The power of incrementalism: environmental regulation and technological change in pulp and paper bleaching in the US

Technology Analysis and Strategic Management

Volumn 10, Issue 2, 1998, Pages 225-245

  Norberg Bohm, Vicki ^a   Rossi, Mark ^a  

^a MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT; INDUSTRIAL REGULATION; PULP AND PAPER INDUSTRY; TECHNOLOGICAL CHANGE;

USA;

EID: 0031669238     PISSN: 09537325     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/09537329808524313     Document Type: Article

References (114)

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8. 2 Emissions Trading Program: Cost Savings without Allowance Trades', Contemporary Economic Policy, 14, 1996, pp. 79-93; EPA, Partnerships in Preventing Pollution: A Catalogue of the Agency's Partnership Programs (Washington, DC, Environmental Protection Agency, Office of the Administrator, 1996); S. Labatt & V. W. Madaren, Voluntary Corporate Environmental Initiatives: A Typology and Preliminary Investigation (Toronto, University of Toronto, 1997).
9. 2 Emissions Trading Program: Cost Savings without Allowance Trades', Contemporary Economic Policy, 14, 1996, pp. 79-93; EPA, Partnerships in Preventing Pollution: A Catalogue of the Agency's Partnership Programs (Washington, DC, Environmental Protection Agency, Office of the Administrator, 1996); S. Labatt & V. W. Madaren, Voluntary Corporate Environmental Initiatives: A Typology and Preliminary Investigation (Toronto, University of Toronto, 1997).
10. 2 Emissions Trading Program: Cost Savings without Allowance Trades', Contemporary Economic Policy, 14, 1996, pp. 79-93; EPA, Partnerships in Preventing Pollution: A Catalogue of the Agency's Partnership Programs (Washington, DC, Environmental Protection Agency, Office of the Administrator, 1996); S. Labatt & V. W. Madaren, Voluntary Corporate Environmental Initiatives: A Typology and Preliminary Investigation (Toronto, University of Toronto, 1997).
11. 2 Emissions Trading Program: Cost Savings without Allowance Trades', Contemporary Economic Policy, 14, 1996, pp. 79-93; EPA, Partnerships in Preventing Pollution: A Catalogue of the Agency's Partnership Programs (Washington, DC, Environmental Protection Agency, Office of the Administrator, 1996); S. Labatt & V. W. Madaren, Voluntary Corporate Environmental Initiatives: A Typology and Preliminary Investigation (Toronto, University of Toronto, 1997).
12. 2 Emissions Trading Program: Cost Savings without Allowance Trades', Contemporary Economic Policy, 14, 1996, pp. 79-93; EPA, Partnerships in Preventing Pollution: A Catalogue of the Agency's Partnership Programs (Washington, DC, Environmental Protection Agency, Office of the Administrator, 1996); S. Labatt & V. W. Madaren, Voluntary Corporate Environmental Initiatives: A Typology and Preliminary Investigation (Toronto, University of Toronto, 1997).
13. 2 Emissions Trading Program: Cost Savings without Allowance Trades', Contemporary Economic Policy, 14, 1996, pp. 79-93; EPA, Partnerships in Preventing Pollution: A Catalogue of the Agency's Partnership Programs (Washington, DC, Environmental Protection Agency, Office of the Administrator, 1996); S. Labatt & V. W. Madaren, Voluntary Corporate Environmental Initiatives: A Typology and Preliminary Investigation (Toronto, University of Toronto, 1997).
14. 2 Emissions Trading Program: Cost Savings without Allowance Trades', Contemporary Economic Policy, 14, 1996, pp. 79-93; EPA, Partnerships in Preventing Pollution: A Catalogue of the Agency's Partnership Programs (Washington, DC, Environmental Protection Agency, Office of the Administrator, 1996); S. Labatt & V. W. Madaren, Voluntary Corporate Environmental Initiatives: A Typology and Preliminary Investigation (Toronto, University of Toronto, 1997).
