'We must infiltrate the Tsotsis': school politics and youth gangs in Soweto, 1968-1976

Journal of Southern African Studies

Volumn 24, Issue 2, 1998, Pages 301-323

  Glaser, Clive ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF THE WITWATERSRAND   (South Africa)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

APARTHEID; POPULAR PROTEST; YOUTH CULTURE;

GAUTENG PROVINCE; SOUTH AFRICA; SOWETO;

EID: 0031671982     PISSN: 03057070     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/03057079808708578     Document Type: Article

References (176)

1. The relative importance of these various socio-economic elements has been widely discussed. See, in particular, J. Kane-Berman, Soweto: Black Revolt, White Reaction (Johannesburg, 1978); B. Hirson, Year of Fire, Year of Ash: The Soweto Revolt: Roots of a Revolution? (London, 1979); A. Brooks and J. Brickhill, Whirlwind Before the Storm (London, 1980); T. Lodge, Black Politics since 1945 (Johannesburg, 1983), final chapter. See also P.M. Cillie (chairman), 'Report of the Commission of Inquiry into the Riots at Soweto and Elsewhere from the 16th of June 1976 to the 28th February 1977', RP 55/1980 (Cillie Report). For an analysis specifically of the education crisis in the lead-up to the uprising see J. Hyslop, 'State Education Policy and the Social Reproduction of the Urban African Working Class: the case of the Southern Transvaal 1955-1976', Journal of Southern African Studies, 14, 3 (April 1988).
2. The relative importance of these various socio-economic elements has been widely discussed. See, in particular, J. Kane-Berman, Soweto: Black Revolt, White Reaction (Johannesburg, 1978); B. Hirson, Year of Fire, Year of Ash: The Soweto Revolt: Roots of a Revolution? (London, 1979); A. Brooks and J. Brickhill, Whirlwind Before the Storm (London, 1980); T. Lodge, Black Politics since 1945 (Johannesburg, 1983), final chapter. See also P.M. Cillie (chairman), 'Report of the Commission of Inquiry into the Riots at Soweto and Elsewhere from the 16th of June 1976 to the 28th February 1977', RP 55/1980 (Cillie Report). For an analysis specifically of the education crisis in the lead-up to the uprising see J. Hyslop, 'State Education Policy and the Social Reproduction of the Urban African Working Class: the case of the Southern Transvaal 1955-1976', Journal of Southern African Studies, 14, 3 (April 1988).
3. The relative importance of these various socio-economic elements has been widely discussed. See, in particular, J. Kane-Berman, Soweto: Black Revolt, White Reaction (Johannesburg, 1978); B. Hirson, Year of Fire, Year of Ash: The Soweto Revolt: Roots of a Revolution? (London, 1979); A. Brooks and J. Brickhill, Whirlwind Before the Storm (London, 1980); T. Lodge, Black Politics since 1945 (Johannesburg, 1983), final chapter. See also P.M. Cillie (chairman), 'Report of the Commission of Inquiry into the Riots at Soweto and Elsewhere from the 16th of June 1976 to the 28th February 1977', RP 55/1980 (Cillie Report). For an analysis specifically of the education crisis in the lead-up to the uprising see J. Hyslop, 'State Education Policy and the Social Reproduction of the Urban African Working Class: the case of the Southern Transvaal 1955-1976', Journal of Southern African Studies, 14, 3 (April 1988).
4. The relative importance of these various socio-economic elements has been widely discussed. See, in particular, J. Kane-Berman, Soweto: Black Revolt, White Reaction (Johannesburg, 1978); B. Hirson, Year of Fire, Year of Ash: The Soweto Revolt: Roots of a Revolution? (London, 1979); A. Brooks and J. Brickhill, Whirlwind Before the Storm (London, 1980); T. Lodge, Black Politics since 1945 (Johannesburg, 1983), final chapter. See also P.M. Cillie (chairman), 'Report of the Commission of Inquiry into the Riots at Soweto and Elsewhere from the 16th of June 1976 to the 28th February 1977', RP 55/1980 (Cillie Report). For an analysis specifically of the education crisis in the lead-up to the uprising see J. Hyslop, 'State Education Policy and the Social Reproduction of the Urban African Working Class: the case of the Southern Transvaal 1955-1976', Journal of Southern African Studies, 14, 3 (April 1988).
