989): 33-45; Neale Pearson, "Nicaragua," in Political Parties of the Americas, 1980s to 1990s, ed. Charles Ameringer (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1992), pp. 443-73.
8. The Liberal and Conservative national political parties have deep roots in the Latin American independence period and nation-state building of the nineteenth century. Conservative landlords orchestrated insurrections against the first Liberal president, Jose Santos Zelaya, in 1908 and 1909. Sporadic civil wars, which continued over the next two-and-a-half decades, prompted the intervention of the United States on several occasions. When U.S. marines withdrew from Nicaragua in 1933, Anastasio Somoza Garcia assumed full control of the National Guard. The Liberal government betrayed the confidence of former Liberal nationalist, anti-imperialist guerrilla Augusto César Sandino. It is believed that General Somoza had him murdered in 1934. Somoza was elected fraudulently to the presidency in 1936. Liberal factions subsequently broke from the Somoza dynasty in 1944 and 1969. The dictatorship co-opted Conservative political opponents in the early 1950s and early 1970s, actions that prompted younger disgruntled Conservative members to form Christian Democratic and Social Christian movements. Meanwhile, three former members of the Moscow-aligned Socialist Party founded the Sandinista Front of National Liberation (FSLN) in 1961. By the mid-1970s, a moderate wing of the FSLN began to establish a network of communication and cooperation with a broad range of individuals and political organizations opposed to the Somoza regime. The Nicaraguan Opposition Union (UNO) constituted an alliance among the remnants of the traditional parties and modern reformist movements whose leaders remained active in national politics after the 1979 revolution. See Heather Thiessen, s.v. "Nicaragua," and Mark Everingham, s.v. "Sandino, Augusto César," in Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture, ed. Barbara Tennenbaum (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1996); Ronald MacDonald and J. Mark Ruhl, Party Politics and Elections in Latin America (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1989): 33-45; Neale Pearson, "Nicaragua," in Political Parties of the Americas, 1980s to 1990s, ed. Charles Ameringer (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1992), pp. 443-73.
9. The Liberal and Conservative national political parties have deep roots in the Latin American independence period and nation-state building of the nineteenth century. Conservative landlords orchestrated insurrections against the first Liberal president, Jose Santos Zelaya, in 1908 and 1909. Sporadic civil wars, which continued over the next two-and-a-half decades, prompted the intervention of the United States on several occasions. When U.S. marines withdrew from Nicaragua in 1933, Anastasio Somoza Garcia assumed full control of the National Guard. The Liberal government betrayed the confidence of former Liberal nationalist, anti-imperialist guerrilla Augusto César Sandino. It is believed that General Somoza had him murdered in 1934. Somoza was elected fraudulently to the presidency in 1936. Liberal factions subsequently broke from the Somoza dynasty in 1944 and 1969. The dictatorship co-opted Conservative political opponents in the early 1950s and early 1970s, actions that prompted younger disgruntled Conservative members to form Christian Democratic and Social Christian movements. Meanwhile, three former members of the Moscow-aligned Socialist Party founded the Sandinista Front of National Liberation (FSLN) in 1961. By the mid-1970s, a moderate wing of the FSLN began to establish a network of communication and cooperation with a broad range of individuals and political organizations opposed to the Somoza regime. The Nicaraguan Opposition Union (UNO) constituted an alliance among the remnants of the traditional parties and modern reformist movements whose leaders remained active in national politics after the 1979 revolution. See Heather Thiessen, s.v. "Nicaragua," and Mark Everingham, s.v. "Sandino, Augusto César," in Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture, ed. Barbara Tennenbaum (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1996); Ronald MacDonald and J. Mark Ruhl, Party Politics and Elections in Latin America (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1989): 33-45; Neale Pearson, "Nicaragua," in Political Parties of the Americas, 1980s to 1990s, ed. Charles Ameringer (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1992), pp. 443-73.
10. On the 1990 election and the immediate transition period, see Philip Williams, "Dual Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Popular and Electoral Democracy in Nicaragua," Comparative Politics 26 (January 1994): 169-85.
11. Huntington, Third Wave, p. 266.
12. Don Chull Shin, "On the Third Wave of Democratization: A Synthesis and Evaluation of Recent Theory and Research," World Politics 47 (October 1994): 144.
13. Recent studies are Alfred Stepan, "Paths to Democratization in Comparative Perspective," in Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Prospects for Democracy, vol. 3, ed. O'Donnell, Schmitter, and Whitehead; Arend Lijphart, Democracy in Plural Societies: A Comparative Exploration (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1977); James Malloy, "The Politics of Transition in Latin America," in Authoritarians and Democrats, ed. Malloy and Seligson.
14. Recent studies are Alfred Stepan, "Paths to Democratization in Comparative Perspective," in Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Prospects for Democracy, vol. 3, ed. O'Donnell, Schmitter, and Whitehead; Arend Lijphart, Democracy in Plural Societies: A Comparative Exploration (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1977); James Malloy, "The Politics of Transition in Latin America," in Authoritarians and Democrats, ed. Malloy and Seligson.
15. Recent studies are Alfred Stepan, "Paths to Democratization in Comparative Perspective," in Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Prospects for Democracy, vol. 3, ed. O'Donnell, Schmitter, and Whitehead; Arend Lijphart, Democracy in Plural Societies: A Comparative Exploration (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1977); James Malloy, "The Politics of Transition in Latin America," in Authoritarians and Democrats, ed. Malloy and Seligson.
16. Guillermo O'Donnell and Philippe Schmitter, "Negotiating (and Renegotiating) Pacts," in Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Tentative Conclusions about Uncertain Democracies, vol. 5, ed. O'Donnell, Schmitter, and Whitehead, pp. 37-38.
17. John Higley and Michael Burton, "The Elite Variable in Democratic Transitions and Breakdowns," American Sociological Review 54 (February 1989): 28-29.
18. Michael Burton, Richard Gunther, and John Higley, "Introduction: Elite Transformations and Democratic Regimes," in Elites and Democratic Consolidation in Latin America and Southern Europe, ed. John Higley and Richard Gunther (London: Cambridge University Press, 1992), p. 3.
19. Burton, Gunther, and Higley, "Introduction," pp. 13-14.
20. Burton, Gunther, and Higley, "Introduction," pp. 33-34.
21. Burton, Gunther, and Higley, "Introduction," p. 24.
22. Michael Burton, Richard Gunther, and John Higley, "Elites and Democratic Consolidation in Latin America and Southern Europe: An Overview," in Elites and Democratic Consolidation, ed. Burton and Higley, pp. 323-39.
23. Adam Przeworski, Democracy and the Market: Political and Economic Reforms in Eastern Europe and Latin America (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991); Stephan Haggard and Robert Kaufman, eds., The Politics of Economic Adjustment (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1992); William Smith, Carlos Acuña, and Eduardo Gamarra, eds., Latin American Political Economy in the Age of Neoliberal Reform (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1994); William Smith, Carlos Acuña, and Eduardo Gamarra, eds., Democracy, Markets, and Structural Reform in Latin America (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1994); Karen Remmer, "The Political Impact of Economic Crisis in Latin America in the 1980s," American Political Science Review 85 (September 1991): 777-800.
24. Adam Przeworski, Democracy and the Market: Political and Economic Reforms in Eastern Europe and Latin America (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991); Stephan Haggard and Robert Kaufman, eds., The Politics of Economic Adjustment (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1992); William Smith, Carlos Acuña, and Eduardo Gamarra, eds., Latin American Political Economy in the Age of Neoliberal Reform (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1994); William Smith, Carlos Acuña, and Eduardo Gamarra, eds., Democracy, Markets, and Structural Reform in Latin America (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1994); Karen Remmer, "The Political Impact of Economic Crisis in Latin America in the 1980s," American Political Science Review 85 (September 1991): 777-800.
25. Adam Przeworski, Democracy and the Market: Political and Economic Reforms in Eastern Europe and Latin America (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991); Stephan Haggard and Robert Kaufman, eds., The Politics of Economic Adjustment (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1992); William Smith, Carlos Acuña, and Eduardo Gamarra, eds., Latin American Political Economy in the Age of Neoliberal Reform (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1994); William Smith, Carlos Acuña, and Eduardo Gamarra, eds., Democracy, Markets, and Structural Reform in Latin America (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1994); Karen Remmer, "The Political Impact of Economic Crisis in Latin America in the 1980s," American Political Science Review 85 (September 1991): 777-800.