15. J. Burt & P. Dillon, 'What the US Can Learn from Germany's Packaging Takeback System', Resource Recycling, September 1994, pp. 87-89; A. S. Rousso & S. P. Shah, 'Packaging Taxes and Recycling Incentives: The German Green Dot Program', National Tax Journal, 47, 1994, pp. 689-701; M. Crul & F. Schelleman, 'Long-term Environmental Planning and the Implementation of Cleaner Technologies', Industry and Environment, 18, 1995, p. 15; H. D.Johnson, 'Green Plans: The Netherlands Leads the Way', Earth Island Journal, Summer 1995, pp. 30-32; L. Soete & A. Arundel, 'European Innovation Policy for Environmentally Sustainable Development: Application of a Systems Model of Technical Change', Journal of European Public Policy, 2, 1995, pp. 285-315.
16. J. Burt & P. Dillon, 'What the US Can Learn from Germany's Packaging Takeback System', Resource Recycling, September 1994, pp. 87-89; A. S. Rousso & S. P. Shah, 'Packaging Taxes and Recycling Incentives: The German Green Dot Program', National Tax Journal, 47, 1994, pp. 689-701; M. Crul & F. Schelleman, 'Long-term Environmental Planning and the Implementation of Cleaner Technologies', Industry and Environment, 18, 1995, p. 15; H. D.Johnson, 'Green Plans: The Netherlands Leads the Way', Earth Island Journal, Summer 1995, pp. 30-32; L. Soete & A. Arundel, 'European Innovation Policy for Environmentally Sustainable Development: Application of a Systems Model of Technical Change', Journal of European Public Policy, 2, 1995, pp. 285-315.
17. J. Burt & P. Dillon, 'What the US Can Learn from Germany's Packaging Takeback System', Resource Recycling, September 1994, pp. 87-89; A. S. Rousso & S. P. Shah, 'Packaging Taxes and Recycling Incentives: The German Green Dot Program', National Tax Journal, 47, 1994, pp. 689-701; M. Crul & F. Schelleman, 'Long-term Environmental Planning and the Implementation of Cleaner Technologies', Industry and Environment, 18, 1995, p. 15; H. D.Johnson, 'Green Plans: The Netherlands Leads the Way', Earth Island Journal, Summer 1995, pp. 30-32; L. Soete & A. Arundel, 'European Innovation Policy for Environmentally Sustainable Development: Application of a Systems Model of Technical Change', Journal of European Public Policy, 2, 1995, pp. 285-315.
18. J. Burt & P. Dillon, 'What the US Can Learn from Germany's Packaging Takeback System', Resource Recycling, September 1994, pp. 87-89; A. S. Rousso & S. P. Shah, 'Packaging Taxes and Recycling Incentives: The German Green Dot Program', National Tax Journal, 47, 1994, pp. 689-701; M. Crul & F. Schelleman, 'Long-term Environmental Planning and the Implementation of Cleaner Technologies', Industry and Environment, 18, 1995, p. 15; H. D.Johnson, 'Green Plans: The Netherlands Leads the Way', Earth Island Journal, Summer 1995, pp. 30-32; L. Soete & A. Arundel, 'European Innovation Policy for Environmentally Sustainable Development: Application of a Systems Model of Technical Change', Journal of European Public Policy, 2, 1995, pp. 285-315.
19. J. Burt & P. Dillon, 'What the US Can Learn from Germany's Packaging Takeback System', Resource Recycling, September 1994, pp. 87-89; A. S. Rousso & S. P. Shah, 'Packaging Taxes and Recycling Incentives: The German Green Dot Program', National Tax Journal, 47, 1994, pp. 689-701; M. Crul & F. Schelleman, 'Long-term Environmental Planning and the Implementation of Cleaner Technologies', Industry and Environment, 18, 1995, p. 15; H. D.Johnson, 'Green Plans: The Netherlands Leads the Way', Earth Island Journal, Summer 1995, pp. 30-32; L. Soete & A. Arundel, 'European Innovation Policy for Environmentally Sustainable Development: Application of a Systems Model of Technical Change', Journal of European Public Policy, 2, 1995, pp. 285-315.
20. J. A. Todd, Review of the Common Sense Initiative (Gaithersburg, MD, The Scientific Consulting Group, Inc., 1997).
21. V. Norberg-Bohm, Stimulating 'Green' Technological Innovation: An Analysis of Alternative Policy Mechanisms (Cambridge, MA, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1997).