5. The relative importance of these various socio-economic elements has been widely discussed. See, in particular, J. Kane-Berman, Soweto: Black Revolt, White Reaction (Johannesburg, 1978); B. Hirson, Year of Fire, Year of Ash: The Soweto Revolt: Roots of a Revolution? (London, 1979); A. Brooks and J. Brickhill, Whirlwind Before the Storm (London, 1980); T. Lodge, Black Politics since 1945 (Johannesburg, 1983), final chapter. See also P.M. Cillie (chairman), 'Report of the Commission of Inquiry into the Riots at Soweto and Elsewhere from the 16th of June 1976 to the 28th February 1977', RP 55/1980 (Cillie Report). For an analysis specifically of the education crisis in the lead-up to the uprising see J. Hyslop, 'State Education Policy and the Social Reproduction of the Urban African Working Class: the case of the Southern Transvaal 1955-1976', Journal of Southern African Studies, 14, 3 (April 1988).
6. The relative importance of these various socio-economic elements has been widely discussed. See, in particular, J. Kane-Berman, Soweto: Black Revolt, White Reaction (Johannesburg, 1978); B. Hirson, Year of Fire, Year of Ash: The Soweto Revolt: Roots of a Revolution? (London, 1979); A. Brooks and J. Brickhill, Whirlwind Before the Storm (London, 1980); T. Lodge, Black Politics since 1945 (Johannesburg, 1983), final chapter. See also P.M. Cillie (chairman), 'Report of the Commission of Inquiry into the Riots at Soweto and Elsewhere from the 16th of June 1976 to the 28th February 1977', RP 55/1980 (Cillie Report). For an analysis specifically of the education crisis in the lead-up to the uprising see J. Hyslop, 'State Education Policy and the Social Reproduction of the Urban African Working Class: the case of the Southern Transvaal 1955-1976', Journal of Southern African Studies, 14, 3 (April 1988).
7. Interviews (all with the author unless otherwise stated on first reference): M. Morobe, History Workshop Soweto Film Project, videotaped interviews, 1991/92 (henceforth HWSFP), B. Makhabela (HWSFP), Seth Mazibuko (HWSFP), T. Mohapi (HWSFP), K. Seathlolo (September 1992), C. Nkondo (September 1992), L. Duma (August 1992).
8. For more detail on Soweto school culture in the 1960s see C. Glaser, 'Youth Culture and Politics in Soweto, 1958-1976', PhD thesis, Cambridge University, 1994, ch. 4.
9. N. Diseko, 'The Origins and Development of the South African Students Movement (SASM)', Journal of Southern African Studies, 18, 1 (March 1991), pp. 45-46.
10. Diseko does not provide one clear instance of substantial repression at any of these schools and points out herself that Orlando High, in particular, co-operated with ASM in its early efforts. See 'Origins and Development of SASM', pp. 52-53.
11. Interviews: K. Mthembu (Tom Karis and Gail Gerhart, February 1989), F. Mazibuko (December 1991), S. Lebelo (September 1991), I. Motaung (November 1991), Mr Mawela (Meverett Koetz, December 1992), A. Tsotetsie (Koetz, September 1992), K. Shubane (August 1992), M. Mxadana (January 1992), J. Msimanga (January 1992).
12. Interview, Seathlolo.
13. Diseko, 'Origins and Development of SASM', p. 52; interview, Seathlolo.
14. Interview, M. Siluma (December 1991).
15. Interviews: Mawela, A. Ngobese (Koetz, April 1992), D. Nkosi (Koetz, September 1992), S. Masoka (Koetz, December 1992), 'Zakes' Thotela (Koetz, July 1992), Tsotetsie, S. Khumalo (Koetz, August 1992), Mrs Dlamini (Koetz, September 1992), Lebelo, Shubane, Msimanga, Mohapi, Seth Mazibuko, Makhabela, A. Masondo (Gail Gerhart, July 1989).
16. Diseko, 'Origins and Development of SASM', pp. 42-43; interview, Mthembu.
17. Rand Daily Mail [hereafter RDM], 24 December 1971. See also UNISA SASO Acc 153, Brigadier P. J. Coetzee, 'South African Students Movement (SASM)', Security Police memorandum, pp. 1-2 and RDM, 1 February 1972, 'New body not for Africans only'.
18. Rand Daily Mail [hereafter RDM], 24 December 1971. See also UNISA SASO Acc 153, Brigadier P. J. Coetzee, 'South African Students Movement (SASM)', Security Police memorandum, pp. 1-2 and RDM, 1 February 1972, 'New body not for Africans only'.
19. Diseko, 'Origins and Development of SASM', pp. 46-52.
20. Diseko, 'Origins and Development of SASM', pp. 42-43: interview, Mthembu.
21. Interviews: Motaung, Seathlolo, Morobe, Mthembu.
22. SASO was also instrumental in setting up the Black People's Convention (BPC) which drew together somewhat older, non-student, generally urban-based, adherents to Black Consciousness (BC) ideology. BPC became the 'adult branch' of the Black Consciousness movement. See Black Community Programmes, Black Review 1973, pp. 67-68.