26. Adam Przeworski, Democracy and the Market: Political and Economic Reforms in Eastern Europe and Latin America (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991); Stephan Haggard and Robert Kaufman, eds., The Politics of Economic Adjustment (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1992); William Smith, Carlos Acuña, and Eduardo Gamarra, eds., Latin American Political Economy in the Age of Neoliberal Reform (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1994); William Smith, Carlos Acuña, and Eduardo Gamarra, eds., Democracy, Markets, and Structural Reform in Latin America (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1994); Karen Remmer, "The Political Impact of Economic Crisis in Latin America in the 1980s," American Political Science Review 85 (September 1991): 777-800.
27. Adam Przeworski, Democracy and the Market: Political and Economic Reforms in Eastern Europe and Latin America (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991); Stephan Haggard and Robert Kaufman, eds., The Politics of Economic Adjustment (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1992); William Smith, Carlos Acuña, and Eduardo Gamarra, eds., Latin American Political Economy in the Age of Neoliberal Reform (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1994); William Smith, Carlos Acuña, and Eduardo Gamarra, eds., Democracy, Markets, and Structural Reform in Latin America (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1994); Karen Remmer, "The Political Impact of Economic Crisis in Latin America in the 1980s," American Political Science Review 85 (September 1991): 777-800.
28. Frances Hagopian, "After Regime Change," World Politics 45 (April 1993): 476-77. See also Terry Lynn Karl, "Dilemmas of Democratization in Latin America," Comparative Politics 23 (October 1990): 1-21; Evelyne Huber Stephens, "Democracy in Latin America: Recent Developments in Comparative Historical Perspective," Latin American Research Review 25 (1990): 157-76; Francis Hagopian, "'Democracy by Undemocratic Means'? Elites, Political Pacts, and Regime Transition in Brazil," Comparative Political Studies 23 (July 1990): 147-70; Cynthia McClintock, "The Prospects for Democratic Consolidation in a 'Least Likely' Case: Peru," Comparative Politics 21 (January 1989): 127-48.
29. Frances Hagopian, "After Regime Change," World Politics 45 (April 1993): 476-77. See also Terry Lynn Karl, "Dilemmas of Democratization in Latin America," Comparative Politics 23 (October 1990): 1-21; Evelyne Huber Stephens, "Democracy in Latin America: Recent Developments in Comparative Historical Perspective," Latin American Research Review 25 (1990): 157-76; Francis Hagopian, "'Democracy by Undemocratic Means'? Elites, Political Pacts, and Regime Transition in Brazil," Comparative Political Studies 23 (July 1990): 147-70; Cynthia McClintock, "The Prospects for Democratic Consolidation in a 'Least Likely' Case: Peru," Comparative Politics 21 (January 1989): 127-48.
30. Frances Hagopian, "After Regime Change," World Politics 45 (April 1993): 476-77. See also Terry Lynn Karl, "Dilemmas of Democratization in Latin America," Comparative Politics 23 (October 1990): 1-21; Evelyne Huber Stephens, "Democracy in Latin America: Recent Developments in Comparative Historical Perspective," Latin American Research Review 25 (1990): 157-76; Francis Hagopian, "'Democracy by Undemocratic Means'? Elites, Political Pacts, and Regime Transition in Brazil," Comparative Political Studies 23 (July 1990): 147-70; Cynthia McClintock, "The Prospects for Democratic Consolidation in a 'Least Likely' Case: Peru," Comparative Politics 21 (January 1989): 127-48.
31. Frances Hagopian, "After Regime Change," World Politics 45 (April 1993): 476-77. See also Terry Lynn Karl, "Dilemmas of Democratization in Latin America," Comparative Politics 23 (October 1990): 1-21; Evelyne Huber Stephens, "Democracy in Latin America: Recent Developments in Comparative Historical Perspective," Latin American Research Review 25 (1990): 157-76; Francis Hagopian, "'Democracy by Undemocratic Means'? Elites, Political Pacts, and Regime Transition in Brazil," Comparative Political Studies 23 (July 1990): 147-70; Cynthia McClintock, "The Prospects for Democratic Consolidation in a 'Least Likely' Case: Peru," Comparative Politics 21 (January 1989): 127-48.
32. Frances Hagopian, "After Regime Change," World Politics 45 (April 1993): 476-77. See also Terry Lynn Karl, "Dilemmas of Democratization in Latin America," Comparative Politics 23 (October 1990): 1-21; Evelyne Huber Stephens, "Democracy in Latin America: Recent Developments in Comparative Historical Perspective," Latin American Research Review 25 (1990): 157-76; Francis Hagopian, "'Democracy by Undemocratic Means'? Elites, Political Pacts, and Regime Transition in Brazil," Comparative Political Studies 23 (July 1990): 147-70; Cynthia McClintock, "The Prospects for Democratic Consolidation in a 'Least Likely' Case: Peru," Comparative Politics 21 (January 1989): 127-48.
33. Dietrich Rueschemeyer, Evelyne Huber Stephens, and John Stephens, Capitalist Development and Democracy (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1992), p. 157.
34. See ibid., pp. 53-63; and Kevin Neuhouser, "Democratic Stability in Venezuela: Elite Consensus or Class Compromise?" American Sociological Review 57 (February 1992): 117-35.
35. See ibid., pp. 53-63; and Kevin Neuhouser, "Democratic Stability in Venezuela: Elite Consensus or Class Compromise?" American Sociological Review 57 (February 1992): 117-35.
36. See Luiz Bresser Pereira, José María Maravall, and Adam Przeworski, "Economic Reforms in New Democracies: A Social-Democratic Approach," in Latin American Political Economy, ed. Smith, Acuña, and Gamarra, pp. 181-205; Stephan Haggard and Robert Kaufman, The Political Economy of Democratic Transitions (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995).
37. See Luiz Bresser Pereira, José María Maravall, and Adam Przeworski, "Economic Reforms in New Democracies: A Social-Democratic Approach," in Latin American Political Economy, ed. Smith, Acuña, and Gamarra, pp. 181-205; Stephan Haggard and Robert Kaufman, The Political Economy of Democratic Transitions (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995).
38. See Roland Membreño, "Caminos Inéditos del Sindicalismo Revolucionario," Barricada, 28-29 May 1991; Jeffrey Gould, "Prospects for Labor in Nicaragua," Latin American Labor News nos. 2/3, 1990, pp. 1, 2, 7; Trish O'Kane, "El Nuevo Panorama Sindical," Pensamiento Propio 8 (August 1990): 34-37; Richard Stahler-Sholk, "The Dog That Didn't Bark: Labor Autonomy and Economic Adjustment in Nicaragua under the Sandinista and UNO Governments," Comparative Politics 28 (October 1995): 77-102.
39. See Roland Membreño, "Caminos Inéditos del Sindicalismo Revolucionario," Barricada, 28-29 May 1991; Jeffrey Gould, "Prospects for Labor in Nicaragua," Latin American Labor News nos. 2/3, 1990, pp. 1, 2, 7; Trish O'Kane, "El Nuevo Panorama Sindical," Pensamiento Propio 8 (August 1990): 34-37; Richard Stahler-Sholk, "The Dog That Didn't Bark: Labor Autonomy and Economic Adjustment in Nicaragua under the Sandinista and UNO Governments," Comparative Politics 28 (October 1995): 77-102.
40. See Roland Membreño, "Caminos Inéditos del Sindicalismo Revolucionario," Barricada, 28-29 May 1991; Jeffrey Gould, "Prospects for Labor in Nicaragua," Latin American Labor News nos. 2/3, 1990, pp. 1, 2, 7; Trish O'Kane, "El Nuevo Panorama Sindical," Pensamiento Propio 8 (August 1990): 34-37; Richard Stahler-Sholk, "The Dog That Didn't Bark: Labor Autonomy and Economic Adjustment in Nicaragua under the Sandinista and UNO Governments," Comparative Politics 28 (October 1995): 77-102.
41. See Roland Membreño, "Caminos Inéditos del Sindicalismo Revolucionario," Barricada, 28-29 May 1991; Jeffrey Gould, "Prospects for Labor in Nicaragua," Latin American Labor News nos. 2/3, 1990, pp. 1, 2, 7; Trish O'Kane, "El Nuevo Panorama Sindical," Pensamiento Propio 8 (August 1990): 34-37; Richard Stahler-Sholk, "The Dog That Didn't Bark: Labor Autonomy and Economic Adjustment in Nicaragua under the Sandinista and UNO Governments," Comparative Politics 28 (October 1995): 77-102.