22. N. A. Ashford, C. Aycrs & R. F. Stone, 'Using Regulation to Change the Market for Innovation', The Harvard Environmental Law Review, 9, 1985, pp. 419-466; Porter and van der Linde's recent work provides further examples, outlining numerous cases where environmental regulation has created an innovative response: M. E. Porter & C. van der Linde, 'Toward a New Conception of the Environment - Competitiveness Relationship', Journal of Economic Perspectives, 9, 1995, pp. 97-118.
23. N. A. Ashford, C. Aycrs & R. F. Stone, 'Using Regulation to Change the Market for Innovation', The Harvard Environmental Law Review, 9, 1985, pp. 419-466; Porter and van der Linde's recent work provides further examples, outlining numerous cases where environmental regulation has created an innovative response: M. E. Porter & C. van der Linde, 'Toward a New Conception of the Environment - Competitiveness Relationship', Journal of Economic Perspectives, 9, 1995, pp. 97-118.
24. N. A. Ashford & G. R. Heaton, 'Regulation and Technological Innovation in the Chemical Industry', Law and Contemporary Problems, 46, 1983, pp. 109-157.
25. W.J. Abernathy & J. Utterback, 'Patterns of Industrial Innovation', Technology Review, 80, 1978, pp. 40-47.
26. W. J. Abernathy & K. B. Clark, 'Innovation: Mapping the Winds of Creative Destruction', Research Policy, 14, 1985, pp. 41-47; R. M. Henderson & K. B. Clark, 'Architectural Innovation: The Reconfiguration of Existing Product Technologies and the Failure of Established Firms', Administrative Science Quarterly, 35, 1990, pp. 9-30. We note that there has been considerable work in creating organizational and market-based understandings of types of innovations, and these include the addition of other relevant categories, such as architectural innovation as defined by Henderson and Clark. However, in the context of this paper, the technological or product-based definition remains most relevant.
27. W. J. Abernathy & K. B. Clark, 'Innovation: Mapping the Winds of Creative Destruction', Research Policy, 14, 1985, pp. 41-47; R. M. Henderson & K. B. Clark, 'Architectural Innovation: The Reconfiguration of Existing Product Technologies and the Failure of Established Firms', Administrative Science Quarterly, 35, 1990, pp. 9-30. We note that there has been considerable work in creating organizational and market-based understandings of types of innovations, and these include the addition of other relevant categories, such as architectural innovation as defined by Henderson and Clark. However, in the context of this paper, the technological or product-based definition remains most relevant.
28. M. Tushman, P. Anderson et al., 'Technology' Cycles, Innovation Streams, and Ambidextrous Organizations: Organization Renewal through Innovation Streams and Strategic Change', in: M. Tushman & P. Anderson (Eds), Managing Strategic Innovation and Change (New York, Oxford University Press, 1997), pp. 3-23.
29. Ashford et al, op. cit., Ref. 9; Porter & van der Linde, op. cit., Ref. 9; C. Hill & J. Utterback (Eds), Technological Innovation for a Dynamic Economy (New York, Pergamon Press, 1979), pp. 199-204.
30. Ashford et al, op. cit., Ref. 9; Porter & van der Linde, op. cit., Ref. 9; C. Hill & J. Utterback (Eds), Technological Innovation for a Dynamic Economy (New York, Pergamon Press, 1979), pp. 199-204.
31. Ashford et al, op. cit., Ref. 9; Porter & van der Linde, op. cit., Ref. 9; C. Hill & J. Utterback (Eds), Technological Innovation for a Dynamic Economy (New York, Pergamon Press, 1979), pp. 199-204.
32. Ashford & Heaton, op. cit., Ref. 10; Ashford et al., op. cit., Ref. 9.
33. Ashford & Heaton, op. cit., Ref. 10; Ashford et al., op. cit., Ref. 9.
34. President's Council on Sustainability, Sustainable America: A New Consensus for Prosperity, Opportunity, and a Healthy Environment for the Future (Washington, DC, 1996).
35. M. Becker & N. Ashford, 'Exploiting Opportunities for Pollution Prevention in EPA Enforcement Agreements', Environmental Science and Technology, 29, 1995, pp. 220A-226A.