23. SASO annual report, 1971, quoted in UNISA SASO Acc 153, Coetzee, 'SASM', p. 1.
24. See, for instance, UNISA SASO Acc 127: Minutes of Sixth General Students' Conference, Resolution 51/74. See also 'Commission Report: Community Development', undated (c 1973/4)
25. See, for instance, UNISA SASO Acc 127: Minutes of Sixth General Students' Conference, Resolution 51/74. See also 'Commission Report: Community Development', undated (c 1973/4)
26. See UNISA SASO Acc 127: B. Langa, 'Bannings and Intimidation: proposals', SASO memorandum, 17 May 1973. On the tight state monitoring of Bantu Education schools see: The Star, 30 September 1972 and 9 October 1972; interviews: T. Kambule (October 1991), Mxadana, Makhabela.
27. See UNISA SASO Acc 127: B. Langa, 'Bannings and Intimidation: proposals', SASO memorandum, 17 May 1973. On the tight state monitoring of Bantu Education schools see: The Star, 30 September 1972 and 9 October 1972; interviews: T. Kambule (October 1991), Mxadana, Makhabela.
28. Interviews: Mthembu, Msimanga, Mawela, F. Mazibuko. See also Diseko, 'Origins and Development of SASM', pp. 56-57.
29. Black Community Programmes, Black Review 1972, pp. 174-180. Tiro's speech was probably in very late April or early May, although I have found no clear reference to this. See also The World, 5 May, 8 May, 12 May, 15 May, 16 May, 17 May 1972.
30. Black Community Programmes, Black Review 1972, pp. 174-180. Tiro's speech was probably in very late April or early May, although I have found no clear reference to this. See also The World, 5 May, 8 May, 12 May, 15 May, 16 May, 17 May 1972.
31. Interview, Mthembu.
32. RDM, 20 October, 26 October, 31 October, 4 November 1972; The World, 4 October 1972; The Star, 9 October, 11 October 1972. See also RDM, 22 February 1973.
33. RDM, 20 October, 26 October, 31 October, 4 November 1972; The World, 4 October 1972; The Star, 9 October, 11 October 1972. See also RDM, 22 February 1973.
34. RDM, 20 October, 26 October, 31 October, 4 November 1972; The World, 4 October 1972; The Star, 9 October, 11 October 1972. See also RDM, 22 February 1973.
35. RDM, 20 October, 26 October, 31 October, 4 November 1972; The World, 4 October 1972; The Star, 9 October, 11 October 1972. See also RDM, 22 February 1973.
36. Interview, Mxadana.
37. Interview, Mthembu. See also interviews: Mohapi, Tsotetsie.
38. Interviews: Msimanga, Motaung.
39. Interview, Motaung.
40. RDM, 1 February 1972.
41. Diseko, 'Origins and Development of SASM', p. 57.
42. Interview, Mxadana.
43. Interview, Seathlolo. Also interviews: F. Mazibuko, Kambule.
44. Interviews: Shubane, Seathlolo, S. Mofokeng (October 1991), Mohapi, Morobe.
45. See UNISA SASO Acc 153, Coetzee, 'SASM', Security Police memorandum, pp. 1-5.
46. UNISA SASO Acc 127, SASM Newsletter, undated (c1974), 'The role of the educated'.
47. Interviews: Seathlolo, Motaung, Siluma. See also interview, Makhabela, Bongi Makhabela, the sister of Khehla Mthembu (she was better known then as Susan Mthembu), attended Naledi High in 1975 and 1976. She too was a keen debater who later became an executive member of the SSRC.
48. Interview, F. Mazibuko.
49. Interviews: Kambule, Msimanga.
50. Interview, Duma. Murphy Morobe also talks about active and politicised debating at Orlando North Junior Secondary, which he attended until 1975.
51. Interviews: Seathlolo, Motaung.
52. Interviews: Masondo, Msimanga, Motaung, Siluma.
53. The Department of Bantu Education finally decided to 'unfreeze' the building of African urban secondary schools in 1972. Within two years the number of secondary schools in Soweto had at least doubled. See C. Glaser, 'Youth Culture and Politics', ch. 7.
54. The themes in this section are dealt with in great detail in my PhD dissertation, 'Youth Culture and Politics in Soweto'. See particularly ch. 5 and 8.
55. See 1970 Census: Johannesburg 02-05-19. These figures can only give some idea of the numerical breakdown. On the one hand, it is necessary to deduct the population of Alexandra and the smattering of African youths who lived in the white suburbs. Schooling numbers should also be interpreted upwards given that many fifteen and sixteen year-olds were still in primary school. On the other hand, these figures fail to take account of illegal urban residents. Also worth noting is that while males made up a small majority of the 109,000, females constituted a small majority of the secondary schoolgoing population. In other words, the numerical minority of schoolgoing youths was more pronounced among males. For a discussion of male and female school attendance in Soweto see Glaser, 'Youth Culture and Politics', pp. 132-134.