42. See Francisco Mayorga, "Programa de Estabilización y Ajuste Estructural para Nicaragua, 1990-1993: Ayuda Internacional," pp. 55-65; and Silvio De Franco, "Estadode la Economía," pp. 19-28, in Concertación Económica y Social: Presentación del Gabinete Económico (Managua: Banco Central de Nicaragua, 1990).
43. See Francisco Mayorga, "Programa de Estabilización y Ajuste Estructural para Nicaragua, 1990-1993: Ayuda Internacional," pp. 55-65; and Silvio De Franco, "Estadode la Economía," pp. 19-28, in Concertación Económica y Social: Presentación del Gabinete Económico (Managua: Banco Central de Nicaragua, 1990).
44. Interview with Edmundo Jarquín, by author, Managua, May 1991; also see Oscar René Vargas, A Dónde Va Nicaragua (Managua: Nicarao, 1991), p. 95.
45. Interview with Edmundo Jarquín, by author, Managua, May 1991; also see Oscar René Vargas, A Dónde Va Nicaragua (Managua: Nicarao, 1991), p. 95.
46. Sergio Ramírez, "Confesión de amor," Nexos (Mexico City), August 1990, p. 152. See Steven Solnick, "The Breakdown of Hierarchies in the Soviet Union and China," World Politics 48 (January 1996): 209-38, on how the Communist Party of the Soviet Union attempted to protect property as communist institutions collapsed.
47. Sergio Ramírez, "Confesión de amor," Nexos (Mexico City), August 1990, p. 152. See Steven Solnick, "The Breakdown of Hierarchies in the Soviet Union and China," World Politics 48 (January 1996): 209-38, on how the Communist Party of the Soviet Union attempted to protect property as communist institutions collapsed.
48. See Edward Cody, "Nicaragua's Reconciliation Effort Nurtures Enmities," Washington Post, 23 June 1992, pp. A33, A44.
49. Interviews by author with Jaime Bengochea, former president of the Chamber of Industry, in Managua, April 1991;
50. and with Ramiro Gurdián, former president of the Superior Council of Private Enterprise (COSEP), in Managua, June 1994.
51. Information drawn from Ministerio de Finanzas, Compendio de Leyes y Decretos en Materia de Propiedad 1979-1995 (Managua: Gobierno de Nicaragua, 1995).
52. Harvey Feigenbaum and Jeffrey Henig, "The Political Underpinnings of Privatization: A Typology," World Politics 46 (January 1994): 185-208. For the terms of Concertación, see Centro para la Investigación, la Promoción, y el Desarrollo Rural y Social (hereafter CIPRES), "El Area de Propiedad de los Trabajadores," Cuadernos del CIPRES 10 (1992): 82-89.
53. Harvey Feigenbaum and Jeffrey Henig, "The Political Underpinnings of Privatization: A Typology," World Politics 46 (January 1994): 185-208. For the terms of Concertación, see Centro para la Investigación, la Promoción, y el Desarrollo Rural y Social (hereafter CIPRES), "El Area de Propiedad de los Trabajadores," Cuadernos del CIPRES 10 (1992): 82-89.
54. Silvio De Franco, "Balance y Perspectivas de la Situación Nacional" (Banco Central de Nicaragua, in-house document, Managua, August 1992), pp. 25-26. De Franco has a Ph.D. in development economics from the University of Wisconsin at Madison and attended the Harvard School of Business in the mid-1980s.
55. In February 1995, after fulfilling his promise of troop reduction, Humberto Ortega was replaced by Sandinista Colonel Joaquin Cuadra Lacayo, the son of a wealthy Conservative banker and landowner who opposed the Somoza regime in the 1970s. Cuadra Lacayo joined the Sandinista armed guerrilla movement in 1974 and became a colonel in the early 1980s.
56. See Richard Hemming and Ali Mansoor, Privatization and Public Enterprise (Washington, DC: International Monetary Fund, 1988); Ezra Suleiman and John Waterbury, eds., The Political Economy of Public Sector Reform and Privatization (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1990); and Manuel Sánchez and Rossana Corona, eds., Privatization in Latin America (Washington, DC: Inter-American Development Bank [IDB] and Instituto Tecnológico Autónome de México [ITAM], 1993) for an overview of methods and means of privatization. For a discussion of the political and social effects of privatization see Luigi Manzetti, "The Political Economy of Privatization through Divestiture in Lesser Developed Countries," Comparative Politics 25 (July 1993): 429-54; Ben Ross Schneider, "Partly for Sale: Privatization and State Strength in Brazil and Mexico," Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs 30 (Winter 1988-89): 89-116; and Eduardo Silva, "From Dictatorship to Democracy: The Business-State Nexus in Chile's Economic Transformation, 1975-1994," Comparative Politics 28 (April 1996): 299-320.
57. See Richard Hemming and Ali Mansoor, Privatization and Public Enterprise (Washington, DC: International Monetary Fund, 1988); Ezra Suleiman and John Waterbury, eds., The Political Economy of Public Sector Reform and Privatization (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1990); and Manuel Sánchez and Rossana Corona, eds., Privatization in Latin America (Washington, DC: Inter-American Development Bank [IDB] and Instituto Tecnológico Autónome de México [ITAM], 1993) for an overview of methods and means of privatization. For a discussion of the political and social effects of privatization see Luigi Manzetti, "The Political Economy of Privatization through Divestiture in Lesser Developed Countries," Comparative Politics 25 (July 1993): 429-54; Ben Ross Schneider, "Partly for Sale: Privatization and State Strength in Brazil and Mexico," Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs 30 (Winter 1988-89): 89-116; and Eduardo Silva, "From Dictatorship to Democracy: The Business-State Nexus in Chile's Economic Transformation, 1975-1994," Comparative Politics 28 (April 1996): 299-320.
58. See Richard Hemming and Ali Mansoor, Privatization and Public Enterprise (Washington, DC: International Monetary Fund, 1988); Ezra Suleiman and John Waterbury, eds., The Political Economy of Public Sector Reform and Privatization (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1990); and Manuel Sánchez and Rossana Corona, eds., Privatization in Latin America (Washington, DC: Inter-American Development Bank [IDB] and Instituto Tecnológico Autónome de México [ITAM], 1993) for an overview of methods and means of privatization. For a discussion of the political and social effects of privatization see Luigi Manzetti, "The Political Economy of Privatization through Divestiture in Lesser Developed Countries," Comparative Politics 25 (July 1993): 429-54; Ben Ross Schneider, "Partly for Sale: Privatization and State Strength in Brazil and Mexico," Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs 30 (Winter 1988-89): 89-116; and Eduardo Silva, "From Dictatorship to Democracy: The Business-State Nexus in Chile's Economic Transformation, 1975-1994," Comparative Politics 28 (April 1996): 299-320.
59. See Richard Hemming and Ali Mansoor, Privatization and Public Enterprise (Washington, DC: International Monetary Fund, 1988); Ezra Suleiman and John Waterbury, eds., The Political Economy of Public Sector Reform and Privatization (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1990); and Manuel Sánchez and Rossana Corona, eds., Privatization in Latin America (Washington, DC: Inter-American Development Bank [IDB] and Instituto Tecnológico Autónome de México [ITAM], 1993) for an overview of methods and means of privatization. For a discussion of the political and social effects of privatization see Luigi Manzetti, "The Political Economy of Privatization through Divestiture in Lesser Developed Countries," Comparative Politics 25 (July 1993): 429-54; Ben Ross Schneider, "Partly for Sale: Privatization and State Strength in Brazil and Mexico," Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs 30 (Winter 1988-89): 89-116; and Eduardo Silva, "From Dictatorship to Democracy: The Business-State Nexus in Chile's Economic Transformation, 1975-1994," Comparative Politics 28 (April 1996): 299-320.
