The Shi'a of Saudi Arabia: A minority in search of cultural authenticity

British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies

Volumn 25, Issue 1, 1998, Pages 121-138

  Al Rasheed, Madawi ^a  

^a KING'S COLLEGE LONDON   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CULTURAL IDENTITY; HISTORICAL STUDY; ISLAMIC CULTURE; MINORITY GROUP; RELIGIOUS MINORITY;

SAUDI ARABIA;

EID: 0031664615     PISSN: 13530194     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/13530199808705657     Document Type: Article

References (64)

1. Research on the Saudi Shi a remains very limited. In the 1980s, a number of references to their mobilization were included in some books and articles on Saudi Arabia. See W. Quandt, Saudi Arabia in the 1980's (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1981); J. Buchan, 'Secular and Religious Opposition in Saudi Arabia', in T. Niblock (ed.), State, Society and Economy in Saudi Arabia (London: Croom Helm, 1982), pp. 106-124; J. Bill, 'Islam, Politics, and Shi'ism in the Gulf,' Middle East Insight, 3 (1980); J. Goldberg, 'The Shi'i Minority in Saudi Arabia,' in J. Cole and N. Keddie (eds), Shiism and Social Protest (New York: Yale University Press, 1986), pp. 230-246; J. Kostiner, 'Shi'i Unrest in the Gulf,' in M. Kramer (ed.), Shi'ism, Resistance and Revolution (Colorado: Westview Press, 1987), pp. 173-186. The Shi'a are also mentioned in research on Saudi-Iranian relations; see I. Leverrier, 'L'Arabie Saoudite, Le Pèlerinage et L'Iran,' Cahiers d'Etudes sur La Méditerranee Orientales et Le Monde Turco-Iranien, 22 (1996), pp. 111-147; and Y. Richard, L'Islam Chi'ite Croyances et Ideologies (Paris: Fayard, 1991).
2. Research on the Saudi Shi a remains very limited. In the 1980s, a number of references to their mobilization were included in some books and articles on Saudi Arabia. See W. Quandt, Saudi Arabia in the 1980's (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1981); J. Buchan, 'Secular and Religious Opposition in Saudi Arabia', in T. Niblock (ed.), State, Society and Economy in Saudi Arabia (London: Croom Helm, 1982), pp. 106-124; J. Bill, 'Islam, Politics, and Shi'ism in the Gulf,' Middle East Insight, 3 (1980); J. Goldberg, 'The Shi'i Minority in Saudi Arabia,' in J. Cole and N. Keddie (eds), Shiism and Social Protest (New York: Yale University Press, 1986), pp. 230-246; J. Kostiner, 'Shi'i Unrest in the Gulf,' in M. Kramer (ed.), Shi'ism, Resistance and Revolution (Colorado: Westview Press, 1987), pp. 173-186. The Shi'a are also mentioned in research on Saudi-Iranian relations; see I. Leverrier, 'L'Arabie Saoudite, Le Pèlerinage et L'Iran,' Cahiers d'Etudes sur La Méditerranee Orientales et Le Monde Turco-Iranien, 22 (1996), pp. 111-147; and Y. Richard, L'Islam Chi'ite Croyances et Ideologies (Paris: Fayard, 1991).