56. See C. Glaser, 'When Are They Going To Fight? Tsotsis, Youth Politics and the PAC', in P. Bonner, P. Delius and D. Posel (eds), Apartheid's Genesis 1935-1962 (Johannesburg, 1993).
57. The term 'pushout' is favoured by many observers because 'dropout' implies a voluntary process, whereas 'pushout' emphasises structural dead-ends and constraints. I use 'pushout' but not without some reservation because the term underplays the voluntary dimension of early school-leaving. The relatively few youths who received no schooling at all are also embraced in this category.
58. Interviews: F. Mazibuko, Mxadana, Seathlolo, Shubane, 'Spokes' Ndlovu (Koetz, June 1992). 'Oupa' Ndala (Koetz, September 1992), P. Mabhena (Koetz, September 1992).
59. Interviews: F. Mazibuko, Mxadana, Seathlolo, Shubane, 'Spokes' Ndlovu (Koetz, June 1992). 'Oupa' Ndala (Koetz, September 1992), P. Mabhena (Koetz, September 1992).
60. Interviews: F. Mazibuko, Msimanga, S. Zikalala (October 1992), Mofokeng, C. Hlatswayo (Koetz, April 1992), M. Khoza (Koetz, April 1992), A. Ngobese (Koetz, April 1992), Duma, Motaung.
61. G. M. Simelala, headmaster of Madibane High in Diepkloof, and T. W. Kambule of Orlando High in The World, 4 October 1972; Kambule observed earlier that year in The World, 2 February 1972 that many students refused to go to Orlando North Secondary School, the first of the new Soweto secondary schools, for fear of the Hazels.
62. G. M. Simelala, headmaster of Madibane High in Diepkloof, and T. W. Kambule of Orlando High in The World, 4 October 1972; Kambule observed earlier that year in The World, 2 February 1972 that many students refused to go to Orlando North Secondary School, the first of the new Soweto secondary schools, for fear of the Hazels.
63. RDM 30 April 1973.
64. Interview, Mxadana. See also interviews: Mofokeng, Tsotestsie, Mrs Moosie (Koetz, August 1992).
65. The World, 13 February 1976.
66. Interviews: Kambule, Nkondo.
67. Interviews: Seathlolo, Siluma, Motaung.
68. Interview, Msimanga. See also interview, Mabhena.
69. The World, 23 August and 27 September 1972. The newspaper did not report on the outcome of the trial.
70. The World, 9 April 1974.
71. The World, 13 November 1974, 15 May 1975 and 24 September 1975: interview, Ndlovu.
72. Interview, Duma.
73. The World, 13 May 1976; Weekend World, 16 May 1976.
74. The World, 13 May 1976; Weekend World, 16 May 1976.
75. Interviews: Zikalala, Siluma, Mawela, C. Hlatswayo, Mrs Gibi (Koetz, August 1992), Simelane.
76. UNISA SASO Acc 153. Minutes of the proceedings of the Third General Students' Council of the SASO, St Peter's Seminary, Hammanskraal, 2-9 July 1972, resolutions 19/72 and 24/72.
77. RP 55/1980, pp. 416-417, para. 2.2.4. See also p. 140, para. 4.3.9.
78. UNISA SASO Acc 153, Security Police memorandum on Youth Organisations, pp. 1-3; interviews: Seathlolo, Masondo, Mthembu. See also Diseko, 'Origins and Development of SASM', pp. 58-59.
79. UNISA SASO Acc 153, Security Police memorandum on Youth Organisations, pp. 1-3; interviews: Seathlolo, Masondo, Mthembu. See also Diseko, 'Origins and Development of SASM', pp. 58-59.
80. Interview. Mthembu; see also interview, Seathlolo.
81. UNISA SASO Acc 163, 'Commission Report: Community Development', undated (probably presented during the Fourth GSC, 14-22 July 1973).
82. UNISA SASO Acc 153, Report of the People's Experimental Theatre to the Fourth GSC, St Peter's Seminary, Hammanskraal, 14-22 July 1973.
83. Interview, Seathlolo.
84. UNISA SAS Acc 153, Coetzee, 'SASM' and 'Memorandum on attempts by black organisations to recruit tsotsis, school students and teachers'. Hare claims to have made contact with coloured gangs in western Johannesburg, such as the Spaldings, Fast Guns and Vultures, in an attempt to influence them.