60. See Richard Hemming and Ali Mansoor, Privatization and Public Enterprise (Washington, DC: International Monetary Fund, 1988); Ezra Suleiman and John Waterbury, eds., The Political Economy of Public Sector Reform and Privatization (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1990); and Manuel Sánchez and Rossana Corona, eds., Privatization in Latin America (Washington, DC: Inter-American Development Bank [IDB] and Instituto Tecnológico Autónome de México [ITAM], 1993) for an overview of methods and means of privatization. For a discussion of the political and social effects of privatization see Luigi Manzetti, "The Political Economy of Privatization through Divestiture in Lesser Developed Countries," Comparative Politics 25 (July 1993): 429-54; Ben Ross Schneider, "Partly for Sale: Privatization and State Strength in Brazil and Mexico," Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs 30 (Winter 1988-89): 89-116; and Eduardo Silva, "From Dictatorship to Democracy: The Business-State Nexus in Chile's Economic Transformation, 1975-1994," Comparative Politics 28 (April 1996): 299-320.
61. See Richard Hemming and Ali Mansoor, Privatization and Public Enterprise (Washington, DC: International Monetary Fund, 1988); Ezra Suleiman and John Waterbury, eds., The Political Economy of Public Sector Reform and Privatization (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1990); and Manuel Sánchez and Rossana Corona, eds., Privatization in Latin America (Washington, DC: Inter-American Development Bank [IDB] and Instituto Tecnológico Autónome de México [ITAM], 1993) for an overview of methods and means of privatization. For a discussion of the political and social effects of privatization see Luigi Manzetti, "The Political Economy of Privatization through Divestiture in Lesser Developed Countries," Comparative Politics 25 (July 1993): 429-54; Ben Ross Schneider, "Partly for Sale: Privatization and State Strength in Brazil and Mexico," Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs 30 (Winter 1988-89): 89-116; and Eduardo Silva, "From Dictatorship to Democracy: The Business-State Nexus in Chile's Economic Transformation, 1975-1994," Comparative Politics 28 (April 1996): 299-320.
62. See Trish O'Kane, "Una Receta Complicada," Pensamiento Propio 9 (March 1991): 34.
63. The Chamorro cabinet was similar to that of Mexico during the Salinas administration (1988-94) in that it melded political skills with professional expertise oriented toward neoliberal ideology. Most professionals recruited into Nicaragua's ministerial bureaucracy were trained at the Central American Institute of Business Administration and business and law schools in the United States and Canada. See Miguel Angel Centeno and Sylvia Maxfield, "The Marriage of Finance and Order: Changes in the Mexican Political Elite," Journal of Latin American Studies 24 (February 1992): 57-85.
64. See "New Chapter in Nicaragua," Central America Report, 27 February 1994, p. 29, on the demobilization of the Northern Front 3-80. For a similar case of dismantling state farms in favor of combatants returning to rural areas after a civil war, see Harry West and Gregory Myers, "A Piece of Land in a Land of Peace? State Farm Divestiture in Mozambique," Journal of Modern African Studies 34 (March 1996): 27-51.
65. See "New Chapter in Nicaragua," Central America Report, 27 February 1994, p. 29, on the demobilization of the Northern Front 3-80. For a similar case of dismantling state farms in favor of combatants returning to rural areas after a civil war, see Harry West and Gregory Myers, "A Piece of Land in a Land of Peace? State Farm Divestiture in Mozambique," Journal of Modern African Studies 34 (March 1996): 27-51.
66. See CIPRES, "Organización y Gestión Empresarial en el APT," Cuadernos de CIPRES 15 (1993).
67. The Pellases did not lose the majority of their businesses in the early 1980s, unlike many Banco de América (BANAMER) associates, because patriarch Alfredo Pellas assisted the Sandinistas in overthrowing Somoza in 1979. Interviews by author with Joaquín Cuadra Chamorro, the Pellas family lawyer in Managua in July 1991; and with Sergio Ramírez in Managua in April 1991. The Lacayo and Chamorro apellidos are quite common in Conservative social circles. The families referred to here constitute distant relations to Violeta Chamorro and Antonio Lacayo.
68. Embassy of Nicaragua, Nicaragua in Brief (Washington, DC: Embassy of Nicaragua, 1993); "Private Banks Expand," Central America Report, 6 March 1992, p. 63; Country Commercial Guide (Managua: U.S. Embassy, 1994).
69. Embassy of Nicaragua, Nicaragua in Brief (Washington, DC: Embassy of Nicaragua, 1993); "Private Banks Expand," Central America Report, 6 March 1992, p. 63; Country Commercial Guide (Managua: U.S. Embassy, 1994).
70. Embassy of Nicaragua, Nicaragua in Brief (Washington, DC: Embassy of Nicaragua, 1993); "Private Banks Expand," Central America Report, 6 March 1992, p. 63; Country Commercial Guide (Managua: U.S. Embassy, 1994).
71. According to the U.S. Embassy's Property Office, the 1,630 claims fall into the following categories: 614 urban lots and small and medium-size farms, 440 houses, 186 investor shares and common stock, 185 certificates of deposit, and 62 separate businesses. By late 1996, 1,042 separate claims had been resolved either through a combination of outright return and other financial compensation or closed with government bonds issued when the relevant parties agreed that the property could not be turned over owing to mitigating logistical and financial conditions.
72. See Jaime Wheelock, "La Verdad sobre la Reforma Agraria," Barricada, 28-30 August 1991; and idem, "El último fraude de Somocismo," Barricada, 18-19 September 1991. For other legal and political analyses, see Mireya Molina Torres, Legislación Agraria y su Vigencia Actual (Managua: Cuadra Molina y Asociados, 1992); "Confiscations by the Sandinistas Still Embroil Nicaragua," New York Times, 8 December 1994, p. A6.
73. See Jaime Wheelock, "La Verdad sobre la Reforma Agraria," Barricada, 28-30 August 1991; and idem, "El último fraude de Somocismo," Barricada, 18-19 September 1991. For other legal and political analyses, see Mireya Molina Torres, Legislación Agraria y su Vigencia Actual (Managua: Cuadra Molina y Asociados, 1992); "Confiscations by the Sandinistas Still Embroil Nicaragua," New York Times, 8 December 1994, p. A6.
74. See Jaime Wheelock, "La Verdad sobre la Reforma Agraria," Barricada, 28-30 August 1991; and idem, "El último fraude de Somocismo," Barricada, 18-19 September 1991. For other legal and political analyses, see Mireya Molina Torres, Legislación Agraria y su Vigencia Actual (Managua: Cuadra Molina y Asociados, 1992); "Confiscations by the Sandinistas Still Embroil Nicaragua," New York Times, 8 December 1994, p. A6.
75. See Jaime Wheelock, "La Verdad sobre la Reforma Agraria," Barricada, 28-30 August 1991; and idem, "El último fraude de Somocismo," Barricada, 18-19 September 1991. For other legal and political analyses, see Mireya Molina Torres, Legislación Agraria y su Vigencia Actual (Managua: Cuadra Molina y Asociados, 1992); "Confiscations by the Sandinistas Still Embroil Nicaragua," New York Times, 8 December 1994, p. A6.
76. Data on ownership were provided by former Nicaraguan Meat Corporation (CNC) lawyer César Grijalva in an interview with the author in Managua in August 1991; also see Corporación Nacional del Administración Pública (CORNAP), Avance del Proceso de Privatización al 31 de diciembre de 1994 (Managua: CORNAP, 1995), pp. 21, 43.
77. Data on ownership were provided by former Nicaraguan Meat Corporation (CNC) lawyer César Grijalva in an interview with the author in Managua in August 1991; also see Corporación Nacional del Administración Pública (CORNAP), Avance del Proceso de Privatización al 31 de diciembre de 1994 (Managua: CORNAP, 1995), pp. 21, 43.
78. The data included in the preceding paragraph were provided and clarified in interviews by the author in Managua in November 1994 with Marvin Escobar, a CORNAP industrial analyst; Gustavo Mercado, General Director of Industry of the Ministry of the Economy and Development; and Paul Trivelli, former Senior Officer, Economic/Commercial Section, U.S. Embassy, Managua.
79. Feigenbaum and Henig, "Political Underpinnings of Privatization," pp. 204-5.
80. Interview by author with Giaconda Padilla, now a lawyer for CORNAP, in Managua, in October 1994.
81. Ministerio de Finanzas, El Problema de la Propiedad en Nicaragua: Avances y Desafios (Managua: Gobierno de Nicaragua, 1996); Carter Center, "Report on a Property Issues Conference," Working Paper Series (Emory University, Atlanta, GA, 1995). Figures on property disputes are from David Stanfield, "Insecurity of Land Tenure in Nicaragua" (Land Tenure Center, University of Wisconsin, Madison, 1995); "Gobierno se declara incapaz de resolver problema de la propiedad," La Prensa, 27 July 1996, p. 2.