3. Research on the Saudi Shi a remains very limited. In the 1980s, a number of references to their mobilization were included in some books and articles on Saudi Arabia. See W. Quandt, Saudi Arabia in the 1980's (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1981); J. Buchan, 'Secular and Religious Opposition in Saudi Arabia', in T. Niblock (ed.), State, Society and Economy in Saudi Arabia (London: Croom Helm, 1982), pp. 106-124; J. Bill, 'Islam, Politics, and Shi'ism in the Gulf,' Middle East Insight, 3 (1980); J. Goldberg, 'The Shi'i Minority in Saudi Arabia,' in J. Cole and N. Keddie (eds), Shiism and Social Protest (New York: Yale University Press, 1986), pp. 230-246; J. Kostiner, 'Shi'i Unrest in the Gulf,' in M. Kramer (ed.), Shi'ism, Resistance and Revolution (Colorado: Westview Press, 1987), pp. 173-186. The Shi'a are also mentioned in research on Saudi-Iranian relations; see I. Leverrier, 'L'Arabie Saoudite, Le Pèlerinage et L'Iran,' Cahiers d'Etudes sur La Méditerranee Orientales et Le Monde Turco-Iranien, 22 (1996), pp. 111-147; and Y. Richard, L'Islam Chi'ite Croyances et Ideologies (Paris: Fayard, 1991).
4. Research on the Saudi Shi a remains very limited. In the 1980s, a number of references to their mobilization were included in some books and articles on Saudi Arabia. See W. Quandt, Saudi Arabia in the 1980's (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1981); J. Buchan, 'Secular and Religious Opposition in Saudi Arabia', in T. Niblock (ed.), State, Society and Economy in Saudi Arabia (London: Croom Helm, 1982), pp. 106-124; J. Bill, 'Islam, Politics, and Shi'ism in the Gulf,' Middle East Insight, 3 (1980); J. Goldberg, 'The Shi'i Minority in Saudi Arabia,' in J. Cole and N. Keddie (eds), Shiism and Social Protest (New York: Yale University Press, 1986), pp. 230-246; J. Kostiner, 'Shi'i Unrest in the Gulf,' in M. Kramer (ed.), Shi'ism, Resistance and Revolution (Colorado: Westview Press, 1987), pp. 173-186. The Shi'a are also mentioned in research on Saudi-Iranian relations; see I. Leverrier, 'L'Arabie Saoudite, Le Pèlerinage et L'Iran,' Cahiers d'Etudes sur La Méditerranee Orientales et Le Monde Turco-Iranien, 22 (1996), pp. 111-147; and Y. Richard, L'Islam Chi'ite Croyances et Ideologies (Paris: Fayard, 1991).
5. Research on the Saudi Shi a remains very limited. In the 1980s, a number of references to their mobilization were included in some books and articles on Saudi Arabia. See W. Quandt, Saudi Arabia in the 1980's (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1981); J. Buchan, 'Secular and Religious Opposition in Saudi Arabia', in T. Niblock (ed.), State, Society and Economy in Saudi Arabia (London: Croom Helm, 1982), pp. 106-124; J. Bill, 'Islam, Politics, and Shi'ism in the Gulf,' Middle East Insight, 3 (1980); J. Goldberg, 'The Shi'i Minority in Saudi Arabia,' in J. Cole and N. Keddie (eds), Shiism and Social Protest (New York: Yale University Press, 1986), pp. 230-246; J. Kostiner, 'Shi'i Unrest in the Gulf,' in M. Kramer (ed.), Shi'ism, Resistance and Revolution (Colorado: Westview Press, 1987), pp. 173-186. The Shi'a are also mentioned in research on Saudi-Iranian relations; see I. Leverrier, 'L'Arabie Saoudite, Le Pèlerinage et L'Iran,' Cahiers d'Etudes sur La Méditerranee Orientales et Le Monde Turco-Iranien, 22 (1996), pp. 111-147; and Y. Richard, L'Islam Chi'ite Croyances et Ideologies (Paris: Fayard, 1991).