85. Interview, Masondo.
86. Interview, Masondo.
87. Interview, Seathlolo.
88. Interview, F. Mazibuko.
89. Interviews: Motaung, Mofokeng, F. Mazibuko.
90. Interviews: Mthembu, Motaung, Msimanga, Mofokeng, Siluma.
91. Interview, Msimanga.
92. See UNISA SASO Acc 118, SASO memorandum: 'Commission on the Damaging Effects Of Afrikaans as a Medium of Instruction', undated. One point of the memorandum is that Afrikaans 'encourages thuggery, i.e. tsotsitaal'. The observation itself is tautologous and absurd. Nevertheless, it reveals the writer's association of tsotsitaal with criminality as well as his distaste for the Afrikaans content in the street language.
93. Interviews: Siluma, Msimanga.
94. Interview, "Ndoza" (HWSFP).
95. See Hyslop, 'Schools, Unemployment and Youth', p. 64.
96. Prior to 1975 the South African system involved thirteen years of schooling: Sub A and Sub B, Standards One through to Six and Forms One through to Five.
97. The Star, 9 November 1972; RDM, 14 November 1975; The Star, 13 December 1975; Hirson, Year of Fire, Year of Ash, pp. 97-99.
98. The Star, 9 November 1972; RDM, 14 November 1975; The Star, 13 December 1975; Hirson, Year of Fire, Year of Ash, pp. 97-99.
99. The Star, 9 November 1972; RDM, 14 November 1975; The Star, 13 December 1975; Hirson, Year of Fire, Year of Ash, pp. 97-99.
100. The Star, 9 November 1972; RDM, 14 November 1975; The Star, 13 December 1975; Hirson, Year of Fire, Year of Ash, pp. 97-99.
101. Interviews: Kambule, Nkondo, C. Mbuli (Koetz, December 1992), Masoka, Mrs Zodwa (Koetz, December 1992), T. Nkosi, G. Morwa (August 1992). Kane-Berman, Hirson, and Brooks and Brickhill, as well as Cillie, deal extensively with the language medium issue. All see Afrikaans instruction as a crucial catalyst to revolt within a context of wider educational and socio-economic grievance.
102. Interview, Seth Mazibuko; The World, 18 May 1976; the Cillie Report RP 55/1980, pp. 78-92, gives a day-by-day account of the days leading up to the 16 June demonstrations.
103. Interview, Seth Mazibuko; The World, 18 May 1976; the Cillie Report RP 55/1980, pp. 78-92, gives a day-by-day account of the days leading up to the 16 June demonstrations.
104. Interview: Seathlolo. See also interviews: Morobe, Seth Mazibuko; Cillie Report RP 55/1980, pp. 92-98; UNISA SASO Acc 153, Coetzee, Security Police memorandum: 'SASM', pp. 12-14.
105. Interview: Seathlolo. See also interviews: Morobe, Seth Mazibuko; Cillie Report RP 55/1980, pp. 92-98; UNISA SASO Acc 153, Coetzee, Security Police memorandum: 'SASM', pp. 12-14.
106. Interviews: Morobe, Mofokeng, Nkondo, Seth Mazibuko, Masoka.
107. Hirson, Year of Fire, Year of Ash, p. 181.
108. SRRSA 1976, pp. 24-25; The Star, 17 June 1976; Hirson, Year of Fire, Year of Ash, p. 194; interviews: Gibi, Masoka, Tsotetsie, Mofokeng, Zikalala, J. Mkhonza (HWSFP). Seth Mazibuko. 'Doctors at Baragwanath hospital', according to The Star 17 June 1976, 'have gained the distinct impression that amongst the casualties are a number of known tsotsis'. Unfortunately, no information exists on the social profile of those arrested. Police records seemed to detail age and gender but little else. Police simply stated that 99% of the arrested 'offenders' during police crackdowns in the months that followed were 'students and young drop-outs'. See Kane-Berman, Soweto, p. 142.
109. SRRSA 1976, pp. 24-25; The Star, 17 June 1976; Hirson, Year of Fire, Year of Ash, p. 194; interviews: Gibi, Masoka, Tsotetsie, Mofokeng, Zikalala, J. Mkhonza (HWSFP). Seth Mazibuko. 'Doctors at Baragwanath hospital', according to The Star 17 June 1976, 'have gained the distinct impression that amongst the casualties are a number of known tsotsis'. Unfortunately, no information exists on the social profile of those arrested. Police records seemed to detail age and gender but little else. Police simply stated that 99% of the arrested 'offenders' during police crackdowns in the months that followed were 'students and young drop-outs'. See Kane-Berman, Soweto, p. 142.
110. SRRSA 1976, pp. 24-25; The Star, 17 June 1976; Hirson, Year of Fire, Year of Ash, p. 194; interviews: Gibi, Masoka, Tsotetsie, Mofokeng, Zikalala, J. Mkhonza (HWSFP). Seth Mazibuko. 'Doctors at Baragwanath hospital', according to The Star 17 June 1976, 'have gained the distinct impression that amongst the casualties are a number of known tsotsis'. Unfortunately, no information exists on the social profile of those arrested. Police records seemed to detail age and gender but little else. Police simply stated that 99% of the arrested 'offenders' during police crackdowns in the months that followed were 'students and young drop-outs'. See Kane-Berman, Soweto, p. 142.