82. Ministerio de Finanzas, El Problema de la Propiedad en Nicaragua: Avances y Desafios (Managua: Gobierno de Nicaragua, 1996); Carter Center, "Report on a Property Issues Conference," Working Paper Series (Emory University, Atlanta, GA, 1995). Figures on property disputes are from David Stanfield, "Insecurity of Land Tenure in Nicaragua" (Land Tenure Center, University of Wisconsin, Madison, 1995); "Gobierno se declara incapaz de resolver problema de la propiedad," La Prensa, 27 July 1996, p. 2.
83. Ministerio de Finanzas, El Problema de la Propiedad en Nicaragua: Avances y Desafios (Managua: Gobierno de Nicaragua, 1996); Carter Center, "Report on a Property Issues Conference," Working Paper Series (Emory University, Atlanta, GA, 1995). Figures on property disputes are from David Stanfield, "Insecurity of Land Tenure in Nicaragua" (Land Tenure Center, University of Wisconsin, Madison, 1995); "Gobierno se declara incapaz de resolver problema de la propiedad," La Prensa, 27 July 1996, p. 2.
84. Ministerio de Finanzas, El Problema de la Propiedad en Nicaragua: Avances y Desafios (Managua: Gobierno de Nicaragua, 1996); Carter Center, "Report on a Property Issues Conference," Working Paper Series (Emory University, Atlanta, GA, 1995). Figures on property disputes are from David Stanfield, "Insecurity of Land Tenure in Nicaragua" (Land Tenure Center, University of Wisconsin, Madison, 1995); "Gobierno se declara incapaz de resolver problema de la propiedad," La Prensa, 27 July 1996, p. 2.
85. For a critique of this view, see Adam Przeworski and Fernando Limongi, "Political Regimes and Economic Growth," Journal of Economic Perspectives 7 (Fall 1993): 51-69; David Felix, "Privatizing and Rolling Back the Latin American State," CEPAL Review 46 (April 1992): 31-46. See a discussion of the "precarious nature of capitalism and democracy in Central America" by Andrés Pérez, "The Central American Entrepreneur as Economic and Social Actor," CEPAL Review 46 (April 1992): 69-78.
86. For a critique of this view, see Adam Przeworski and Fernando Limongi, "Political Regimes and Economic Growth," Journal of Economic Perspectives 7 (Fall 1993): 51-69; David Felix, "Privatizing and Rolling Back the Latin American State," CEPAL Review 46 (April 1992): 31-46. See a discussion of the "precarious nature of capitalism and democracy in Central America" by Andrés Pérez, "The Central American Entrepreneur as Economic and Social Actor," CEPAL Review 46 (April 1992): 69-78.
87. For a critique of this view, see Adam Przeworski and Fernando Limongi, "Political Regimes and Economic Growth," Journal of Economic Perspectives 7 (Fall 1993): 51-69; David Felix, "Privatizing and Rolling Back the Latin American State," CEPAL Review 46 (April 1992): 31-46. See a discussion of the "precarious nature of capitalism and democracy in Central America" by Andrés Pérez, "The Central American Entrepreneur as Economic and Social Actor," CEPAL Review 46 (April 1992): 69-78.
88. De Franco, "Balance y Perspectivas de la Situación Nacional," pp. 25-26.
89. Adam Przeworski and Fernando Limongi, "Modernization: Theories and Facts," World Politics 49 (January 1997): 169; Adam Przeworski, "The Neoliberal Fallacy," Journal of Democracy 3 (July 1992): 45-59; Harvey Feigenbaum and Jeffrey Henig, "Privatization and Democracy," Governance 6 (July 1993): 438-53.
90. Adam Przeworski and Fernando Limongi, "Modernization: Theories and Facts," World Politics 49 (January 1997): 169; Adam Przeworski, "The Neoliberal Fallacy," Journal of Democracy 3 (July 1992): 45-59; Harvey Feigenbaum and Jeffrey Henig, "Privatization and Democracy," Governance 6 (July 1993): 438-53.
91. Adam Przeworski and Fernando Limongi, "Modernization: Theories and Facts," World Politics 49 (January 1997): 169; Adam Przeworski, "The Neoliberal Fallacy," Journal of Democracy 3 (July 1992): 45-59; Harvey Feigenbaum and Jeffrey Henig, "Privatization and Democracy," Governance 6 (July 1993): 438-53.
92. Haggard and Kaufman, Political Economy of Democratic Transitions, p. 16. Structural adjustment programs in sub-Saharan Africa are comparable to that of Nicaragua. See Joel Barkan, ed., Beyond Capitalism and Socialism in Kenya and Tanzania (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1994); World Bank, Adjustment in Africa (London: Oxford University Press, 1994).
93. Haggard and Kaufman, Political Economy of Democratic Transitions, p. 16. Structural adjustment programs in sub-Saharan Africa are comparable to that of Nicaragua. See Joel Barkan, ed., Beyond Capitalism and Socialism in Kenya and Tanzania (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1994); World Bank, Adjustment in Africa (London: Oxford University Press, 1994).
94. Haggard and Kaufman, Political Economy of Democratic Transitions, p. 16. Structural adjustment programs in sub-Saharan Africa are comparable to that of Nicaragua. See Joel Barkan, ed., Beyond Capitalism and Socialism in Kenya and Tanzania (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1994); World Bank, Adjustment in Africa (London: Oxford University Press, 1994).
95. Bresser Pereira, Maravall, and Przeworski, "Economic Reforms in New Democracies," pp. 196-205, make a convincing argument for nascent democratic governments attempting sweeping economic reforms to seek broad-based support.
96. United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, FAOSTAT Database (United Nations, Rome, 1996); Centro Nicaragüense de Derechos Humanos (CENIDH), Balance anual sobre condiciones economicas, sociales, y politicas (Managua: CENIDH, 1997), pp. 1-5.
97. United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, FAOSTAT Database (United Nations, Rome, 1996); Centro Nicaragüense de Derechos Humanos (CENIDH), Balance anual sobre condiciones economicas, sociales, y politicas (Managua: CENIDH, 1997), pp. 1-5.
98. Roberto Cajina, "El gobierno fracasó: estamos peor que antes y sin esperanzas," El Semanario, 20 October 1994, pp. 10-11; "Managua: El PLC derrotaría al FSLN en 1996," El Semanario, 13 October 1994, pp. 10-11. See CID-Gallup poll results in "Alemán es favorito de electorado nica," El Nuevo Herald (Miami), 11 May 1996, pp. 1B-2B.
99. Roberto Cajina, "El gobierno fracasó: estamos peor que antes y sin esperanzas," El Semanario, 20 October 1994, pp. 10-11; "Managua: El PLC derrotaría al FSLN en 1996," El Semanario, 13 October 1994, pp. 10-11. See CID-Gallup poll results in "Alemán es favorito de electorado nica," El Nuevo Herald (Miami), 11 May 1996, pp. 1B-2B.
100. Roberto Cajina, "El gobierno fracasó: estamos peor que antes y sin esperanzas," El Semanario, 20 October 1994, pp. 10-11; "Managua: El PLC derrotaría al FSLN en 1996," El Semanario, 13 October 1994, pp. 10-11. See CID-Gallup poll results in "Alemán es favorito de electorado nica," El Nuevo Herald (Miami), 11 May 1996, pp. 1B-2B.
101. Walter Lacayo, "En el liberalisme no hay izquierda, ní centro, ní derecha," El Semanario, 20 October 1994, p. 12; Larry Rohter, "The Scourge, and Former Prey, of the Sandinistas," New York Times, 23 October 1996, p. 3.
102. Walter Lacayo, "En el liberalisme no hay izquierda, ní centro, ní derecha," El Semanario, 20 October 1994, p. 12; Larry Rohter, "The Scourge, and Former Prey, of the Sandinistas," New York Times, 23 October 1996, p. 3.
103. Laurence Whitehead, "The Alternatives to Liberal Democracy: A Latin American Perspective," Political Studies 40 (Special Issue 1992): 146-59; quote on p. 153.