36. Porter & van der Linde, op. cit., Ref. 9.
37. A considerably more detailed discussion of this case is available in V. Norberg-Bohm & M. Rossi, 'The Power of Incrementalism: Environmentally Induced Technological Change in Pulp and Paper Bleaching in the US', Working Paper, MIT, Department of Urban Studies and Planning, Environmental Technolog)' Project, 1997.
38. Wells Nutt, president Union Camp Technology, interview, 10 November 1995.
39. N. DeKing, 'Bleached Paperboard: Strong Markets Support Increased Output, Higher Prices', Pulp and Paper, July 1995, p. 13.
40. A.J. Darnay (Ed.), Manufacturing US.-1: Industry Analyses, Statistics, and Leading Companies, Vol. 1, 4th Edn (Detroit, Gale Research Inc., 1994).
41. R. G. MacDonald & J. N. Franklin (Eds), Pulp and Paper Manufacture, Volume 1: The Pulping of Wood, 2nd Edn (New York, McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1969).
42. Miller Freeman Inc., Pulp and Paper 1995 North American Factbook (San Francisco, Miller Freeman Inc., 1994).
43. Between 1970 and 1993, US production of paper products almost doubled, increasing from 49 million tons in 1970 to 85 million tons in 1993. Exports increased from 3 million tons in 1970 to 9 million tons in 1993 (American Forest and Paper Association (AFPA), Paper, Paperboard and Wood Pulp, 1994 Statistics (Washington, DC, AFPA, 1994)).
44. Ibid.
45. This quotation has numerous vague sources, including: an uncited 1988 US EPA document, Bureau of National Affairs, 'Excessive Discharges of Dioxin Confirmed in EPA/Industry Pulp and Paper Mill Study', Environment Reporter, 7July 1989, pp. 507-508; an uncited 1985 EPA document, Thornton, The Product Is the Poison: The Case for a Chlorine Phase-out (Washington, DC, Greenpeace, 1991).
46. This quotation has numerous vague sources, including: an uncited 1988 US EPA document, Bureau of National Affairs, 'Excessive Discharges of Dioxin Confirmed in EPA/Industry Pulp and Paper Mill Study', Environment Reporter, 7July 1989, pp. 507-508; an uncited 1985 EPA document, Thornton, The Product Is the Poison: The Case for a Chlorine Phase-out (Washington, DC, Greenpeace, 1991).
47. United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Office of Water Regulations and Standards, Ambient Water Quality Criteria for 2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD), EPA 440/5-84-007) (Washington, DC, US EPA. 1984).
48. Bureau of National Affairs, 'Regulation of Dioxins, Dibenzofurans Sought Under TSCA by Environmental Groups', Environment Reporter, 26 October 1984, p. 1064.
49. Bureau of National Affairs, 'Petitioners Criticize EPA's Response to Changes Requested in Dioxin Strategy', Environment Reporter, 8 March 1985, p. 1912.
50. C. van Strum & P. Merrell, No Margin of Safety (Washington, DC, Greenpeace, 1987).
51. US EPA, Office of Water, Development Document for Proposed Effluent Limitations Guidelines and Standards for the Pulp, Paper and Paperboard Point Source Category (Washington, DC, US EPA, 1993).
52. United States EPA, Office of Water Regulations and Standards, US EPA/Paper Industry Cooperative Dioxin Study, 'The 104-Mill Study', Summary Report (Washington, DC, US EPA, 1990).
53. van Strum & Merrell, op. cit., Ref. 31; P. Shabecoff, 'Traces of Dioxin Found in Range of Paper Goods', New York Times, 24 September 1987, p. 1.
54. van Strum & Merrell, op. cit., Ref. 31; P. Shabecoff, 'Traces of Dioxin Found in Range of Paper Goods', New York Times, 24 September 1987, p. 1.
55. Environmental Defense Fund and National Wildlife Federation v. Thomas, Consent Decree, 27 July 1988, US District Court Civil Action No. 85-0973.
56. These are called cluster rules because they cover both air and water pollution regulations ('Effluent Limitations Guidelines, Pretreatment Standards, and New Source Performance Standards: Pulp, Paper, and Paperboard Category: National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants for Source Category: Pulp and Paper Production', Federal Register, 58, 17 December 1993).