6. Research on the Saudi Shi a remains very limited. In the 1980s, a number of references to their mobilization were included in some books and articles on Saudi Arabia. See W. Quandt, Saudi Arabia in the 1980's (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1981); J. Buchan, 'Secular and Religious Opposition in Saudi Arabia', in T. Niblock (ed.), State, Society and Economy in Saudi Arabia (London: Croom Helm, 1982), pp. 106-124; J. Bill, 'Islam, Politics, and Shi'ism in the Gulf,' Middle East Insight, 3 (1980); J. Goldberg, 'The Shi'i Minority in Saudi Arabia,' in J. Cole and N. Keddie (eds), Shiism and Social Protest (New York: Yale University Press, 1986), pp. 230-246; J. Kostiner, 'Shi'i Unrest in the Gulf,' in M. Kramer (ed.), Shi'ism, Resistance and Revolution (Colorado: Westview Press, 1987), pp. 173-186. The Shi'a are also mentioned in research on Saudi-Iranian relations; see I. Leverrier, 'L'Arabie Saoudite, Le Pèlerinage et L'Iran,' Cahiers d'Etudes sur La Méditerranee Orientales et Le Monde Turco-Iranien, 22 (1996), pp. 111-147; and Y. Richard, L'Islam Chi'ite Croyances et Ideologies (Paris: Fayard, 1991).
7. Research on the Saudi Shi a remains very limited. In the 1980s, a number of references to their mobilization were included in some books and articles on Saudi Arabia. See W. Quandt, Saudi Arabia in the 1980's (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1981); J. Buchan, 'Secular and Religious Opposition in Saudi Arabia', in T. Niblock (ed.), State, Society and Economy in Saudi Arabia (London: Croom Helm, 1982), pp. 106-124; J. Bill, 'Islam, Politics, and Shi'ism in the Gulf,' Middle East Insight, 3 (1980); J. Goldberg, 'The Shi'i Minority in Saudi Arabia,' in J. Cole and N. Keddie (eds), Shiism and Social Protest (New York: Yale University Press, 1986), pp. 230-246; J. Kostiner, 'Shi'i Unrest in the Gulf,' in M. Kramer (ed.), Shi'ism, Resistance and Revolution (Colorado: Westview Press, 1987), pp. 173-186. The Shi'a are also mentioned in research on Saudi-Iranian relations; see I. Leverrier, 'L'Arabie Saoudite, Le Pèlerinage et L'Iran,' Cahiers d'Etudes sur La Méditerranee Orientales et Le Monde Turco-Iranien, 22 (1996), pp. 111-147; and Y. Richard, L'Islam Chi'ite Croyances et Ideologies (Paris: Fayard, 1991).
8. References to the tension between the Wahhabis and the Shi'a in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries are found in C. Doughty, Travels in Arabia Deserta, 2 vols. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979); G. A. Wallin, 'Narrative of a Journey from Cairo to Medina and Mecca, by Suez, Araba, Tawila, al-Jauf, Jublae, Hail and Negd in 1845,' Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, 1854,243, pp. 115-201; W. C. Palgrave, Personal Narrative of a Year's Journey through Central and Eastern Arabia (1862-1863), 2 vols (London: Macmillan and Co., 1865); and J. Philby, Saudi Arabia (London: Benn, 1955). For a quick summary of the events of this period, see Goldberg, 'The Shi'i Minority'.
9. References to the tension between the Wahhabis and the Shi'a in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries are found in C. Doughty, Travels in Arabia Deserta, 2 vols. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979); G. A. Wallin, 'Narrative of a Journey from Cairo to Medina and Mecca, by Suez, Araba, Tawila, al-Jauf, Jublae, Hail and Negd in 1845,' Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, 1854,243, pp. 115-201; W. C. Palgrave, Personal Narrative of a Year's Journey through Central and Eastern Arabia (1862-1863), 2 vols (London: Macmillan and Co., 1865); and J. Philby, Saudi Arabia (London: Benn, 1955). For a quick summary of the events of this period, see Goldberg, 'The Shi'i Minority'.