104. Laurence Whitehead, "The Alternatives to Liberal Democracy: A Latin American Perspective," Political Studies 40 (Special Issue 1992): 146-59; quote on p. 153.
105. See Alberto Chamorro, "Estratégia para la Reactivación Productiva" (Chamber of Industry, Managua, 1993).
106. See Roberto Cajina, El Semanario, 13 October 1994; and "EE.UU. aceptará resultuados de elecciones aunque ganen sandinistas," La Nación (Costa Rica), 25 March 1996, p. 6, for the polls on party identity in Managua.
107. See Roberto Cajina, El Semanario, 13 October 1994; and "EE.UU. aceptará resultuados de elecciones aunque ganen sandinistas," La Nación (Costa Rica), 25 March 1996, p. 6, for the polls on party identity in Managua.
108. For interview with Luis Carrion, see Helena Ramos, "Historia de divisiones en el FSLN," El País, 2 May 1994, pp. 73-74. The preceding paragraph is also based on interviews in Managua by the author with Mariano Fiallos, a Sandinista and former president of the Supreme Electoral Council, in June 1994; Jorge Samper, former executive secretary of the Sandinista legislative caucus, and Reinaldo Antonio Téfel, former vice-president of the National Assembly, in October 1994; and with Sandinista commander Victor Tirado in August 1991.
109. For interview with Luis Carrion, see Helena Ramos, "Historia de divisiones en el FSLN," El País, 2 May 1994, pp. 73-74. The preceding paragraph is also based on interviews in Managua by the author with Mariano Fiallos, a Sandinista and former president of the Supreme Electoral Council, in June 1994; Jorge Samper, former executive secretary of the Sandinista legislative caucus, and Reinaldo Antonio Téfel, former vice-president of the National Assembly, in October 1994; and with Sandinista commander Victor Tirado in August 1991.
110. For interview with Luis Carrion, see Helena Ramos, "Historia de divisiones en el FSLN," El País, 2 May 1994, pp. 73-74. The preceding paragraph is also based on interviews in Managua by the author with Mariano Fiallos, a Sandinista and former president of the Supreme Electoral Council, in June 1994; Jorge Samper, former executive secretary of the Sandinista legislative caucus, and Reinaldo Antonio Téfel, former vice-president of the National Assembly, in October 1994; and with Sandinista commander Victor Tirado in August 1991.
111. Empresa Nicaragüense de Telefonos (ENITEL) employees rejected an executive offer of an 11 percent share of ownership in early 1995. After a year of intense debate and several strikes by telephone workers, the National Assembly approved a formal bidding process. In July 1996, AT&T, Sprint, Telefónica Internacional-Spain, STET International-Italy, and CTC-Chile were granted bidding rights to ENITEL. The partial sale was expected to bring US $170 million in revenues and attract US $600 million in related foreign investment.
112. Bresser, Maravall, and Przeworski, "Economic Reforms in New Democracies."
113. Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, Nicaragua's Search for Democratic Consensus, Working Paper Series 213 (Washington, DC: Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, 1995). The candidates or their representatives delivered policy speeches on 28 September 1995 at the International Congress of the Latin American Studies Association in Washington, DC. See also "Alemán promete cambiar 'dramáticas cifras de pobreza'" La Nación (Costa Rica), 1 September 1996, p. 6; Larry Rohter, "Nicaraguan Conservative Campaigns against '80s," New York Times, 1 September 1996, p. 4.
114. Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, Nicaragua's Search for Democratic Consensus, Working Paper Series 213 (Washington, DC: Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, 1995). The candidates or their representatives delivered policy speeches on 28 September 1995 at the International Congress of the Latin American Studies Association in Washington, DC. See also "Alemán promete cambiar 'dramáticas cifras de pobreza'" La Nación (Costa Rica), 1 September 1996, p. 6; Larry Rohter, "Nicaraguan Conservative Campaigns against '80s," New York Times, 1 September 1996, p. 4.
115. Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, Nicaragua's Search for Democratic Consensus, Working Paper Series 213 (Washington, DC: Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, 1995). The candidates or their representatives delivered policy speeches on 28 September 1995 at the International Congress of the Latin American Studies Association in Washington, DC. See also "Alemán promete cambiar 'dramáticas cifras de pobreza'" La Nación (Costa Rica), 1 September 1996, p. 6; Larry Rohter, "Nicaraguan Conservative Campaigns against '80s," New York Times, 1 September 1996, p. 4.
116. Rueschemeyer, Stephens, and Stephens, Capitalist Development and Democracy.
117. See Oscar René Vargas, Nicaragua: Los Partidos Políticos y la Búsqueda de un Nuevo Modelo (Managua: ECOTEXTURA, 1990), chap. 1; Mark Everingham, Revolution and the Multiclass Coalition in Nicaragua (Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1996), chaps. 6-7.
118. See Oscar René Vargas, Nicaragua: Los Partidos Políticos y la Búsqueda de un Nuevo Modelo (Managua: ECOTEXTURA, 1990), chap. 1; Mark Everingham, Revolution and the Multiclass Coalition in Nicaragua (Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1996), chaps. 6-7.
119. See John Booth, The End and the Beginning: The Nicaraguan Revolution, 2d ed. (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1985); Thomas Walker, Nicaragua: The Land of Sandino, 2d ed. (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1986); and Richard Millett, Guardians of the Dynasty (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1977), for seminal studies of the revolution. See Jeffrey Gould, To Lead as Equals: Rural Protest and Political Consciousness in Chinandega, Nicaragua, 1912-1979 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1990); Rose Spalding, Capitalists and Revolution in Nicaragua (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1994); Everingham, Revolution and the Multiclass Coalition; Carlos Vilas, "Family Affairs: Class, Lineages, and Politics in Contemporary Nicaragua," Journal of Latin American Studies 24 (May 1992): 309-41, for innovative comparative interpretations of elite and mass mobilization during the Somoza and Sandinista regimes.
120. See John Booth, The End and the Beginning: The Nicaraguan Revolution, 2d ed. (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1985); Thomas Walker, Nicaragua: The Land of Sandino, 2d ed. (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1986); and Richard Millett, Guardians of the Dynasty (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1977), for seminal studies of the revolution. See Jeffrey Gould, To Lead as Equals: Rural Protest and Political Consciousness in Chinandega, Nicaragua, 1912-1979 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1990); Rose Spalding, Capitalists and Revolution in Nicaragua (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1994); Everingham, Revolution and the Multiclass Coalition; Carlos Vilas, "Family Affairs: Class, Lineages, and Politics in Contemporary Nicaragua," Journal of Latin American Studies 24 (May 1992): 309-41, for innovative comparative interpretations of elite and mass mobilization during the Somoza and Sandinista regimes.
121. See John Booth, The End and the Beginning: The Nicaraguan Revolution, 2d ed. (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1985); Thomas Walker, Nicaragua: The Land of Sandino, 2d ed. (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1986); and Richard Millett, Guardians of the Dynasty (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1977), for seminal studies of the revolution. See Jeffrey Gould, To Lead as Equals: Rural Protest and Political Consciousness in Chinandega, Nicaragua, 1912-1979 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1990); Rose Spalding, Capitalists and Revolution in Nicaragua (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1994); Everingham, Revolution and the Multiclass Coalition; Carlos Vilas, "Family Affairs: Class, Lineages, and Politics in Contemporary Nicaragua," Journal of Latin American Studies 24 (May 1992): 309-41, for innovative comparative interpretations of elite and mass mobilization during the Somoza and Sandinista regimes.
122. See John Booth, The End and the Beginning: The Nicaraguan Revolution, 2d ed. (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1985); Thomas Walker, Nicaragua: The Land of Sandino, 2d ed. (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1986); and Richard Millett, Guardians of the Dynasty (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1977), for seminal studies of the revolution. See Jeffrey Gould, To Lead as Equals: Rural Protest and Political Consciousness in Chinandega, Nicaragua, 1912-1979 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1990); Rose Spalding, Capitalists and Revolution in Nicaragua (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1994); Everingham, Revolution and the Multiclass Coalition; Carlos Vilas, "Family Affairs: Class, Lineages, and Politics in Contemporary Nicaragua," Journal of Latin American Studies 24 (May 1992): 309-41, for innovative comparative interpretations of elite and mass mobilization during the Somoza and Sandinista regimes.