111. SRRSA 1976, pp. 24-25; The Star, 17 June 1976; Hirson, Year of Fire, Year of Ash, p. 194; interviews: Gibi, Masoka, Tsotetsie, Mofokeng, Zikalala, J. Mkhonza (HWSFP). Seth Mazibuko. 'Doctors at Baragwanath hospital', according to The Star 17 June 1976, 'have gained the distinct impression that amongst the casualties are a number of known tsotsis'. Unfortunately, no information exists on the social profile of those arrested. Police records seemed to detail age and gender but little else. Police simply stated that 99% of the arrested 'offenders' during police crackdowns in the months that followed were 'students and young drop-outs'. See Kane-Berman, Soweto, p. 142.
112. SRRSA 1976, pp. 24-25; The Star, 17 June 1976; Hirson, Year of Fire, Year of Ash, p. 194; interviews: Gibi, Masoka, Tsotetsie, Mofokeng, Zikalala, J. Mkhonza (HWSFP). Seth Mazibuko. 'Doctors at Baragwanath hospital', according to The Star 17 June 1976, 'have gained the distinct impression that amongst the casualties are a number of known tsotsis'. Unfortunately, no information exists on the social profile of those arrested. Police records seemed to detail age and gender but little else. Police simply stated that 99% of the arrested 'offenders' during police crackdowns in the months that followed were 'students and young drop-outs'. See Kane-Berman, Soweto, p. 142.
113. Cillie Report RP 55/1980, p. 479.
114. Interview, Zikalala. See also Cillie Report RP 55/1980, pp. 480, Parag 8.3.3. The Commission points out here that 'the misdeeds of the violent sometimes became feats worthy of emulation in the eyes of young people'.
115. Interviews: Zodwa, Masoka, G. Dlamini (Koetz, December 1992), J. Khanyeza (HWSFP).
116. Interviews, respectively, G. Khumalo and Masoka.
117. Interviews: Lebelo, Maseko, C. Mbuli, Zodwa.
118. Interviews: Duma, Maseko, Zodwa, Mrs Mhlambi (Koetz, December 1992), G. Simelane (Koetz, December 1992), Lebelo. See also Mzamane, Children of Soweto, (Harlow, 1982), p. 112, in which the Hazels participate in a beerhall attack.
119. Interview, Mkhonza.
120. The World, 6 August 1976.
121. Interviews: Mofokeng, Simelane, Maseko. See also P. Frankel, 'The Dynamics of a Political Renaissance: the Soweto Students Representative Council', Journal of Southern African Studies, 1, 3 (1980), p. 174, and Cillie Report RP 55/1980, p. 138, para 4.3.1.
122. Interviews: Mofokeng, Simelane, Maseko. See also P. Frankel, 'The Dynamics of a Political Renaissance: the Soweto Students Representative Council', Journal of Southern African Studies, 1, 3 (1980), p. 174, and Cillie Report RP 55/1980, p. 138, para 4.3.1.
123. Interviews: G. Khumalo, G. Dlamini, M. Xhaba (Koetz, December 1992), Tsotetsie, Mxadana, Duma; The Star, 17 June 1976; The World, 6 August 1976; Brooks and Brickhill, Whirlwind, p. 151 and p. 208. See also Mzamane, Children of Soweto, pp. 149-150.
124. Interviews: G. Khumalo, G. Dlamini, M. Xhaba (Koetz, December 1992), Tsotetsie, Mxadana, Duma; The Star, 17 June 1976; The World, 6 August 1976; Brooks and Brickhill, Whirlwind, p. 151 and p. 208. See also Mzamane, Children of Soweto, pp. 149-150.
125. Interviews: G. Khumalo, G. Dlamini, M. Xhaba (Koetz, December 1992), Tsotetsie, Mxadana, Duma; The Star, 17 June 1976; The World, 6 August 1976; Brooks and Brickhill, Whirlwind, p. 151 and p. 208. See also Mzamane, Children of Soweto, pp. 149-150.
126. Interviews: G. Khumalo, G. Dlamini, M. Xhaba (Koetz, December 1992), Tsotetsie, Mxadana, Duma; The Star, 17 June 1976; The World, 6 August 1976; Brooks and Brickhill, Whirlwind, p. 151 and p. 208. See also Mzamane, Children of Soweto, pp. 149-150.
127. Interview, Gibi; similar observations are made in interviews: C. Mbuli, G. Dlamini.
128. Cillie Report RP 55/1980, p. 140, para 4.3.8.
129. Mzamane, Children of Soweto, p. 112.
130. Brooks and Brickhill, Whirlwind, p. 208.
131. Interview, Lebelo.
132. Interviews: Lebelo, Khoza, Tsotetsie, Morwa, S. Khumalo; Brooks and Brickhill, Whirlwind, p. 151. See also Mzamane, Children of Soweto, pp. 149-151.