57. Effluent Limitations Guidelines, Pretreatment Standards, and New Source Performance Standards: Pulp, Paper, and Paperboard Category; National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants for Source Category: Pulp and Paper Production', Federal Register, 61, 15 July 1996.
58. EPA, EPA's Final Pulp, Paper, and Paperboard 'Cluster Rule' - Overview (Washington, DC, Environmental Protection Agency, 1997).
59. T. Colburn, D. Dumanoski & J. Peterson Meyers, Our Stolen Future (New York, Dutton, 1996); Natural Resources Defense Council, Environmental Defense Fund, Canadian Institute for Environmental Law and Policy, and National Wildlife Federation, Comments on Proposed Rules, 'Effluent Limitations Guidelines, Pretreatment Standards and New Source Performance Standards: Pulp, Paper, and Paperboard Category; National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants for Source Category: Pulp and Paper Production (Washington, DC, 18 April 1994).
60. T. Colburn, D. Dumanoski & J. Peterson Meyers, Our Stolen Future (New York, Dutton, 1996); Natural Resources Defense Council, Environmental Defense Fund, Canadian Institute for Environmental Law and Policy, and National Wildlife Federation, Comments on Proposed Rules, 'Effluent Limitations Guidelines, Pretreatment Standards and New Source Performance Standards: Pulp, Paper, and Paperboard Category; National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants for Source Category: Pulp and Paper Production (Washington, DC, 18 April 1994).
61. For example, see the series of articles in Science on dioxin: three articles by Leslie Roberts in 1991 - 'Dioxin Risks Revisited' (8 February, pp. 624-626), 'EPA Moves to Reassess the Risk of Dioxin' (17 May, p. 911) and 'More Pieces in the Dioxin Puzzle' (18 October, p. 377) - and another article by Richard Stone in 1995, 'Panel Slams EPA's Dioxin Analysis' (26 May, p. 1124);
62. For example, see the series of articles in Science on dioxin: three articles by Leslie Roberts in 1991 - 'Dioxin Risks Revisited' (8 February, pp. 624-626), 'EPA Moves to Reassess the Risk of Dioxin' (17 May, p. 911) and 'More Pieces in the Dioxin Puzzle' (18 October, p. 377) - and another article by Richard Stone in 1995, 'Panel Slams EPA's Dioxin Analysis' (26 May, p. 1124);
63. For example, see the series of articles in Science on dioxin: three articles by Leslie Roberts in 1991 - 'Dioxin Risks Revisited' (8 February, pp. 624-626), 'EPA Moves to Reassess the Risk of Dioxin' (17 May, p. 911) and 'More Pieces in the Dioxin Puzzle' (18 October, p. 377) - and another article by Richard Stone in 1995, 'Panel Slams EPA's Dioxin Analysis' (26 May, p. 1124);
64. For example, see the series of articles in Science on dioxin: three articles by Leslie Roberts in 1991 - 'Dioxin Risks Revisited' (8 February, pp. 624-626), 'EPA Moves to Reassess the Risk of Dioxin' (17 May, p. 911) and 'More Pieces in the Dioxin Puzzle' (18 October, p. 377) - and another article by Richard Stone in 1995, 'Panel Slams EPA's Dioxin Analysis' (26 May, p. 1124);
65. 'Dioxin Risk: Are We Sure Yet?', Special Report in Environmental Science & Technology, 29, 1995, pp. 25A-35A, 337A-338A.
66. US EPA, Science Advisory Board, An SAB Report: A Second Look at Dioxin (Washington, DC, US EPA, 1995).
67. For an overview of the bleaching process see: MacDonald & Franklin, op. cit., Ref. 23.
68. US EPA, Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics, Pollution Prevention Technologies for the Bleached Kraft Segment of the U.S. Pulp and Paper Industry (Washington, DC, US EPA, 1993).
69. SRI (Stanford Research Institute) International, Chemical Economics Handbook (Palo Alto, CA, SRI International, 1995).