123. See John Booth, The End and the Beginning: The Nicaraguan Revolution, 2d ed. (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1985); Thomas Walker, Nicaragua: The Land of Sandino, 2d ed. (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1986); and Richard Millett, Guardians of the Dynasty (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1977), for seminal studies of the revolution. See Jeffrey Gould, To Lead as Equals: Rural Protest and Political Consciousness in Chinandega, Nicaragua, 1912-1979 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1990); Rose Spalding, Capitalists and Revolution in Nicaragua (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1994); Everingham, Revolution and the Multiclass Coalition; Carlos Vilas, "Family Affairs: Class, Lineages, and Politics in Contemporary Nicaragua," Journal of Latin American Studies 24 (May 1992): 309-41, for innovative comparative interpretations of elite and mass mobilization during the Somoza and Sandinista regimes.
124. See John Booth, The End and the Beginning: The Nicaraguan Revolution, 2d ed. (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1985); Thomas Walker, Nicaragua: The Land of Sandino, 2d ed. (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1986); and Richard Millett, Guardians of the Dynasty (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1977), for seminal studies of the revolution. See Jeffrey Gould, To Lead as Equals: Rural Protest and Political Consciousness in Chinandega, Nicaragua, 1912-1979 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1990); Rose Spalding, Capitalists and Revolution in Nicaragua (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1994); Everingham, Revolution and the Multiclass Coalition; Carlos Vilas, "Family Affairs: Class, Lineages, and Politics in Contemporary Nicaragua," Journal of Latin American Studies 24 (May 1992): 309-41, for innovative comparative interpretations of elite and mass mobilization during the Somoza and Sandinista regimes.
125. See John Booth, The End and the Beginning: The Nicaraguan Revolution, 2d ed. (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1985); Thomas Walker, Nicaragua: The Land of Sandino, 2d ed. (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1986); and Richard Millett, Guardians of the Dynasty (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1977), for seminal studies of the revolution. See Jeffrey Gould, To Lead as Equals: Rural Protest and Political Consciousness in Chinandega, Nicaragua, 1912-1979 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1990); Rose Spalding, Capitalists and Revolution in Nicaragua (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1994); Everingham, Revolution and the Multiclass Coalition; Carlos Vilas, "Family Affairs: Class, Lineages, and Politics in Contemporary Nicaragua," Journal of Latin American Studies 24 (May 1992): 309-41, for innovative comparative interpretations of elite and mass mobilization during the Somoza and Sandinista regimes.
126. Edmundo Jarquín, "FSLN debe apoyar el plan del Gobierno," El Semanario, 1 March 1991, p. 7. Interviews in Managua by author with the former economic planning minister, Alejandro Martínez Cuenca, in November 1994; and with the former minister of industry and commerce, Luis Carrión Cruz, in April 1991. Also see "Industriales acogen canales de Concertación," Barricada, 27 July 1989, pp. 1, 12.
127. Edmundo Jarquín, "FSLN debe apoyar el plan del Gobierno," El Semanario, 1 March 1991, p. 7. Interviews in Managua by author with the former economic planning minister, Alejandro Martínez Cuenca, in November 1994; and with the former minister of industry and commerce, Luis Carrión Cruz, in April 1991. Also see "Industriales acogen canales de Concertación," Barricada, 27 July 1989, pp. 1, 12.
128. Joan Nelson, "Linkages between Politics and Economics," Journal of Democracy 5 (October 1994): 55-61.
129. Interview by author with Gilberto Solís, executive secretary of the Chamber of Industry in Managua in October 1994.
130. Interviews in Managua by author with Herty Lewites, a construction contractor and former Sandinista minister of tourism, in June 1994; and also with Daniel Nuñez, National Union of Farmers and Ranchers (UNAG) president and co-owner of the Nicaraguan Meat Corporation, in May 1993.
131. Interviews in Managua by author with Herty Lewites, a construction contractor and former Sandinista minister of tourism, in June 1994; and also with Daniel Nuñez, National Union of Farmers and Ranchers (UNAG) president and co-owner of the Nicaraguan Meat Corporation, in May 1993.
132. Based on interviews by author with Samuel Santos, former Sandinista mayor of Managua in August 1991; and Manuel Ignacio Lacayo, a partner in Coca Cola/Nicaragua, in June 1994.
133. Based on interviews by author with Samuel Santos, former Sandinista mayor of Managua in August 1991; and Manuel Ignacio Lacayo, a partner in Coca Cola/Nicaragua, in June 1994.
134. Based on interviews by author with Samuel Santos, former Sandinista mayor of Managua in August 1991; and Manuel Ignacio Lacayo, a partner in Coca Cola/Nicaragua, in June 1994.
135. See Robert Devlin, "Privatization and Social Welfare in Latin America," and Merilee Grindle, "Sustaining Economic Recovery in Latin America: State Capacity, Markets, and Politics," in Latin America's Economic Future, ed. Ann Helwege and Graham Bird (New York and London: Academic Press, 1994), pp. 194-209 and 303-23 respectively. According to McFaul: "[T]he Russian state has not created a system of social security. It has not established an effective retirement system, a welfare agency, a plan for job training, or unemployment compensation. Without such a social safety net, the Russian labor market has little fluidity." See Michael McFaul, "State Power, Institutional Change, and the Politics of Privatization in Russia," World Politics 47 (January 1995): 237.
136. See Robert Devlin, "Privatization and Social Welfare in Latin America," and Merilee Grindle, "Sustaining Economic Recovery in Latin America: State Capacity, Markets, and Politics," in Latin America's Economic Future, ed. Ann Helwege and Graham Bird (New York and London: Academic Press, 1994), pp. 194-209 and 303-23 respectively. According to McFaul: "[T]he Russian state has not created a system of social security. It has not established an effective retirement system, a welfare agency, a plan for job training, or unemployment compensation. Without such a social safety net, the Russian labor market has little fluidity." See Michael McFaul, "State Power, Institutional Change, and the Politics of Privatization in Russia," World Politics 47 (January 1995): 237.
137. See Robert Devlin, "Privatization and Social Welfare in Latin America," and Merilee Grindle, "Sustaining Economic Recovery in Latin America: State Capacity, Markets, and Politics," in Latin America's Economic Future, ed. Ann Helwege and Graham Bird (New York and London: Academic Press, 1994), pp. 194-209 and 303-23 respectively. According to McFaul: "[T]he Russian state has not created a system of social security. It has not established an effective retirement system, a welfare agency, a plan for job training, or unemployment compensation. Without such a social safety net, the Russian labor market has little fluidity." See Michael McFaul, "State Power, Institutional Change, and the Politics of Privatization in Russia," World Politics 47 (January 1995): 237.
138. See Scott Mainwaring, "Presidentialism, Multipartism, and Democracy," Comparative Political Studies 26 (July 1993): 198-228; also see Bolivar Lamounier, "Brazil: Toward Parliamentarism?" (chap. 8); and Cynthia McClintock, "Presidents, Messiahs, and Constitutional Breakdowns in Peru" (chap. 11), in The Failure of Presidential Democracy: The Case of Latin America, vol. 2, ed. Juan Linz and Arturo Valenzuela (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994).
139. See Scott Mainwaring, "Presidentialism, Multipartism, and Democracy," Comparative Political Studies 26 (July 1993): 198-228; also see Bolivar Lamounier, "Brazil: Toward Parliamentarism?" (chap. 8); and Cynthia McClintock, "Presidents, Messiahs, and Constitutional Breakdowns in Peru" (chap. 11), in The Failure of Presidential Democracy: The Case of Latin America, vol. 2, ed. Juan Linz and Arturo Valenzuela (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994).
140. See Scott Mainwaring, "Presidentialism, Multipartism, and Democracy," Comparative Political Studies 26 (July 1993): 198-228; also see Bolivar Lamounier, "Brazil: Toward Parliamentarism?" (chap. 8); and Cynthia McClintock, "Presidents, Messiahs, and Constitutional Breakdowns in Peru" (chap. 11), in The Failure of Presidential Democracy: The Case of Latin America, vol. 2, ed. Juan Linz and Arturo Valenzuela (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994).