133. Interviews: Lebelo, Khoza, Tsotetsie, Morwa, S. Khumalo; Brooks and Brickhill, Whirlwind, p. 151. See also Mzamane, Children of Soweto, pp. 149-151.
134. Interviews: Gibi, Tsotetsie, Simelane, F. Mazibuko.
135. Interview, Zikalala.
136. Interviews: Masoka, Simelane, Mrs Dlamini.
137. For a detailed, blow-by-blow account of the SSRC's lifespan see Kane-Berman, Soweto, ch. 9 and 10, pp. 109-152. For an assessment of the SSRC's effectiveness and popularity in Soweto see Frankel, 'The Dynamics of a Political Renaissance'. This section is not a thorough account of the SSRC; rather, I concentrate on the divisions within the youth constituency and generational aspects of the council's activities.
138. For a detailed, blow-by-blow account of the SSRC's lifespan see Kane-Berman, Soweto, ch. 9 and 10, pp. 109-152. For an assessment of the SSRC's effectiveness and popularity in Soweto see Frankel, 'The Dynamics of a Political Renaissance'. This section is not a thorough account of the SSRC; rather, I concentrate on the divisions within the youth constituency and generational aspects of the council's activities.
139. See SRRSA 1976, pp. 24-25 and Kane-Berman, Soweto, pp. 125-126. It is also worth noting that with the expansion of secondary schooling the younger generation found itself better educated than its parents' generation. Cillie, RP 55/1980, p. 621, argues, with some justification, that this often gave children an unusual position of strength within the family. Frankel, 'The Dynamics of a Political Renaissance', p. 175, makes a similar observation; student activists were more 'urbane' than their parents' generation, he argues, partly because of their greater exposure to schooling and partly because of their greater distance from rural culture.
140. See SRRSA 1976, pp. 24-25 and Kane-Berman, Soweto, pp. 125-126. It is also worth noting that with the expansion of secondary schooling the younger generation found itself better educated than its parents' generation. Cillie, RP 55/1980, p. 621, argues, with some justification, that this often gave children an unusual position of strength within the family. Frankel, 'The Dynamics of a Political Renaissance', p. 175, makes a similar observation; student activists were more 'urbane' than their parents' generation, he argues, partly because of their greater exposure to schooling and partly because of their greater distance from rural culture.
141. See SRRSA 1976, pp. 24-25 and Kane-Berman, Soweto, pp. 125-126. It is also worth noting that with the expansion of secondary schooling the younger generation found itself better educated than its parents' generation. Cillie, RP 55/1980, p. 621, argues, with some justification, that this often gave children an unusual position of strength within the family. Frankel, 'The Dynamics of a Political Renaissance', p. 175, makes a similar observation; student activists were more 'urbane' than their parents' generation, he argues, partly because of their greater exposure to schooling and partly because of their greater distance from rural culture.
142. Frankel, 'The Dynamics of a Political Renaissance', p. 171; see also p. 169.
143. Interview, Tsotetsie.
144. Interview, Morobe.
145. Interview, Kheswa. Many informants observed a marked shift in the generational balance of power; see interviews: Moloantwa, Tsotetsie, 'Thabo', Duma, Mrs Dlamini, N. Bothile (HWSFP), Morobe. The generational dynamics appear to have been similar in the African townships of Cape Town; for an interesting eye-witness account of the revolt in Guguletu, Nyanga and Langa see C. Hermer, The Diary of Maria Tholo (Johannesburg, 1980), particularly pp. 21-29.
146. Interviews: Morobe, Duma.
147. Interviews: Seathlolo, Makhabela, Morobe, Gibi; The World, 3 August and 17 August 1976; Kane-Berman, Soweto, p. 132; Brooks and Brickhill, Whirlwind, p. 62; Hirson, Year of Fire, Year of Ash, p. 207.
148. Interviews: Seathlolo, Makhabela, Morobe, Gibi; The World, 3 August and 17 August 1976; Kane-Berman, Soweto, p. 132; Brooks and Brickhill, Whirlwind, p. 62; Hirson, Year of Fire, Year of Ash, p. 207.
149. Interviews: Seathlolo, Makhabela, Morobe, Gibi; The World, 3 August and 17 August 1976; Kane-Berman, Soweto, p. 132; Brooks and Brickhill, Whirlwind, p. 62; Hirson, Year of Fire, Year of Ash, p. 207.