70. US EPA, Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics, op. cit., Ref. 43.
71. Interview with Harold Hintz, Assistant to Vice President Corporate Research Director, Westvaco, August, 1995.
72. The Union Camp data were compiled from interviews with Union Camp employees and two articles in the journal Pulp and Paper. The Union Camp employees interviewed include: William Trice, Senior Vice President (21 September 1995) and Wells Nutt, President Union Camp Technology (10 November 1995). The journal articles are: K. H. Ferguson, 'Union Camp Begins Ozone Era with New Kraft Bleaching line at Franklin, Va', Pulp and Paper, November 1992, pp. 42-55.; J. Young, 'Union Camp Leads Ozone Pulping Drive in North American Mills', Pulp and Paper, September 1994, pp. 69-71 . The Louisiana-Pacific data were compiled from the article: J. Young, 'Louisiana-Pacific's Samoa Mill Establishes TCF Pulp Production', Pulp and Paper, 67, 1993, pp. 61-63.
73. The Union Camp data were compiled from interviews with Union Camp employees and two articles in the journal Pulp and Paper. The Union Camp employees interviewed include: William Trice, Senior Vice President (21 September 1995) and Wells Nutt, President Union Camp Technology (10 November 1995). The journal articles are: K. H. Ferguson, 'Union Camp Begins Ozone Era with New Kraft Bleaching line at Franklin, Va', Pulp and Paper, November 1992, pp. 42-55.; J. Young, 'Union Camp Leads Ozone Pulping Drive in North American Mills', Pulp and Paper, September 1994, pp. 69-71 . The Louisiana-Pacific data were compiled from the article: J. Young, 'Louisiana-Pacific's Samoa Mill Establishes TCF Pulp Production', Pulp and Paper, 67, 1993, pp. 61-63.
74. The Union Camp data were compiled from interviews with Union Camp employees and two articles in the journal Pulp and Paper. The Union Camp employees interviewed include: William Trice, Senior Vice President (21 September 1995) and Wells Nutt, President Union Camp Technology (10 November 1995). The journal articles are: K. H. Ferguson, 'Union Camp Begins Ozone Era with New Kraft Bleaching line at Franklin, Va', Pulp and Paper, November 1992, pp. 42-55.; J. Young, 'Union Camp Leads Ozone Pulping Drive in North American Mills', Pulp and Paper, September 1994, pp. 69-71 . The Louisiana-Pacific data were compiled from the article: J. Young, 'Louisiana-Pacific's Samoa Mill Establishes TCF Pulp Production', Pulp and Paper, 67, 1993, pp. 61-63.
75. The Union Camp data were compiled from interviews with Union Camp employees and two articles in the journal Pulp and Paper. The Union Camp employees interviewed include: William Trice, Senior Vice President (21 September 1995) and Wells Nutt, President Union Camp Technology (10 November 1995). The journal articles are: K. H. Ferguson, 'Union Camp Begins Ozone Era with New Kraft Bleaching line at Franklin, Va', Pulp and Paper, November 1992, pp. 42-55.; J. Young, 'Union Camp Leads Ozone Pulping Drive in North American Mills', Pulp and Paper, September 1994, pp. 69-71 . The Louisiana-Pacific data were compiled from the article: J. Young, 'Louisiana-Pacific's Samoa Mill Establishes TCF Pulp Production', Pulp and Paper, 67, 1993, pp. 61-63.
76. The Union Camp data were compiled from interviews with Union Camp employees and two articles in the journal Pulp and Paper. The Union Camp employees interviewed include: William Trice, Senior Vice President (21 September 1995) and Wells Nutt, President Union Camp Technology (10 November 1995). The journal articles are: K. H. Ferguson, 'Union Camp Begins Ozone Era with New Kraft Bleaching line at Franklin, Va', Pulp and Paper, November 1992, pp. 42-55.; J. Young, 'Union Camp Leads Ozone Pulping Drive in North American Mills', Pulp and Paper, September 1994, pp. 69-71 . The Louisiana-Pacific data were compiled from the article: J. Young, 'Louisiana-Pacific's Samoa Mill Establishes TCF Pulp Production', Pulp and Paper, 67, 1993, pp. 61-63.
77. Union Camp patented its high consistency ozone process and was the first company to commercialize it in 1992. Swedish firms commercialized medium consistency ozone bleaching in the same year.