141. "Nuevo gobierno, nuevas esperanzas para confiscados," La Prensa, 25 January 1997, p. 1; Constitución Politica de Nicaragua con sus Reforms, 3rd ed. (Managua: Editorial Juridica, 1996), pp. 15-16; Armando Mayorga, "Propiedades: discordia solucionada?" La Nación (Costa Rica), 9 September 1997, pp. 5-7; "Sandinistas a las calles contra politicas economicas impopulares," La Nación, 19 January 1998, p. 5.
142. "Nuevo gobierno, nuevas esperanzas para confiscados," La Prensa, 25 January 1997, p. 1; Constitución Politica de Nicaragua con sus Reforms, 3rd ed. (Managua: Editorial Juridica, 1996), pp. 15-16; Armando Mayorga, "Propiedades: discordia solucionada?" La Nación (Costa Rica), 9 September 1997, pp. 5-7; "Sandinistas a las calles contra politicas economicas impopulares," La Nación, 19 January 1998, p. 5.
143. "Nuevo gobierno, nuevas esperanzas para confiscados," La Prensa, 25 January 1997, p. 1; Constitución Politica de Nicaragua con sus Reforms, 3rd ed. (Managua: Editorial Juridica, 1996), pp. 15-16; Armando Mayorga, "Propiedades: discordia solucionada?" La Nación (Costa Rica), 9 September 1997, pp. 5-7; "Sandinistas a las calles contra politicas economicas impopulares," La Nación, 19 January 1998, p. 5.
144. "Nuevo gobierno, nuevas esperanzas para confiscados," La Prensa, 25 January 1997, p. 1; Constitución Politica de Nicaragua con sus Reforms, 3rd ed. (Managua: Editorial Juridica, 1996), pp. 15-16; Armando Mayorga, "Propiedades: discordia solucionada?" La Nación (Costa Rica), 9 September 1997, pp. 5-7; "Sandinistas a las calles contra politicas economicas impopulares," La Nación, 19 January 1998, p. 5.
145. See, for example, Jennifer Widner, ed., Economic Change and Political Liberalization in Sub-Saharan Africa (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994); Peter Schraeder, "Elites as Facilitators or Impediments to Political Development? Some Lessons from the 'Third Wave' of Democratization in Africa," Journal of Developing Areas 29 (October 1994): 69-89.
146. See, for example, Jennifer Widner, ed., Economic Change and Political Liberalization in Sub-Saharan Africa (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994); Peter Schraeder, "Elites as Facilitators or Impediments to Political Development? Some Lessons from the 'Third Wave' of Democratization in Africa," Journal of Developing Areas 29 (October 1994): 69-89.
147. Ben Ross Schneider, "Democratic Consolidations: Some Broad Comparisons and Sweeping Arguments," Latin American Research Review 30 (1995): 232; see also Guillermo O'Donnell, "Ilusiones sobre la consolidacion," Nueva Sociedad 144 (July-August 1996): 70-89; Scott Mainwaring, "Transitions to Democracy and Democratic Consolidation: Theoretical and Comparative Issues," in Issues of Democratic Consolidation, ed. Scott Mainwaring, Guillermo O'Donnell, and J. Samuel Valenzuela (Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1992); Felipe Agüero, ed., Fault Lines of Democratic Governance in the Americas (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1997); Evelyne Huber, Dietrich Rueschemeyer, and John Stephens, "The Paradoxes of Contemporary Democracy: Formal, Participatory, and Social Democracy," Comparative Politics 29 (April 1990): 323-42; Celestin Monga, "Civil Society and Democratization in Francophone Africa," Journal of Modern African Studies 33 (September 1995): 359-79.
148. Ben Ross Schneider, "Democratic Consolidations: Some Broad Comparisons and Sweeping Arguments," Latin American Research Review 30 (1995): 232; see also Guillermo O'Donnell, "Ilusiones sobre la consolidacion," Nueva Sociedad 144 (July-August 1996): 70-89; Scott Mainwaring, "Transitions to Democracy and Democratic Consolidation: Theoretical and Comparative Issues," in Issues of Democratic Consolidation, ed. Scott Mainwaring, Guillermo O'Donnell, and J. Samuel Valenzuela (Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1992); Felipe Agüero, ed., Fault Lines of Democratic Governance in the Americas (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1997); Evelyne Huber, Dietrich Rueschemeyer, and John Stephens, "The Paradoxes of Contemporary Democracy: Formal, Participatory, and Social Democracy," Comparative Politics 29 (April 1990): 323-42; Celestin Monga, "Civil Society and Democratization in Francophone Africa," Journal of Modern African Studies 33 (September 1995): 359-79.
149. Ben Ross Schneider, "Democratic Consolidations: Some Broad Comparisons and Sweeping Arguments," Latin American Research Review 30 (1995): 232; see also Guillermo O'Donnell, "Ilusiones sobre la consolidacion," Nueva Sociedad 144 (July-August 1996): 70-89; Scott Mainwaring, "Transitions to Democracy and Democratic Consolidation: Theoretical and Comparative Issues," in Issues of Democratic Consolidation, ed. Scott Mainwaring, Guillermo O'Donnell, and J. Samuel Valenzuela (Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1992); Felipe Agüero, ed., Fault Lines of Democratic Governance in the Americas (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1997); Evelyne Huber, Dietrich Rueschemeyer, and John Stephens, "The Paradoxes of Contemporary Democracy: Formal, Participatory, and Social Democracy," Comparative Politics 29 (April 1990): 323-42; Celestin Monga, "Civil Society and Democratization in Francophone Africa," Journal of Modern African Studies 33 (September 1995): 359-79.
150. Ben Ross Schneider, "Democratic Consolidations: Some Broad Comparisons and Sweeping Arguments," Latin American Research Review 30 (1995): 232; see also Guillermo O'Donnell, "Ilusiones sobre la consolidacion," Nueva Sociedad 144 (July-August 1996): 70-89; Scott Mainwaring, "Transitions to Democracy and Democratic Consolidation: Theoretical and Comparative Issues," in Issues of Democratic Consolidation, ed. Scott Mainwaring, Guillermo O'Donnell, and J. Samuel Valenzuela (Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1992); Felipe Agüero, ed., Fault Lines of Democratic Governance in the Americas (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1997); Evelyne Huber, Dietrich Rueschemeyer, and John Stephens, "The Paradoxes of Contemporary Democracy: Formal, Participatory, and Social Democracy," Comparative Politics 29 (April 1990): 323-42; Celestin Monga, "Civil Society and Democratization in Francophone Africa," Journal of Modern African Studies 33 (September 1995): 359-79.
151. Ben Ross Schneider, "Democratic Consolidations: Some Broad Comparisons and Sweeping Arguments," Latin American Research Review 30 (1995): 232; see also Guillermo O'Donnell, "Ilusiones sobre la consolidacion," Nueva Sociedad 144 (July-August 1996): 70-89; Scott Mainwaring, "Transitions to Democracy and Democratic Consolidation: Theoretical and Comparative Issues," in Issues of Democratic Consolidation, ed. Scott Mainwaring, Guillermo O'Donnell, and J. Samuel Valenzuela (Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1992); Felipe Agüero, ed., Fault Lines of Democratic Governance in the Americas (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1997); Evelyne Huber, Dietrich Rueschemeyer, and John Stephens, "The Paradoxes of Contemporary Democracy: Formal, Participatory, and Social Democracy," Comparative Politics 29 (April 1990): 323-42; Celestin Monga, "Civil Society and Democratization in Francophone Africa," Journal of Modern African Studies 33 (September 1995): 359-79.
152. Ben Ross Schneider, "Democratic Consolidations: Some Broad Comparisons and Sweeping Arguments," Latin American Research Review 30 (1995): 232; see also Guillermo O'Donnell, "Ilusiones sobre la consolidacion," Nueva Sociedad 144 (July-August 1996): 70-89; Scott Mainwaring, "Transitions to Democracy and Democratic Consolidation: Theoretical and Comparative Issues," in Issues of Democratic Consolidation, ed. Scott Mainwaring, Guillermo O'Donnell, and J. Samuel Valenzuela (Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1992); Felipe Agüero, ed., Fault Lines of Democratic Governance in the Americas (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1997); Evelyne Huber, Dietrich Rueschemeyer, and John Stephens, "The Paradoxes of Contemporary Democracy: Formal, Participatory, and Social Democracy," Comparative Politics 29 (April 1990): 323-42; Celestin Monga, "Civil Society and Democratization in Francophone Africa," Journal of Modern African Studies 33 (September 1995): 359-79.