10. References to the tension between the Wahhabis and the Shi'a in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries are found in C. Doughty, Travels in Arabia Deserta, 2 vols. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979); G. A. Wallin, 'Narrative of a Journey from Cairo to Medina and Mecca, by Suez, Araba, Tawila, al-Jauf, Jublae, Hail and Negd in 1845,' Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, 1854,243, pp. 115-201; W. C. Palgrave, Personal Narrative of a Year's Journey through Central and Eastern Arabia (1862-1863), 2 vols (London: Macmillan and Co., 1865); and J. Philby, Saudi Arabia (London: Benn, 1955). For a quick summary of the events of this period, see Goldberg, 'The Shi'i Minority'.
11. References to the tension between the Wahhabis and the Shi'a in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries are found in C. Doughty, Travels in Arabia Deserta, 2 vols. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979); G. A. Wallin, 'Narrative of a Journey from Cairo to Medina and Mecca, by Suez, Araba, Tawila, al-Jauf, Jublae, Hail and Negd in 1845,' Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, 1854,243, pp. 115-201; W. C. Palgrave, Personal Narrative of a Year's Journey through Central and Eastern Arabia (1862-1863), 2 vols (London: Macmillan and Co., 1865); and J. Philby, Saudi Arabia (London: Benn, 1955). For a quick summary of the events of this period, see Goldberg, 'The Shi'i Minority'.
12. References to the tension between the Wahhabis and the Shi'a in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries are found in C. Doughty, Travels in Arabia Deserta, 2 vols. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979); G. A. Wallin, 'Narrative of a Journey from Cairo to Medina and Mecca, by Suez, Araba, Tawila, al-Jauf, Jublae, Hail and Negd in 1845,' Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, 1854,243, pp. 115-201; W. C. Palgrave, Personal Narrative of a Year's Journey through Central and Eastern Arabia (1862-1863), 2 vols (London: Macmillan and Co., 1865); and J. Philby, Saudi Arabia (London: Benn, 1955). For a quick summary of the events of this period, see Goldberg, 'The Shi'i Minority'.
13. Goldberg, 'The Shi'i Minority', pp. 240-241.
14. Hamza al-Hasan referred to the event of 1979 in this manner in his book and during the interview session.
15. Personal interview with Hamza al-Hasan, January 1993.
16. Goldberg, 'The Shi'i Minority', p. 243.
17. Personal interview with Hamza al-Hasan, 1993.
18. Al-Jazīra al-'Arabiyya (1991-1993), 1-31 (London).
19. Hamza al-Hasan, al-Shī'a fi al-Mamlaka al-'Arabiyya al-Sa'ūdiyya, 2 vols (Mu'assasat al-Bāqī li-Ihyā'al-Turāth, 1993).
20. Personal interview with Abdul Amir Musa, January 1993.
21. J. Scott, Domination and the Arts of Resistance Hidden Transcripts (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990).
22. Ibid., p. 19.
23. Ibid., p. 206.
24. S. Gall, 'Language and the Arts of Resistance', Cultural Anthropology, 1995, 10(3), pp. 407-424 and D. Kulick, 'Causing a Commotion: Public Scandal as Resistance among Brazilian Transgendered Prostitutes,' Anthropology Today, 12(3) (1996), pp. 3-7.
25. S. Gall, 'Language and the Arts of Resistance', Cultural Anthropology, 1995, 10(3), pp. 407-424 and D. Kulick, 'Causing a Commotion: Public Scandal as Resistance among Brazilian Transgendered Prostitutes,' Anthropology Today, 12(3) (1996), pp. 3-7.
26. Personal interview with Hamza al-Hasan, 1993.
27. Scott, Domination, p. 216.
28. Ibid., p. 227.
29. Ibn Khaldun, The Muqqadimah. An Introduction to History, trans. F. Rosenthal, N. J. Dawood (eds) (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1967).