78. Site study of Scandinavian mills.
79. K. L. Patrick, J. Young, K. H. Ferguson & A. Harrison, 'Closing the Loop: The Effluent-free Pulp and Paper Mill', Pulp and Paper, supplement, 1994, pp. S1-S24.
80. R. W. Adler, J. C. Landman & D. M. Cameron, The Clean Water Act: 20 Years Later (Washington, DC, Island Press, 1993).
81. R. Grant, 'Rauma Opens with the Aim of Closing up', Pulp and Paper International, June 1996, pp. 31-35.
82. K. H. Ferguson, 'Champion Moves Toward Closure with BFR Startup at Canton, NC', Pulp and Paper, April 1996, pp. 47-54.
83. Federal Register, op. cit., Ref. 36.
84. Paper Task Force (Duke University, Environmental Defense Fund et al.), Technical Supplement - Part IV: Bleached Krafi Pulp Manufacturing; Environmental Comparison of Bleached Kraft Pulp Manufacturing Technologies (White Paper 5) (Washington, DC, Environmental Defense Fund, 1995).
85. R. J. Albert, 'Effluent-free Pulp Mill Possible with Existing Fiberline Equipment', Pulp and Paper, July 1994; Patrick et al, op. cit., Ref. 47; F. Steffes & U. Germgard, 'ECF, TCF Upgrade Choices Key on World Market, Environmental Forces', Pulp and Paper, June 1995, pp. 83-92.
86. R. J. Albert, 'Effluent-free Pulp Mill Possible with Existing Fiberline Equipment', Pulp and Paper, July 1994; Patrick et al, op. cit., Ref. 47; F. Steffes & U. Germgard, 'ECF, TCF Upgrade Choices Key on World Market, Environmental Forces', Pulp and Paper, June 1995, pp. 83-92.
87. R. J. Albert, 'Effluent-free Pulp Mill Possible with Existing Fiberline Equipment', Pulp and Paper, July 1994; Patrick et al, op. cit., Ref. 47; F. Steffes & U. Germgard, 'ECF, TCF Upgrade Choices Key on World Market, Environmental Forces', Pulp and Paper, June 1995, pp. 83-92.
88. Despite the dominance of a 'single' bleaching technology, the differences in bleach lines are significant. In the US, BKPMs operate 164 bleaching lines and use 115 different bleaching sequences. Paper Task Force (Duke University, Environmental Defense Fund et al.), Technical Supplement - Part IV: Bleached Kraft Pulp Manufacturing; Economics of Kraft Pulping and Bleaching (White Paper 7) (Washington, DC, Environmental Defense Fund, 1995).
89. Ibid.; and Federal Register, op. cit., Ref. 36.
90. Ibid.; and Federal Register, op. cit., Ref. 36.
91. Federal Register, op. cit., Ref. 37.
92. Ibid.;
93. and Paper Task Force, op. cit., Ref. 55.
94. Paper Task Force, op. cit., Ref. 55.
95. Miller Freeman Inc., Pulp and Paper 1997 North American Factbook (San Francisco, Miller Freeman Inc., 1996).
96. A recent study of the pulp-and-paper sector, for example, found the actual cost of compliance to be S4 to S5.50 per ton, whereas original industry estimates had been as high as S16.40 (M. Porter & C. van der Linde, 'Green and Competitive: Ending the Stalemate', Harvard Business Review, September-October, 1995, pp. 120-134, citing N. Bonson, N. McCubbin & J. B. Sprague, 'Kraft Mill Effluents in Ontario', report prepared for the Technical Advisory Committee, Pulp and Paper Sector of MISA, Ontario Ministry of the Environment, Toronto, 29 March 1988, p. 166).
97. A recent study of the pulp-and-paper sector, for example, found the actual cost of compliance to be S4 to S5.50 per ton, whereas original industry estimates had been as high as S16.40 (M. Porter & C. van der Linde, 'Green and Competitive: Ending the Stalemate', Harvard Business Review, September-October, 1995, pp. 120-134, citing N. Bonson, N. McCubbin & J. B. Sprague, 'Kraft Mill Effluents in Ontario', report prepared for the Technical Advisory Committee, Pulp and Paper Sector of MISA, Ontario Ministry of the Environment, Toronto, 29 March 1988, p. 166).