150. Interviews: Seathlolo, Makhabela, Morobe, Gibi; The World, 3 August and 17 August 1976; Kane-Berman, Soweto, p. 132; Brooks and Brickhill, Whirlwind, p. 62; Hirson, Year of Fire, Year of Ash, p. 207.
151. See Kane-Berman, Soweto, pp. 135-138.
152. For some examples of SSRC pamphlets, see Institute of Commonwealth Studies, London, Baruch Hirson: Soweto collection (ICS BHS), file B.
153. ICS BHS, file B, 'Azikwhwelwa', SSRC pamphlet, September 1976.
154. RDM, 13 December 1976.
155. Interviews: Morobe, N. Bothile (HWSFP). See also ICS BHS file C. The Story of the Soweto SRC', Part One, clipping from The World, ca mid-1977.
156. See, for instance, reports on harassment of workers in The World, 4 August, 6 August and 9 August 1976. Interviews: Xhaba, Mrs Mtshali (Koetz, December 1992).
157. Brooks and Brickhill, Whirlwind, p. 208.
158. Interviews: Morobe, Zodwa, C. Mbuli, Mkhonza; Glen Moss, 'Crisis and Conflict: Soweto 1976-7', MA dissertation, University of the Witwatersrand, 1982, pp. 67-69; Kane-Berman, Soweto, pp. 113-114.
159. Interviews: Morobe, Zodwa, C. Mbuli, Mkhonza; Glen Moss, 'Crisis and Conflict: Soweto 1976-7', MA dissertation, University of the Witwatersrand, 1982, pp. 67-69; Kane-Berman, Soweto, pp. 113-114.
160. Kane-Berman, Soweto, p. 114. See Moss, 'Crisis and Conflict' for a general analysis of the relationship between students and migrants during the Soweto uprising.
161. Kane-Berman, Soweto, p. 114. See Moss, 'Crisis and Conflict' for a general analysis of the relationship between students and migrants during the Soweto uprising.
162. Kane-Berman, Soweto, pp. 127-128; ICS BHS, file C. 'The Story of the Soweto SRC', Part Two, clipping from The World, ca mid 1977.
163. Kane-Berman, Soweto, pp. 127-128; ICS BHS, file C. 'The Story of the Soweto SRC', Part Two, clipping from The World, ca mid 1977.
164. Interviews: J. Nzimande (Koetz, December 1992), G. Khumalo, Tsotetsie.
165. Interview, Mofokeng.
166. Interview, Seathlolo.
167. Interviews: Seathlolo, Duma.
168. Interviews: Ndala, Nzimande, Maseko, Mhlambi, G. Khumalo, Zodwa, G. Dlamini, Mofokeng, Xhaba, H. Mokgotsi (Koetz, September 1992), Duma, Seathlolo. See also Kane-Berman, Soweto, p. 125 and p. 132. For a detailed account of the Makgotla movement see C. Glaser, 'Youth Culture and Politics in Soweto', Chapter Nine.
169. Interviews: Ndala, Nzimande, Maseko, Mhlambi, G. Khumalo, Zodwa, G. Dlamini, Mofokeng, Xhaba, H. Mokgotsi (Koetz, September 1992), Duma, Seathlolo. See also Kane-Berman, Soweto, p. 125 and p. 132. For a detailed account of the Makgotla movement see C. Glaser, 'Youth Culture and Politics in Soweto', Chapter Nine.
170. Interview, Ndala.
171. Kane-Berman, Soweto, p. 125.
172. Interviews: Mowela, D. Nkosi, Thotela, Masoka, Mabhena, Mokgotsi, Mrs Dlamini. See Kane-Berman, Soweto, pp. 119 and 132; Hirson, Year of Fire, Year of Ash, p. 194.
173. Interviews: Mowela, D. Nkosi, Thotela, Masoka, Mabhena, Mokgotsi, Mrs Dlamini. See Kane-Berman, Soweto, pp. 119 and 132; Hirson, Year of Fire, Year of Ash, p. 194.
174. For a useful discussion of Black Panther tactics in the inner cities see M. Davis, 'Los Angeles: Civil Liberties between the Hammer and the Rock', New Left Review, 170 (July/August 1988); S. Stern, 'The Call of the Black Panthers, in A. Meier and E. Rudwick (eds), Black Protest in the Sixties (Chicago, 1970).
175. For a useful discussion of Black Panther tactics in the inner cities see M. Davis, 'Los Angeles: Civil Liberties between the Hammer and the Rock', New Left Review, 170 (July/August 1988); S. Stern, 'The Call of the Black Panthers, in A. Meier and E. Rudwick (eds), Black Protest in the Sixties (Chicago, 1970).
176. For some detail on the jackrollers see Steve Mokwena, The Era of the Jackrollers: Contextualising the Rise of Youth Gangs in Soweto' (Project for the Study of Violence seminar paper no. 7, University of the Witwatersrand, October 1991).