30. Al-Jazīra al-'Arabiyya, 16 (1992), pp. 12-18.
31. Ibid., 18 (1992), pp. 10-14.
32. Ibid., p. 11.
33. Ibid., 17, p. 6.
34. Ibid., 5 (1991), p. 38.
35. Ibid., 18 (1992), pp. 24-30.
36. Ibid, pp. 24-30.
37. For further details on the Wahhabi dissidents, see H. Dekmejian, 'The Rise of Political Islamism in Saudi Arabia,' The Middle East Journal, 48(4) (1994), pp. 628-643; and M. Abir, Saudi Arabia Government, Society and the Gulf Crisis (London: Routledge, 1993). For an analysis of the Islamist discourse, see M. Al-Rasheed, 'Saudi Arabia's Islamic Opposition,' Current History, 95(597) (1996), pp. 16-22.
38. For further details on the Wahhabi dissidents, see H. Dekmejian, 'The Rise of Political Islamism in Saudi Arabia,' The Middle East Journal, 48(4) (1994), pp. 628-643; and M. Abir, Saudi Arabia Government, Society and the Gulf Crisis (London: Routledge, 1993). For an analysis of the Islamist discourse, see M. Al-Rasheed, 'Saudi Arabia's Islamic Opposition,' Current History, 95(597) (1996), pp. 16-22.
39. For further details on the Wahhabi dissidents, see H. Dekmejian, 'The Rise of Political Islamism in Saudi Arabia,' The Middle East Journal, 48(4) (1994), pp. 628-643; and M. Abir, Saudi Arabia Government, Society and the Gulf Crisis (London: Routledge, 1993). For an analysis of the Islamist discourse, see M. Al-Rasheed, 'Saudi Arabia's Islamic Opposition,' Current History, 95(597) (1996), pp. 16-22.
40. Al-Hasan, al-Shi'a, I, pp. 7-10.
41. Ibid., p. 27.
42. Ibid., p. 28.
43. Ibid., p. 31.
44. Ibid, p.31..
45. It is difficult to give an accurate estimate of the size of the Shi'a community. Goldberg argues that one stumbles across figures ranging from the most reserved, 275,000-400,000, to the most optimistic, 500,000. He considers the Shi'a to represent 6% of the Saudi population. See Goldberg, 'The Shi'i Minority', p. 230. This figure may not include the Shi'a of the Hijaz. In this region, al Khoei estimates that 32,000 Shi'a live in Madina and Wadi al-Fara. See Y. al Khoei, 'The Shi'a of Medina,' Dialogue (July 1996), pp. 4-5.
46. It is difficult to give an accurate estimate of the size of the Shi'a community. Goldberg argues that one stumbles across figures ranging from the most reserved, 275,000-400,000, to the most optimistic, 500,000. He considers the Shi'a to represent 6% of the Saudi population. See Goldberg, 'The Shi'i Minority', p. 230. This figure may not include the Shi'a of the Hijaz. In this region, al Khoei estimates that 32,000 Shi'a live in Madina and Wadi al-Fara. See Y. al Khoei, 'The Shi'a of Medina,' Dialogue (July 1996), pp. 4-5.
47. Al-Hasan, al-Shi'a, p. 227.
48. Ibid., p. 227.
49. Ibid., II, pp. 286-369.
50. Ibid., p. 402.
51. Ibid., p. 402.
52. Ibid., p. 410.
53. J. Goldberg, 'The Shi'i Minority', passim.
54. The Independent, 3 March 1992.
55. Interview with Hamza al Hasan and Abdul Amir Musa, 1993.
56. Details of the reconciliation are in L. Al-Rasheed, 'L'Opposition Chiite en Arabie Saoudite,' Unpublished MA dissertation, Ecole d'Etudes Politiques, Paris, 1994.
57. On the events in Mecca, see A. al Yassini Al-Dīn wa al-Dawla fi al Mamlaka al-'Arabiyya al Sa'ūdiyya (London: Dar al Saqi 1987).
58. On the activities of the Wahhabi dissidents, see M. Al-Rasheed, 'Saudi Arabia's Islamic Opposition' and M. Abir, Saudi Arabia Government, Society and the Gulf Crisis (London: Routledge, 1993).