98. Since completing the research on this project, Consolidated Papers has installed an ozone bleaching system and Champion International has pursued a closed-loop bleaching system with its patented technology, 'bleached filtrate recycling' (see Anonymous, 'Consolidated Paper Inc.', Pulp and Paper, 29 January 1996; and j. Young, 'Champion Adds New Bleaching Technology to OD100 Process', Pulp and Paper, September 1994, pp. 56-60).
99. Since completing the research on this project, Consolidated Papers has installed an ozone bleaching system and Champion International has pursued a closed-loop bleaching system with its patented technology, 'bleached filtrate recycling' (see Anonymous, 'Consolidated Paper Inc.', Pulp and Paper, 29 January 1996; and j. Young, 'Champion Adds New Bleaching Technology to OD100 Process', Pulp and Paper, September 1994, pp. 56-60).
100. Utterback, op. cit., Ref. 11.
101. R. R. Nelson & S. G. Winter, An Evolutionary Theory of Economic Change (Cambridge, MA, The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1982); and N. Rosenberg, Inside the Black Box (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1982).
102. R. R. Nelson & S. G. Winter, An Evolutionary Theory of Economic Change (Cambridge, MA, The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1982); and N. Rosenberg, Inside the Black Box (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1982).
103. This has been shown to be true in the auto industry. M. Boden, 'Shifting the Strategic Paradigm: The Case of the Catalytic Converter', Technology Analysis and Strategic Management, 6, 1994.
104. US EPA, Development Document for Proposed Effluent Limitations Guidelines and Standards for the Pulp, Paper and Paperboard Point Source Category (EPA-821-R-93-019) (Washington, DC, US EPA, 1993).
105. Adler et al, op. cit., Ref. 51, pp. 139-144.
106. J. D. Graham, 'Edging toward Sanity on Regulatory Risk Reform', Issues in Science & Technology, Summer 1995, pp. 61-66; A. M. Finkel & D. Golding (Eds), Worst Things First? The Debate over Risk-based National Environmental Priorities (Washington, DC, Resources for the Future, 1994); J. C. Davies, Comparing Environmental Risks: Tools for Setting Government Priorities (Washington, DC, Resources for the Future, 1996).
107. J. D. Graham, 'Edging toward Sanity on Regulatory Risk Reform', Issues in Science & Technology, Summer 1995, pp. 61-66; A. M. Finkel & D. Golding (Eds), Worst Things First? The Debate over Risk-based National Environmental Priorities (Washington, DC, Resources for the Future, 1994); J. C. Davies, Comparing Environmental Risks: Tools for Setting Government Priorities (Washington, DC, Resources for the Future, 1996).
108. J. D. Graham, 'Edging toward Sanity on Regulatory Risk Reform', Issues in Science & Technology, Summer 1995, pp. 61-66; A. M. Finkel & D. Golding (Eds), Worst Things First? The Debate over Risk-based National Environmental Priorities (Washington, DC, Resources for the Future, 1994); J. C. Davies, Comparing Environmental Risks: Tools for Setting Government Priorities (Washington, DC, Resources for the Future, 1996).
109. Butraw, op. cit., Ref. 5.
110. B. Bonifant & I. RatcIiffe, Competitive Implications of Environmental Regulation of Chlorinated Organic Releases in the Pulp and Paper Industry (Washington, DC, Management Institute for Environment and Business, 1994).
111. Although Louisiana-Pacific's current costs are higher than other US plants', today the adoption of ozone TCF is considered cost competitive for greenfields: Albert, op. cit., Ref. 56; Patrick et al., op. cit., Ref. 50.
112. Although Louisiana-Pacific's current costs are higher than other US plants', today the adoption of ozone TCF is considered cost competitive for greenfields: Albert, op. cit., Ref. 56; Patrick et al., op. cit., Ref. 50.
113. EPA, The Voluntary Advanced Technologies Incentives Program (Washington, DC, Environmental Protection Agency, 1997).
114. D. Wallace, Environmental Policy and Industrial Innovation: Strategies in Europe, the US and Japan (London, Earthscan Publications, 1995), pp. 43-62.