59. On the activities of the Wahhabi dissidents, see M. Al-Rasheed, 'Saudi Arabia's Islamic Opposition' and M. Abir, Saudi Arabia Government, Society and the Gulf Crisis (London: Routledge, 1993).
60. For example, Sheikh Salman al-Awdah, a young Wahhabi religious scholar refused to sanction the invitation of foreign troops in his Friday sermons. He argued that it is un-Islamic to fight an evil with the aid of a greater evil (Wahhabi Opposition Cassette). The same opinion was reiterated by Sheikh Safar al Hawli in his treatise to Sheikh Ibn Baz, entitled, Kashf al-Ghamma 'an 'ulamā al-umma (The Unveiling of the 'Ulamā's Distress) (Dār al-Hikma, 1991). For a detailed discussion of the Wahhabi 'ulamā's reaction to the invitation of foreign troops, see M. Al-Rasheed, 'La couronne et le turban. L'Etat Saoudien a la recherche d'une nouvelle legitimité après la guerre du Golf,' in B. Qudmani-Darwish and M. Chartouni-Dubarry (eds) Les Etats Arabes Face a la Contestation Islamiste (Paris: Armand Colin, 1997), pp. 71-97.
61. For example, Sheikh Salman al-Awdah, a young Wahhabi religious scholar refused to sanction the invitation of foreign troops in his Friday sermons. He argued that it is un-Islamic to fight an evil with the aid of a greater evil (Wahhabi Opposition Cassette). The same opinion was reiterated by Sheikh Safar al Hawli in his treatise to Sheikh Ibn Baz, entitled, Kashf al-Ghamma 'an 'ulamā al-umma (The Unveiling of the 'Ulamā's Distress) (Dār al-Hikma, 1991). For a detailed discussion of the Wahhabi 'ulamā's reaction to the invitation of foreign troops, see M. Al-Rasheed, 'La couronne et le turban. L'Etat Saoudien a la recherche d'une nouvelle legitimité après la guerre du Golf,' in B. Qudmani-Darwish and M. Chartouni-Dubarry (eds) Les Etats Arabes Face a la Contestation Islamiste (Paris: Armand Colin, 1997), pp. 71-97.
62. The Shi'a opposition draws on the various fatāwā, 'religious opinions', issued by members of the Wahhabi dissident movement regarding the status of the Shi'a; these Fatāwās are referred to and criticized in Hamza al Hasan's book. See al Hasan, al-Shi'a, p. 410.
63. It is perhaps premature to assess the implications of the recent reforms introduced by the government after the Gulf War, especially the implementation of majlis al-shūrā 'Consultative Council' on the Shi'a community. So far the Wahhabi dissident movement has not been silenced by these reforms. The appointment of a Shi'a member to the council was considered a sign of goodwill by the Shi'a opposition. On the implications of the government's recent reforms, see R. Aba Namay, 'Constitutional Reforms: A Systemization of Saudi Politics', Journal of South Asian and Middle Eastern Studies, XVI(3) (Spring, 1993), pp. 43-88, and A. Cordesman, Saudi Arabia Guarding the Desert Kingdom (Boulder: Westview Press, 1997), pp. 19-27.
64. It is perhaps premature to assess the implications of the recent reforms introduced by the government after the Gulf War, especially the implementation of majlis al-shūrā 'Consultative Council' on the Shi'a community. So far the Wahhabi dissident movement has not been silenced by these reforms. The appointment of a Shi'a member to the council was considered a sign of goodwill by the Shi'a opposition. On the implications of the government's recent reforms, see R. Aba Namay, 'Constitutional Reforms: A Systemization of Saudi Politics', Journal of South Asian and Middle Eastern Studies, XVI(3) (Spring, 1993), pp. 43-88, and A. Cordesman, Saudi Arabia Guarding the Desert Kingdom (Boulder: Westview Press, 1997), pp. 19-27.